1 授权条款 - BJMUNbjmun.org qq Group 475754278 Official WeChat of BJMUN beijingbjmun BJMUNSS 2016 ICAO 4 4 Table of Contents 1 授权条款 2 WELCOMING 3 CONTACT 3.1 D AIS 3.2

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1 授权条款

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2 Welcoming Letter In Icaria, a beautiful Greek island in the Aegean Sea, stands an ancient wall, the fresco of which depicts Icarus and his father flying to escape from a labyrinth by means of wings made of feathers and wax.

Since then, almost 3000 years ago, people have been dreaming about soaring up in the sky, and the dream has never stopped. 400 years ago, an artistic movement broke out in Italy, soon spreading to every corner of the European continent, namely the Renaissance, people believing that the center of everything should be human beings instead of the Deities.

“Thus I die. Thus, thus, thus. Now I am dead, Now I am fled,

My soul is in the sky. Tongue, lose thy light. Moon take thy flight.

Now die, die, die, die.”

The strophe above is from A Summer Night’s Dream, a celebrated masterpiece of Shakespeare. Dulcet as they are, they are ethereal after all, presenting merely the rosy dreams and imaginations of people.

Time flies swiftly, and it comes to the 20th century. With the mists of smoke soaring in the sky, the second industrial revolution begins. Ever since the first airplane made by the Wright Brothers took off on 17th Dec 1903 in North Carolina, the most beautiful mirages that have haunted the heart of man since Icarus have become reality. No longer fantasies, are they.

As Wendell Willkie once put, the modern airplane creates a new geographical dimension, the true face of the earth unveiled. A navigable ocean of air blankets the whole surface of the globe. There are no distant places any longer: the world is small and the world is one.

However, we must face the following question: Does a small world mean a fabulous world?

Unfortunately, the answer is negative. A small world definitely can be a perishing world. Air accidents having brutally taken away millions of lives, aviation also does harm to the environment as well, not to mention many disputes pertaining to civil aviation including but not limited to air sovereignty. However, a small world can be a fabulous world. The future is for you to decide.

Delegates, welcome to BJMUNSS2016. Let’s get rid of the gravity together.

Dais Members of BJMUNSS 2016 ICAO-A-EC

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3 Contact Information 3.1 Dais

许文颐，北京师范大学附属实验中学

Tel: 18610690380，E-Mail: [email protected]

侯麟美，中国人民大学附属中学


张亦弛，清华大学附属中学


易轩，北京市一零一中学


刘亦嘉，北京市东直门中学


陈博伦，北京市第二中学


3.2 Conference

Conference Email

[email protected]

qq Group

475754278

Official WeChat of BJMUN

beijingbjmun

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4 Table of Contents 1 授权条款 ........................................................................................................................................ 1

2 WELCOMING LETTER ................................................................................................................... 2

3 CONTACT INFORMATION ........................................................................................................... 3

3.1 DAIS .................................................................................................................................................................. 3

3.2 CONFERENCE ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 4

5 INTRODUCTION TO COMMITTEE ............................................................................................... 5

5.1 BRIEF INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 5

5.2 HISTORY AND CURRENT SITUATION ...................................................................................................................... 5

5.3 FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

5.4 THE ASSEMBLY ................................................................................................................................................... 5

5.5 THE COUNCIL ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

6 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ........................................................................................................ 7

6.1 CIVIL AVIATION ................................................................................................................................................... 7

6.2 AVIATION EFFICIENCY .......................................................................................................................................... 8

6.3 GLOSSARY ON CIVIL AVIATION INVOLVING THE ECONOMY (ACI, 2011) ................................................................. 10

7 TOPIC ILLUSTRATION ............................................................................................................... 12

7.1 SAFETY ............................................................................................................................................................. 12

7.2 SECURITY .......................................................................................................................................................... 17

7.3 ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................................................................. 22

7.4 ECONOMY ........................................................................................................................................................ 29

7.5 ENERGY ............................................................................................................................................................ 31

8 SEAT APPLICATION ................................................................................................................... 38

9 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 40

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5 Introduction to Committee 5.1 Brief Introduction

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a United Nations specialized agency, established in 1947 to manage the administration and governance of the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention). Its headquarter is located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Canada.

The ICAO discusses and makes decisions within the purview of the UN. Till 2016, ICAO has 191 member countries, which include all member states of the United Nations—except Dominica, Liechtenstein, and Tuvalu—plus the Cook Islands.

5.2 History and Current Situation

The Chicago Convention was signed on December 7, 1944 in Chicago, U.S., by 52 signatory states. It went into effect on April 4, 1947. Under the Part II of the convention, the ICAO was established.

ICAO is distinct from other international aviation organizations, such as the International Air Transport Association (IATA), an organization representing airlines. ICAO is the special agency representing the member states which are the stakeholders of civil aviation. ICAO is a system that has to stimulate the development of air transport. The ever-changing nature and society, with the pace of the aviation, requires ICAO to continuously adapt. It is a challenge of all the nations. The challenge cannot be solved just by self-regulation of the very industry. It is technical, yet political as well, as it is of great need, to overcome those issues arising from the coordination and overlapping of technical standards, strong political initiative.

5.3 Functions

ICAO ’s mission is to serve as the global forum of States for international civil aviation. It works with 191 Member States and industry groups to reach consensus on international civil aviation Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs), which is one part of the Chicago Convention. and policies in support of a safe, efficient, secure, environmentally responsible and economically sustainable civil aviation sector.

5.4 The Assembly

The ICAO Assembly is the Organization’s sovereign body which has the power to:

a. Elect the president and officers;

b. Elect the contracting states of the council;

c. Examine and take appropriate actions on the report of the council;

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d. Vote annual budget or financial arrangement of the organization;

e. Review expenditure and approve the accord of the organization;

f. Modify the authority of delegation at any time;

g. Approve modification and amendments to the Chicago Convention.

After the establishment of the worldwide policy of the upcoming triennium, the member countries and other bodies of ICAO will take the policy as guidance of their future work.

According to the Article 49 of the Chicago Convention, the assembly of the ICAO may meet not less than once in three years and shall be convened by the Council at a suitable time and place. An extraordinary meeting of the Assembly may be held at any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of not less than one-fifth of the total number of contracting States addressed to the Secretary General. Each Member State is entitled to one vote on matters before the Assembly, and decisions at these Sessions are taken by a majority of the votes cast.

The Executive Committee, a major subordinate committee established by the Assembly together with the Coordinating Committee and the Administrative Commission, has the following functions:

a. The submission to the assembly;

b. The consideration of amendments, or the addition of items to, the agenda of the assembly;

c. The submission of recommendations to the Assembly on the conduct and organization of the Assembly;

d. The consideration and report on such items of the agenda as the Assembly might refer to it;

e. The giving of advice to the President of the Assembly, on his request, on matters requiring his decision.

5.5 The Council

The Council is a parliament body of the ICAO and is responsible to the Assembly. The states of the Council are elected by the Assembly every 3 years and consist of 36 members elected in 3 categories (States of chief importance in air transport; States which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities for international civil air navigation; States ensuring geographic representation.) The present of the Council is elected by the Assembly as well.

The Council has following functions:

a. Submitting annual reports to the Assembly, which is notable among those functions;

b. Carrying out the directions of the Assembly;

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c. Discharging the duties and obligations which are laid on it by the Chicago Convention;

d. Administering the finances of ICAO;

e. Appointing the Secretary General.

The Council may act as an arbiter between Member States on matters concerning aviation and the implementation of the Convention. It may investigate any situation which presents avoidable obstacles to the development of international air aviation.

6 Fundamental Concepts 6.1 Civil Aviation

6.1.1 Definition

Aviation is usually divided into two major categories, namely civil aviation and military aviation. That is, civil aviation represents all non-military aviation activities, using all kinds of aircrafts.

Notice

1. Civil Aviation is a portion of aviation;

2. “Using” defines the distinction between civil aviation and the aviation manufacturing industry;

3. It is different from all national air activities including military aviation.

Most of the nations have become the members of ICAO and are working together to establish common standards and recommend practices for civil aviation. (Information of ICAO has been introduced before)

6.1.2 Composition

The industry of civil aviation consists of three major parts, governments, civil aviation enterprises and airports for civil aviation.

The issue of civil aviation always concerns states’ sovereignty and communication, which demands rapid regulation and unified management. Therefore, most of the countries have set up their own independent governmental agencies to manage the affairs of civil aviation. Usually, the government is responsible for making legislating, planning, approving and managing the enterprises, managing the airports, representing the country to attend international organizations and defend its interests, et cetera.

Civil aviation enterprises are considered as all kinds of enterprises related to the industry of civil aviation. Among them, one of the most important kinds is the enterprise of air transport, which is usually called as airline company. They master the manufacture and transport of

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aircrafts, which are considered as the main income of civil aviation. Other kinds, such as oil, aviation equipment and sale, are all advocate their activities around the transport enterprises.

Airport is the joint of civil aviation and the whole society while it is also a regional public service facility. Therefore, most airports in the world are agencies with half enterprises nature under the management of the local government.

Civil Aviation is a large and complicated system, with governmental agencies, civil aviation enterprises and airports. Only with the concerted operation of every part, can we ensure the rapid development of the industry of civil aviation.

6.1.3 Categories

Civil aviation includes two major categories:

Scheduled air transport, including all passenger and cargo flights operating on regularly scheduled routes;

General aviation (GA), including all other civil flights, private or commercial.

Although scheduled air transport is the larger operation in terms of passenger numbers, GA is larger in the number of flights (and flight hours, in the U.S.) In the U.S., GA carries 166 million passengers each year, more than any individual airline, though less than all the airlines combined.

Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based on whether aircraft are flown for hire like:

Commercial aviation includes most or all flying done for hire, particularly scheduled service on airlines;

Private aviation includes pilots flying for their own purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) without receiving any kind of remuneration.

A British Airways Boeing 747-400 departs London Heathrow Airport. This is an example of a commercial aviation service.

Notice

All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general aviation can be either commercial or private.

6.2 Aviation Efficiency

6.2.1 Overview

When we are discussing about all kinds of things, we always like to use the word “efficiency”, and it makes no exception for civil aviation. Yet, like many other cases, it is vague and

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imprecise merely to say “efficiency”, taking its vast comprehensiveness into consideration. Hence, we will briefly illustrate some of the most principle types of efficiency in the context of civil aviation, among which the first five ones are technology-related while the others are airport-related. The improvement of efficiency can increase the quality of civil aviation and reduce the price, benefiting consumers, manufacturers, and airline companies simultaneously, marking a great vista for further cooperation not only between corporations but nations as well.

6.2.2 Different Types of Efficiency in Aviation

6.2.2.1 Aerodynamic Efficiency

It being not hard to see from its name, aerodynamic efficiency is a physics indicator pertaining to the flow of air. Widely-used as it is, the term is, yet, not universally acknowledged, as there are several different definitions, among which the most preferable one is the value of maximum lift/drag ratio. (Loftin, 1980) Aerodynamic efficiency is significant for reducing the use of energy and providing a higher velocity, prompted to be one of the most crucial indicators of airplanes.

6.2.2.2 Cruising Efficiency

Though efficiency usually means a ratio, the cruising efficiency is not. It is used to describe, in the form of either range or endurance, the plane in straight flight or constant-speed flight. (Donald, McLean, 2006)

6.2.2.3 Fuel Efficiency

This term is best considered as the quantity of fuel needed to produce a unit of output. (Wagenmakers, 1991) Fuel efficiency can help reducing cost as well as protecting the environment. Minute details pertaining to energy will be discussed more thoroughly in the energy section.

6.2.2.4 Propulsive Efficiency

As you may have already learned from physics courses in high school, the propulsive efficiency is the ratio of kinetic energy generated to the internal energy cost, similar to the mechanical efficiency in some sense, being definitely one of the most decisive indicators of engines.

6.2.2.5 Structural Efficiency

The structural efficiency is used to refer to a structure which has been designed to meet specific strength and stiffness criteria and has the minimum possible weight. (Loftin, 1985) It’s not arduous to see that increasing the structural efficiency can lead to the lessening of weight, which therefore issues in the soaring in velocity as well as the reducing of fuels.

6.2.2.6 Procedural Efficiency

This is a general term referring to the efficiency of the procedure of boarding pertaining to civil aviation. It is a truth universally acknowledged that this procedure is usually too tedious so that

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safety can be guaranteed, however there’s a tendency to improve the procedure to make it more efficient.

6.2.2.7 Airline Efficiency

This means the reasonability of the schedule of airlines. Currently, some airlines are not devised properly, the most obvious result of which is that there are many empty seats on some of the airlines, while some people can’t even get a desired ticket. The misbalancing of demand and supply should be readjusted through more careful schedule of airlines.

6.2.3 Conclusion

As a matter of fact, the efficiency of civil aviation can be attributed to the five “M”’s model of sociotechnical systems as shown in the following diagram, in which the operation of an airliner is not merely about the integration of pilot (human) and aircraft (machine) to perform a flight (mission) within the constraints imposed by the airport as well as the physical environment (physical medium). (Don Harris, 2006) More importantly, it is related to the societal medium, and management plays a crucial role as well. In this very context, the societal medium is the policy-endorsement, closely related to the further cooperation on this affair.

6.3 Glossary on Civil Aviation Involving the Economy (ACI, 2011)

Annual Rates

Annual rates are published time series data which often represent flows which take place over a month, quarter, or year. One example is revenue passenger miles, which is often reported at rates of RPM per month, per quarter, or per year. Therefore, these data are at different rates, meaning RPM per year are far higher than RPM per month and RPM per quarter, making it difficult to compare the data. To annualize or present the monthly or quarterly data at annual rates, multiply the data by 12 and 4, respectively.

Earnings

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Earnings are wages and salaries and other labor income, such as overtime, benefits and proprietors’ income, paid to all employed persons by employers for a given unit of work or time.

Employment

Employment is the implicit or explicit contractual relationship which exists between an employer and employee, whereby the employee voluntarily agrees to provide work effort to the employer in exchange for cash or in-kind remuneration.

Enabling Impact

Enabling impact is the economic impact on employment and income generated by economic activities that are dependent on the availability of air transportation services.

Gross Domestic Product

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the dollar measure of overall economic production during a period of time. It is the current dollar value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a specified time period, such as a year or quarter. These goods and services include consumption, investment, government expenditures and net exports. GDP also can be viewed in value added terms as the sum or aggregate of value added over each stage of production over the entire economy.

Gross Output

Gross output is the dollar value of goods or services produced by an industry and made available for use outside that industry during a specified time period. It is measured as total sales or receipts, plus other operating income, commodity taxes (sales and excise taxes) and changes in inventories; or, equivalently, as value added, plus goods and services purchased for use in production. For an entire nation, total gross output is equal to total intermediate inputs plus GDP. Therefore, total gross output exceeds GDP. The BEA publishes annual national- and industry-level estimates of gross output.

Induced Impacts

Induced impacts result from expenditures identified in the measurement of primary impacts, as well as spending by employees.

Input

Input is the total monetary value of goods and services consumed or used to produce a final good or service. These inputs include capital, labor, energy, materials and services.

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7 Topic Illustration 7.1 Safety

7.1.1 Definition

Civil aviation safety is mainly about those flight failures caused by technical or artificial mistakes which happen during flight process and measures to avoid these failures.

7.1.2 Statistics

The year-over-year statistics and analysis shows that the there is a decrease in number as well as rate. There are some unexpected terrible accidents happened in 2014 such as the Malaysia Airlines MH370 and Malaysia Airlines MH17 causing a large number of fatalities, which is the highest in the past few years, as shown in the figure above. (ICAO Safety Repot, 2015)

The chart below shows the rate of accident (per million departures) through these years. (ICAO Safety Report, 2015) It is obvious to indicate a decrease. ICAO is in responsible to cooperate with partner organizations through the Global Information Exchange (GSIE) to publish an authentic accident analyze.

Categories of accidents:

Controlled flight into Terrain

Ground Safety

Loss of control in-Flight

Injuries to and/ or incapacitation of Persons

operational damage

other

runaway safety

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unknown

7.1.3 Major Safety Threats and Solutions

Factors Safety threats Solutions

Technical problems

Engine Failure Engine failure could be caused by multiple reasons. It could either be fuel starvation, fuel exhaustion, foreign object damage, and mechanical failure due to metal fatigue, improper maintenance or an original manufacturing defect. Note that a single engine failure usually only results in precautionary landings where human casualties could be avoided. However, when a single engine failure is not contained, it could lead to a second engine failure which is likely to cause an air crash.

Structural Failure The concept of structural failure strictly refers to metal fatigue. The failure develops inside the material and therefore is hard to spot on the surface. Rigorous inspection and non-destructive testing, such as ultra-sound technology could be applied to detect metal fatigue at an early stage.

Artificial Mistakes

Fire Strict regulations are adopted for aircraft materials and automated fire safety systems. Required tests are taken to assess flammability of materials and toxicity of smoke.

Stalling Stalling an aircraft is to decrease the velocity of the plane until the wings fail to produce enough lifting force. Warning devices are now mandatory equipment on all civil air planes, including warning horns, stick shakers and voice warnings. However, stall speed is higher in an icy or frosty environment, for which we haven’t seen a satisfying solution yet.

Pilot Errors Pilot errors could refer to operational mistakes or improper communication between crew members. The development of the pilot’s checklist sufficiently solved the first problem, while Crew Resource Management technique insured the utilization of the entire crew’s knowledge and experience, effectively avoiding dependence on just one crew member. Human factors training is usually a general solution for pilot errors.

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Pilot Fatigue Regulations are adopted to limit the amount of hours pilots are allowed to fly over varying periods of time. However, experts find that these methods often fall short on their goals.

Electromagnetic Interference

Electromagnetic interference could cause compass deviations, therefore the use of certain electronic devices is partially or entirely prohibited. For example, mobile phones are not allowed on most flights.

Natural factors

Lightning A typical lightning strike rarely does serious damage as its effects on a traditional aircraft are well-understood. However, positive lightnings are not discovered until 2000, and so far only two crashes have been recorded. Currently, experts are not clear whether adequate protection is incorporated.

Ice and Snow Airplanes are required to go through the regular procedure of de-icing before take-off in icing conditions. Modern airplanes are structurally designed to prevent ice build up. Officers are usually dispatched to monitor the progress of weather along the route of flights in extreme weathers.

Bird Strike Airports generally develop active or passive countermeasures, such as shooting or poisoning birds and deploying sensible land-management strategies to avoid attracting flocks of birds.

7.1.4 Actions

Regional Aviation Safety Group Asia and Pacific Regions (RASG-APAC)

This is an organization under the auspice of ICAO, focusing on enhancing the cooperation between states, and industries to improve the aviation safety in Asia-Pacific Region.

By publishing the first aviation safety report of the Asia-Pacific region, RASG-ACAC successfully raised the awareness and attention among states reducing the incident and accident in APAC region. RASG-APAC identified following three categories as the prime factors of accident in APAC region: runway excursions, controlled flight into terrain areas and loss of control in -flight. RASG-APAC found the implementation of Annex 13 of Chicago Convention is lagging behind in APAC region, especially after the accident MH-370. RASG-APAC established the APRAST Accident Investigation Group (APRAST-AIG) in order to capture information and gain warrant for develop policies and recommendations.

European Commissions

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The EU performed an active role in providing assistance in aviation safety to the non-EU countries including Africa, Southeast Asia. EU also funds a number of aviation safety projects in the area of regional safety oversight and technical assistances.

African Civil Aviation Commission

The African aviation safety system figures being much worse than the global average. African is receiving a lot of volunteering contribution from States, which allows Africa to meet more efficient human resource and continuous implementation of SARPS. AFCAC established AFI Safety and Facilitation Initiative (AFI SECFAL), in order to enhancing aviation safety and air transport facilitation in Africa. The ICAO initiated a process to ensure the implementation of this program.

7.1.5 Risk Management

7.1.5.1 The Application of Risk Management in Aviation Safety

Illustration of Terminology

Risk management of aviation safety specifically refers to the identification, evaluation and assessment of safety risks by analyzing air accident data, and further prioritizing relevant factors to determine the coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor and control the probability and the impact of air accidents.

Procedural Methodology

Identification of safety risks usually involves classification and categorization of possible threats. Evaluation and assessment of risks is the second step, which is to label the risks according to their severity scale and likelihood. The cross-reference matrix is shown below. (Aviation Risk Management Workbook, 2001)

Risk Assessment Matrix

Severity

Likelihood Negligible Marginal Critical Catastrophic

Frequent Medium Serious High High

Probable Medium Serious High High

Occasional Low Medium Serious High

Remote Low Medium Medium Serious

Improbable Low Medium Medium Medium

Prioritization of relevant factors is to make sure that the most urgent and severe risks are always dealt with and informed to authoritative figures immediately. The chart below is a

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perfect example of this prioritization in a regular American aviation administration. (Aviation Risk Management Workbook, 2001)

Appropriate Management level for Operational Risk Decisions

Risk Level Fire Project

High Incident commander or operations sections chief Line officer/manager

Serious Incident commander or operations sections chief Line officer/manager

Medium Air operations branch director Project aviation manager

Low Base manager Helicopter or flight manager

Examples

An aircraft could face hazardous and extreme weather conditions during flight. After identifying the risk, research institutes evaluate that the likelihood of the risk is frequent, and its severity scale is critical, which altogether produces a high outcome for risk assessment. In this situation, it would be appropriate to inform incident commander or operations sections chief. The actual process to mitigate the assessed risk includes: to confirm weather information resources are available; to utilize updated electronic equipment if possible; to confirm that red-flag warnings are distributed; to ensure there are continual updates on changing weather conditions shared between pilots, air base mangers, dispatchers, etc. Also note that under the circumspect Go-No-Go is PIC decision.

Potential

You have just read that regulations exist to prevent pilots from working overload, and that experts find their effects limited for the problem of pilot fatigue. However, someone has proposed the Fatigue Risk Management System as an innovative and data-driven mean of continuously, consistently and objectively monitoring fatigue-related safety risks, based on scientifically approved conclusions and principles as well as operational experience to ensure that relevant crew members are performing at adequate levels of vigilance. Possible safety performance indicators might include departure time, flight duration, in-flight sleep, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, and PVT performance preflight and at TOD.

Conclusion

Applying the scientific process of risk manage to the field of civil aviation is undoubtedly an innovative approach. In fact, Aviation Safety Risk Management Program has effectively reduced the number of air accidents over the years, and now the methodology is adopted by medical fields as well.

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7.1.6 Investigation and Assistance the Victims

According to the Annex 13 of the convention of international civil aviation, the investigation should be led by the state of occurrence. The responsibility of the investigator is the collection of all available information, and the insurance of the accident report and recommendation. Each state has its own aviation accident investigation group. Because of the different technology levels of different state, sometimes it requires the assistance from other technology advanced states and the experts from ICAO.

But lack of technology not only appears on investigators but also the information recorder which is “the black box”. Black box plays an important role in many accident investigations, but it is an “ancient” technology from the 20th century. The accident of Malaysia Airline MH370 shows that it is hard to find the black box when the accident took place above ocean. There are advices of using satellite GPS to update the location of civil airlines. This technology is already being used in air forces, but it is unrealistic for civil aviation since it is a large amount of cost for the airlines. In 2014, the president of the council, Mr. Olumuyiwa Benard Aliu supports the idea of the cloud based black box, which means to send the basic information of the aircraft including speed, height and working condition to the cloud database. But this idea still meets the difficulty about cost.

7.2 Security

The International Civil Aviation Organization plays an essential role in the field of civil aviation security and is currently the leading character that aims at reducing, minimizing and ultimately eliminating civil aviation security problems worldwide.

7.2.1 Definition

Civil aviation security is mainly about security problems or threats due to the hazardous people of objects, which happen when the airplane is taking off, in flight process or landing.

Notice

Pay attention to the distinction between safety and security in civil aviation: Safety is principally about the flight safety including but not limited to the flight operations and the reliability of the aircraft component, while security is about the assurance of the related procedures and matters which include but not limited to the security check in the airport and emergency measures.

7.2.2 Classification of Security Threats (Aviation Security and Relocation of National Frontiers, 2012)

Hijacking for retention

Passengers Attaining political, propaganda, and psychological results; not connected to causing direct damage

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Hijacking for movement

Aircraft Transferring of terrorists from one geographic point to another

Hijacking for annihilation

Aircraft + passengers Inflicting material, political, and psychological damage

Direct action against aircraft

Aircraft + passengers Inflicting material, political, and psychological damage

Direct action against ground infrastructure

Ground infrastructure (and, more rarely, aircraft or passengers)

Inflicting material, political, and psychological damage

Peripheral categories Aircraft (and, more rarely, passengers, crew, ground infrastructure)

Various

7.2.3 General Goals and Objectives

To conduct audits that assess and analyze existing loopholes in global aviation security systems and determine new security threats that emerge with the changing dynamics of the world’s technological, ecological and sociological state.

To consolidate effective and binding global legal frameworks that essentially serve as international standards and general ground basis for any law regarding to civil aviation security problems within the State.

To instruct, supervise and counsel states on latent risks within their systems and assist them in implementing effective measures to resolve deficiencies.

7.2.4 Aviation Security

7.2.4.1 Passenger Information

There are two major types of passenger information systems that are adopted globally: The Advance Passenger Information System, or APIS, and the Passenger Name Record, or PNR. Their functions are very different and generally do not overlap, therefore in most cases both are utilized. APIS is an electronic data interchange system developed by the US that provides a limited amount of data element, including identification details from the passport and basic flight information. The data includes full name, gender, date of birth, nationality, country of residence as well as travel document type of the passenger. The data is usually transmitted immediately from take-off location to destination. PNR is a record in the database of a computer reservation system that contains the itinerary for a passenger or a group of passengers traveling together. It is required that coordinating information exchange mechanisms like APIS and PNR are compatible and mature, so that data points can be transmitted in time from one location to another.

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It is worth noting, however, that privacy should never be violated when personal information is collected.

7.2.4.2 Security Measures on Board

Passengers and pilots are usually most vulnerable on air, when they are cut off from any potential source of aid from ground and a minor disfunction could escalate into a full on catastrophe. It is required that all crew members know form standard training the protective security measures during flight and in emergency. Communication protocols for emergent situations should also be efficient, developed, and reliable.

7.2.4.3 Ground Control

Ground control also goes by air traffic control, which refers to the controlled areas on an airport. Ground control is especially important in extreme weathers, when a pilot’s sight is blocked. It’s been recorded that more than 300 people were killed when two planes collided near an airport in San Francisco, due to a mistake by the ground control operator.

7.2.4.4 Potentially Hazardous Items

Research focused on the detection of weapons, explosives, as well as hazardous materials should be emphasized both within a state and in international community.

7.2.4.5 Potentially Hazardous Individuals

Potentially hazardous individuals refer to people who have the deliberate intention of sabotaging a flight, or jeopardizing the passengers and crew members on the plane by disguising as a passenger himself. These individuals are often terrorists willing to sacrifice themselves for a large-scale massacre of up to hundreds of people at a time. Countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany and China have added air marshals, or air police as an additional military force to combat terrorism in civil aviation. In China, it is the first step of a major reform in the civil aviation industry.

7.2.5 National Security

7.2.5.1 Globalization and Relocation of National Frontier

The boom of civil aviation industry since World War II indicates and in turn accelerates the inevitable trend of globalization. The possibility of transmitting goods via air has opened up a new door for logistics. The paradoxical thing is that, while international trade is the top priority in a nation’s interest, national security issues might ensue as aviation industry remains vulnerable to terrorism in many ways; but if a country adopts too-strict regulation rules for civil aviation, the facilitation of transnational trading might be compromised. Furthermore, cargo and passengers on air dismantle traditional border controls and prompt policy makers around the world to rethink and redefine national frontiers. Details are shown in the following table. (Aviation Security and Relocation of National Frontiers,2012)

Globalization versus National Security Framework

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Globalization/Trade (Civil Aviation)

National Security (Facilitation)

International Agreements (WTO / ICAO)

ICAO Guidelines(APIS) International Agreements (ICAO)

Bi-national Commercial Treaties Bi-national Security Agreements

Domestic Aviation Economic Policy

State-Firm and Inner-State Partnerships

State Border Control Programs

Firm corporate Strategy (ABCA Program) Firm Border Control Strategy

7.2.5.2 Short-Term Migration

Civil aviation offers travelers a chance to temporarily reside in other countries and therefore raise questions to national security. While there is no direct link between short-term migration and national security threats, many people believe that migration is a vehicle for transporting terrorists and criminals into the country as well as for spreading deadly disease.

7.2.5.3 Effective Systems

A good example is the reformational steps taken by airlines and airports who responded to the structural changes by employing a new system, the Advanced Border Control or ABC. ABC program adopted countries, including Canada, Netherlands the United States and the United Kingdom. The specific illustration of ABC and its relevant notions is detailed below. (Aviation Security and Relocation of National Frontiers, 2012)

ABC Program Definitions

United States Pre-Clearance Service (USPC)

U.S. border control services offered in foreign airports for passengers departing by commercial airlines to U.S. destinations

Advanced Passenger Information Systems (APIS)

Pre-journey transmission of passenger data from commercial airlines to border control agencies in order to support admissibility eligibility decisions

Automated Border Kiosks (ABK)

Biometric-enabled techniques that permit self-service inspections supervised by traditional enforcement practices with some form of pre-enrolment

However, ABC program relies on the collaboration between two countries and controversies still exist, regarding to issues like the owner ship of the personal data collected from travelers.

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7.2.6 Solutions

7.2.6.1 The Universal Security Audit Program Continuous Monitoring Approach (USAP-CMA)

It aims at enhancing civil aviation security by monitoring its member states’ overall performances, assessing their capabilities, providing prioritized recommendations and validating corrective actions. USAP is based on nine principles: sovereignty, universality, transparency of methodology, timeliness, all-inclusiveness, consistency and objectivity, fairness, quality and confidentiality. So far, two cycles of USAP audits and follow-up visits have been conducted successfully.

7.2.6.2 Implementation Support and Development (ISD) - Security Section

The primary objective of ISD-IEC is to help states resolve the deficiencies and potential risks identified by USAP and to provide chances of collaboration between states, industry, international financial institutions and various other stakeholders. It is responsible for the Aviation Security Training Centers and the Aviation Security Training Packages, as well as the Aviation Security Professional Management Course.

7.2.6.3 Existing Legal Frameworks

One of the most significant achievements by ICAO is the formation and adoption of Standard and Recommended Practices(SARPs), which is a legal document for international civil aviation that was first adopted in March 1974, and later designated to the Chicago Convention as Annex 17.

7.2.7 Countries

7.2.7.1 Canada

Since 2001, the government has spent more than 4.4 billion dollars to enhancing its aviation security which in turn protected its people from unlawful interferences on air.

One of the key components of Canada’s civil aviation security system is the National Civil Aviation Security Program(NCASP), which mainly consists of legislation, policies, programs and legal regulations. Its most important principal is maintaining risk management while being fiscally responsible, including when it sets priorities, conducts oversight, allocates resources and evaluates regulations.

The Passenger Protect Program is another crucial part of Canadian’s civil aviation security system. The department Transport Canada collaborates with several other departments and agencies within the government of Canada to carry out a complete program including the training and authorizing of air carriers that are in charge of preventing suspicious people who fall under the behavioral interpretation code from engaging in dangerous activities.

7.2.7.2 The United States

The United States has extended its federal security requirements from cargo and baggage screening to passenger safety since 911. It can now ensure that today one hundred percent of

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all checked and carry-on baggage is screened and nearly 51000 Transportation Security Officers, Transportation Inspectors and Behavior Detection Officers are serving in airports around the state. Advance Passenger Information and Passenger Name records is required in the United States, and it has developed a Trusted Traveler Program. Air carriers are also employed to ensure that any passengers who may pose a threat to aviation or national security are designated on enhanced screening or prohibited from boarding an aircraft.

7.2.7.3 China

China’s civil aviation agency recently published China’s Civil Aviation Security Program under the guidance of the Chicago Conference, Annex 19. CCASP is expected to further implement China’s civil aviation oversight mechanism and set the foundation for a stable and sustainable development of China’s civil aviation industry.

7.2.8 Case Study——911

On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al-Qaeda hijacked four airliners and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. Often referred to as 9/11, the attacks resulted in extensive death and destruction, triggering major U.S. initiatives to combat terrorism and defining the presidency of George W. Bush. Over 3,000 people were killed during the attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., including more than 400 police officers and firefighters.

911 is the most famous hijack in the world and pushed the United States to change many civil aviation security measures. 911 was a warning bell to international community as it showed how vulnerable the civil aviation industry was to terrorist attacks.

7.3 Environment

Aviation has experienced rapid expansion as the world economy has grown and plays an important role in world economy. In 2015, Total revenue passenger kilometers (RPKs) rose 7.5%, 3 times the average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate (2.47%).

In Kyoto Protocol Article 2.2, member states have agreed:

The Party shall pursue limitation or reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol from aviation bunker fuels, through the International Civil Organization, respectively. (Kyoto Protocol Article 2.2, 1997)

Improving the environmental performance and remaining a sustainable development of aviation is one of the major challenges of ICAO. By using the platform of International civil aviation Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs), ICAO developed a range of standards, policies, training, guidance material and cooperate with other organizations to analyze data and provide reports for the application of measures to address aircraft noise and engine emissions embracing technological improvements, operating procedures, appropriate airport and land-use planning, and the use of market-based options.

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7.3.1 Climate Change

7.3.1.1 Current Situation

Aviation is responsible for 2% for the global greenhouse gases emission. Aircraft uses jet engine as the power source. Jet engine discharges fast-moving jet that gathers thrust from jet propulsion. The jet engine can be divided into various kinds, but all of them is a kind of combustion engine, which means they all burn fuel and release greenhouse gases (GHGs), as shown in the following graph. (Neil Dickson, 2015) The principal emissions of aircrafts include the GHGs carbon dioxide and water vapor (H2O). Other major emissions are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (which both are termed NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and soot.

Aircraft emit gases and particles directly into the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. These gases and particles alter the concentration of atmospheric GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), and methane (CH4); alter the world atmospheric composition, trigger carbon footprints and may increase cirrus cloudiness—all of which contribute to climate change.

ICAO gives the qualified planes the emission certification which is a required certification of legal flight. The prime purpose of emission certification is to ensure that the latest stabled and available mission reduction technology is involved into aircraft design demonstrated by procedures which are relevant to operations, to ensure that emission reduction offered by technology is reflected in reductions in the daily flying.

Total aviation emissions have increased, because increased demand for air transport has outpaced the reductions in specific emissions from the continuing improvements in technology and operational procedures.

Concern about Local Air Quality(LAQ) in the vicinity of the airport focus on the effect of the emission released below 1000 meters.

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For emissions certification purposes, ICAO defined a specific reference called Land Take-off(LTO) cycle below 1000 meters. The cycle is divided into following 4 parts, as shown in the upper picture. (Neil Dickson, 2015)

Take-off: (100% available thrust) for 0.7 minutes

Climb:(85% available thrust) for 2.2 minutes

Approach: (30% available thrust) for 4.0 minutes

Taxi:(7% available thrust) for 22 minutes

The engine will run on a test bed at each thrust setting. After analyzing the data of fuel flows, emission index and measured smoke number, the calculation of data values for each pollutant: emission rate, total gross emission, maximum smoke number.

However, now the data was provided by engine manufacturers, who are solely responsible for its accuracy. It has not been independently verified unless indicated. And the data are stored in the publicly available ICAO emission databank.

7.3.1.2 Recent Action

7.3.1.2.1 Action Plan

Since the climate change is a global challenge for all member states, an essential part of any successful environmental change process is to communicate and involve all appropriate stakeholder groups throughout the whole of the process. The Action Plan enhanced cooperation between all aviation stakeholders that can positively reflect on their operational areas.

Action plans are for States to submit to ICAO information on their policies and activities to reduce CO2 emissions from international civil aviation. ICAO suggests each states to hand in their action plans, the information contained in an action plan demonstrates the effectiveness of actions and will ultimately enable ICAO to measure global progress.

The action plan includes:

Contact information;

Baseline (without action) fuel consumption and traffic (2010 or earlier to 2050);

List of measures proposed to address CO2 emission from international civil aviation;

Expected results (fuel consumption and traffic with the actions being taken 2014 to 2050);

Information on any assistance needs (financial, technological, training, etc.).

Since now 94 States representing 88.05% of global RTK submitted to ICAO their Action Plan.

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On the meeting of ICAO on 4 June 2015, Airport council International (ACI) provided a paper of guidance materials, training, measuring tool and accreditation service to help airports reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper explains these products and services and urges the States to encourage airports to use them. It also invites states to include one of these products, Airport Carbon Accreditation, in their state action plans on climate change.

As airport operators are not all at the same stage on the journey to carbon neutrality, the program offers four ascending levels of accreditation:

“Mapping” (Level 1) for carbon footprint measurement;

“Reduction” (Level 2) for airports having reduced their carbon footprints;

“Optimization” (Level 3) for airports, on top of Level 2, having had their tenants and users reduce their carbon emissions as well;

“Neutrality” (Level 3+), for airports that have been able to neutralize residual direct carbon emissions by offsetting them.

Action Plan in China

China believes UNFCCC should be acknowledged and respected during the addressing of International aviation and climate change. China remains the principle of ‘Common but differentiated responsibilities’. China believes ICAO should recognize the ‘special need and the special circumstances of developing countries since China has such a large population and is meeting the urgent need to improve citizen’s well-being and air transport.

In 2008, the civil aviation administrator of China (CAAC) established a taskforce in charge of the emission reduction and sectional energy conservation. CAAC aim to materialize the reduction of emission into three phases, and by 2020 China is expected to achieve 22% of emission and achieve fuel consumption per revenue tonne kilometer with the year of 2005 as baseline.

Action Plan in India

India has economic closely related to the nature sources and climate sensitive such as agriculture, water and forestry. So the climate change will have a strong influence on the daily life of Indian people. India is facing the challenge of the balance between the sustaining the economic development and the global climate change. India strongly believed the common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities should be respected, and no restrictions should be constituted on international trade. ICAO should consider the international aviation plays a n important role in world trading, therefore, the impact on the economic and social impact while addressing climate change.

India has worked on the technology renew of the airline engine, and use computerized flue control on the plan. And pilots are trained to operate single engine operation without compromising the safety. Most of the airlines are procured in the new flight planning system while the computer will plan the lowest cost route automatically.

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Airports in India are encouraged to use Environment manage system and greenhouse gas emission system mechanism which help to establish and development policies of emission reduction. India also implements several systems in order to improve fuel efficient, reduce carbon footprint, and minimize aircraft pollution, et cetera.

Action Plan in Germany

As a member of European Civil Aviation Conference(ECAC), German share the common view with the other members of ECAC that climate change may be a potential constraint of the development of the international aviation. So Germany together with the other ECAC countries are committed to work together toward a sustainable and competitive transport system.

Germany believes the following approach are essential to fight against climate change:

Research and development on emission technologies;

The deployment and development of low-carbon alternative fuel;

The optimization and improvement of air traffic management;

Market based measures.

The European Trading System is the key tool to tackle climate change. There is a limit of the total amount of emission in the system. Under the limit, countries buy and sell emission allowance from other. The system changes the environmental issue into a marketing level

Action Plan in the United States

The United states government is committed to reduce the carbon emission of the U.S. Aviation while ensuring the safety and efficiency of the National Airspace System(NAS) and work toward the goal of carbon-neutral of U.S. Commercial aviation.

The Continuous low energy, emission, noise(CLEEN) launched by Federal Aviation Administration(FAA), is a partnership with the industry enterprises to accelerate the usage of the environmentally promising aircraft technologies. And National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) together with the U.S. Air force will push forward the exploration of environmentally sustainable aviation technologies.

The U.S. Government is focused on two issues on the pursuit of policies and standard that supplement operations to further emission reduction. In particular:

The development of a practical standard of emission in ICAO;

The development of global market-based measure(GMBM) with ICAO to work as a gap filler of the address of international greenhouse gases emission.

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7.3.1.2.2 Assistance

ICAO is working to promote and develop capacity building programs to provide further assistance to states and facilitate the development and implementation of States Action Plans, which includes two major parts:

Capacity building for CO2mitigationfrom International Aviation. Its main objective is to contribute to the mitigation of CO2 emissions from international aviation by implementing capacity building activities that will support the development of low carbon air transport and environmental sustainability in 14 selected states (all of them are developing countries located in Africa)

Transforming the Global Aviation Sector: Emissions Reductions from International Aviation. Its objective is to support capacity building in developing States for implementing concrete measure for reducing CO2 emissions from international aviation.

7.3.2 Aircraft Noise

Manufactures’ new technologies have produced significant noise reductions.

The noise certification involves measuring the noise level of an aircraft in effective perceived noise level(EPN)dB at three reference points:

Fly-over: 6.5 km from the brake release point, under the take-off flight path;

Sideline: the highest noise measurement recorded at any point 450m from the runaway axis during take-off;

Approach: 2km from the runaway threshold, under the approach flight path.

Noise levels are defined as the arithmetic sum of the certification levels at each of the three points.

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The reduction of noise has four principles which are: reduction of noise at source, land-use and planning management, noise abatement operational procedure and operating restrictions, as shown in the figure above. (Neil Dickson,2015) ICAO’s role is to provide a global forum to develop a commonly-agreed solution among member states including consists of a variety of measures and harmonized and balanced manner. And through CAEP, ICAO will continue to update the standards for noise in Annex 16, involving monitoring research and technology developments, review of the latest technology developments and consideration of the inter-dependencies.

7.3.3 Related Programs

7.3.3.1 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP)

CAEP is established by the ICAO Council in 1983, superseding the Committee on Aircraft Noise(CAN) and the Committee on Aircraft Engine Emissions(CAEE). CAEP assists the ICAO in formulating new policies and adopting new SARPS for aircraft noise and aircraft engine emissions. It is a technical committee and reports to the ICAO council.

7.3.3.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations, set up at the request of member governments, dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective, scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts.

The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change.

IPCC often collaborate with ICAO, and compose aviation emission reports for ICAO. Also, UNFCCC works as a policy consult for ICAO.

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7.4 Economy

7.4.1 Introduction

There are five aspects commonly recognized in the concept of civil aviation: air transport, non-commercial flying, commercial non-transport, infrastructure and manufacturing. As air transport can be consisted of transporting goods and passengers (both of which take up a large proportion of the economy of civil aviation industry), air transport is the dominant factor of the industry. In the year 2001 alone, the airline services managed to transport 1,600 million passengers as well as about 30 million tons of goods including freight and postal products all over the world. In that same year, about 40% of exports and 45% of tourists worldwide were carried by air. Civil aviation has, in the past few decades, become one of the pillar industries of global economy and its development connects directly to that of the gross international value. The total output and contributive factors to labor and employment brought about ripple effects in many other aspects of their respective local or regional economies.

7.4.2 Arguments

7.4.2.1 Environment

Despite the massive contribution of civil aviation to the economy, the industry is, at the same time, taking a heavy toll on the environment with a considerable amount of carbon emissions and many more (see “Environment”). Therefore, the argument lies in whether to charge the aviation industry of a free lunch that it has been devouring for decades.

The industry itself, of course, holds its firm belief that governments are obliged not to interfere in its development in any way. However, this should only happen when the pollution it causes is at a regular and harmless level. Up until now there is not enough scientific progress in environmental studies to make up for the unfavorable consequences of the industry’s rapid growth, and therefore it is only reasonable to keep the continual rise in passenger numbers down at a lower level. To achieve this, people have proposed taxation.

The supporters of taxation argue that the current development model of the civil aviation industry is against the principles of sustainable development. Airlines have been focusing primarily on expanding the number of passengers instead of sustainability to prove their competitiveness in the industry, and many of them have been seeking profits from doing so. However, they fail to realize the long-term effect of this development model, which may bring down the profit and result in negative feedbacks of their reputation, and that is the reason that almost all airlines have been trying to run away from climate change. They should no longer stay exempt from economic measures and come to a realization that they can still achieve profit growth without prioritizing passenger number increase. In this case, taxation seems like a good way to help cut down on their emissions.

However, there is still a down side to this seemingly functional solution. Granted that the civil aviation industry is one of pillar industries of the world economy, a cut in its profits is sure to arouse a decline in the economic benefits it brings as well. Its contributions to a country’s economic development would be less significant if taxed. This change may seem small in

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developed countries, but in developing countries or those that are not industrialized to the same extent as others, it may affect employment and serve as a catalyst for social problems as well as economic ones. Especially in a country which It is also difficult to decide on the scope of application of airline taxation – the problem lies in how to set the standards and how to properly administrate the application.

7.4.2.2 Employment

As the civil aviation industry continues to prove its place in the global economy with a total value of approximately US$3.5 trillion, or 7.5% of the world GDP, it is also becoming an important social factor as well. The booming industry brings benefits like employment opportunities and economic activity, with both its direct impact as well as indirect ones known as “ripple effects” or “multiplier effects”. Through this phenomenon it adds another US$873 billion to the world economy, equivalent to the pharmaceuticals industry. Civil aviation produces jobs for 5.5 million people directly in the year 2006 alone, with 4.7 million people employed by airlines and airports and around 800,000 employed in the civil aerospace sector (ILO, 2006), and indirectly spurs production through cargo purchases, aerial services, employee spending, and tourism, supporting 26.3 million jobs. And, in total, the industry has supported 31.9 million employments in the world. Because of this huge amount of social impact on employment, airlines have, at the same time, been put in a delicate position. The world’s growing desire of more aerial transportation indicates that if there is an economic crisis, the civil aviation industry will be hit harder than most. Although the world capitalism crisis could do harm to every industry with a decent impact, the severity of that of the global civil aviation industry would certainly be especially significant.

Looking back on past situations, the most troublesome incidents that would happen to an industry were no doubt strikes or confrontations of similar kinds. Since they visibly and most heavily affect the industry’s income and post threats to its reputation, they have always been ones that aroused maximum public attention. Taking the 2007 British Airways cabin crew strike as an instance, we can easily see that the economic impact would be huge (with a cost of

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around £80 million at the time) and there would be adverse influence on the level of both employee and passenger satisfaction.

Of course, in a world of rapid development and connections closer than ever before, the working environments of employed labor are becoming less regulated day by day. And the workers would no doubt be the most affected group of people by various cost-cutting and outsourcing plans. After the terrorist attack on September 11th, 2001, such programs enacted particularly in the United States and Canada consisted of a series of policies to cut redundancies from labor. But though the measures were taken, they still didn’t turn out to function the way they were expected to, proven by the fact that employment costs didn’t stop to increase (shown in the figure above), which was likely to be what made the industry socially unstable possible. While these measures may seem relieving in a short period of time, they are certainly not the best ones to take when looked at from a long-term perspective.

7.5 Energy

7.5.1 Current Situation

Energy is important for civil aviation economically, technically and environmentally. The price of energy, to some extents, can affect the cost of enterprises of aviation and the daily flights and other arrangements might be changed as well. The efficiency of energy can directly determine the capability of engines and other parts of the airplane. Last but not least, the consumption of energy may lead to the pollution and the dissipation.

7.5.1.1 Energy Consumption

“Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.” (United Nations, n.d.) This clause is one of the Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the United Nations. Today, we always talk about environmental friendly which is considered as one of the most essential goals for human-beings and the globe. The consumption of energy is a crucial factor in environment protection.

As the most necessary and most efficient transportation, the energy consumption of the aircrafts has reached above 3000J per capita per kilometer, which is 12 times of that of HSR (High-Speed Rail). Energy consumption of transportation in USA takes up 28% of its total consumption, which is mainly presented by petroleum which occupies 95% of all kinds of energy consumption, according to the statistics in 2014. Airline costs 7% among all types of

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transportation. With this consideration, clear goals to decline the consumption in civil aviation have been made in the industry, which can be realize constantly and effectively in different fields, for example, engine, airframe technology, materials and maintenance practices. Details are shown in the following diagram. (World Bank, 2012)

7.5.1.2 Efficiency and Carbon Emissions

However, the energy requirement of the aircrafts is also with high standard. Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications, such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperature, among other properties. Jet fuel, as the most necessary energy that aircraft requires, takes up a large proportion in the all kinds of energy use. The jet fuel is demanded a high-level purity quotient, need to be re-concocted. The requirement for combustion stability is also very strict, so that it can provide enough motive power for the aircraft. Additionally, the efficiency of energy usage is also critical, as described above in the efficiency part. As the key of taking full advantage of the fuels, we should pay attention to the effective usage of energy technically and economically. The efficiency of energy usage reflects the level of the consumption and use of energy, which can be understood as a comprehensive index of energy’s effective utilization degree. Along with the high price of crude oil, competition among enterprises and the stress of environment, it seems that improving the efficiency of energy usage and exploring new energy sources are possible to reduce the carbon emissions and enforce the capacity. Besides of the improvement of energy and fuels, the effective control of engine maintenances is also crucial. Only with the normal operation of the engine and other mechanical parts, can the fuels exert

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their largest power and pull up the efficiency. Details are shown in the following figures. (Laroche, 2007; IEA, 2015)

One of the most sections of the efficiency of fuels is the carbon emissions which reveals the energy utilization rate. The carbon emissions of the aircrafts have taken up 2.5% of the total amount of the world. For instance, about 1 billion tons of carbon dioxide per annum are consumed in commercial aviation and this has to be considered and reduced in the following development. With this large amount of carbon emissions, aviation contributes a lot to climate change. However, with all kinds of measures and improvement in possible fields and directions, it is still expected to fail to meet the goal and projected standard set by authorities, which means further efforts are necessitated eagerly in order to ensure the sustainable

development in the industry. People begin to figure out ways to lower the emissions while ensuring the efficiency, such as developing the biofuels. Nowadays, researchers have come up with a complete planning of reforming the energy consumption structure by developing and

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using sustainable alternative fuels for aviation. However, over short and medium-term horizon, drop-in liquid fuels (conventional jet fuels) will still be depended on and will take up a lot of proportion in the total consumption. In this process, Sustainable alternative fuel plays an important role by improving the efficiency, reinforcing the security of supply and stabilizing the prices. Attention should also be paid to the reality that although using alternative fuels has many advantages and can reduce the negative impacts to the environment, the quantities of this kind of fuel is far away from the sufficient supply for overall demand by civil aviation. The cost and availability of alternative fuels remain key barriers to their large scale adoption. (Adam Whitmore, 2014)

Below is the figure of the statistics of the activities related to sustainable alternative fuels in 2015. (ICAO, 2015)

7.5.1.3 Price

As we are discussing about jet fuel, the most necessary energy for aircraft engine, the price of jet fuel is crucial to be stabilized so that the enterprises and the companies can afford the cost and develop the industry of aviation and provide a relatively high-standard service to the

consumers.

While the fossil fuels are being over-exploited, people still use oil as the main fuel for transport and the environment is in great need of being protected, it is urgent to improve the structure of energy consumption of aviation and the efficiency of the fuels.

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In the last decade, the price of crude oil is upward trend. In 2005, the Hurricane Katrina hit Mexico. After a 20-year stationary phase, the price of oil exceeded 70 dollars per barrel for the first time. In the following 3 years, the price rapidly rose and reached 124.7 dollars per barrel in 2008. Yet, due to the global financial crisis, in 2009, the price once dropped to 33.2 dollars per barrel. After that, the price kept rising and reached more than 120 dollars per barrel. However, in recent years, the price has begun to fall back to a normal level. (CN Gold, 2015) It is worth studying the experience and events which led to this phenomenon during these years. It is apparent that the price of jet fuel and crude oil is closely related to the development of international economy and the situation of regions rich in oil, such as Central Asia. In addition, Energy policy sometimes can be used as a foreign policy tool, in particular in major energy producing and transit countries. This reality might need to be taken into account when discussing the cooperation of energy among member states. In this changeable and complicated world, how to stabilize the price of jet fuel and build a brighter future for aviation development is a question to be answered. Details are shown in the following table. (IATA, 2015)

7.5.1.4 Energy Use in Airports

Besides, the energy consumption of the aviation also includes the energy consumption in airports all over the world, the energy forms of which include but not limited to electricity, fresh water, and fuels. According to the latest research funded by EU, the energy consumption of a civil airport is as much as a small-sized city, up to 20% of which is probably wasted. One of the largest usage of energy in airports is the system for heating and cooling. In the airports of Milan and Rome, researchers found that due to the improper maintenance and the inefficient control, more than 1/5 of the fuels were wasted. (European Union, 2015) So far, the problem of

energy dissipation has become a serious problem to be solved.

7.5.2 Past Attempts and Existing Organizations

7.5.2.1 Past Attempts

Activities of ICAO to Respond the UN SDGs

UN SDG TARGET:

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all

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By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix;

By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency;

By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology.

ICAO Activity:

ICAO is promoting environmental innovation at airports, including the use of solar power for at-gate aircraft in lieu of power generated by carbon intensive APUs (Auxiliary Power Unit) or GPUs (Ground Power Unit). It also encourages development and adoption of energy-efficient aircraft technology, and working towards goals which include a global aspiration fuel efficiency improvement of 2% annually to 2050. One of the most influential actions is the establishment of GFAAF. The Global Framework for Aviation Alternative Fuels (GFAAF) encourages States to set a coordinated approach in their national administrations. This permits them to develop policy actions to facilitate and track the appropriate development, deployment and use of sustainable alternative fuels for aviation. With actions like this, ICAO promotes renewable and energy-efficient technologies in aircraft, and at airports, as well as the development and use of alternative fuels. (ICAO, n.d.)

EU’s Actions

The European Union (EU) has pledged to cut its energy consumption by 20 % (compared with projected levels) by 2020. Concerning the fields of energy consumption in the EU-28, EU now emphasizes and demands a transition in energy consumption structure, especially focusing on the study and development of renewable energy sources, such as hydropower, solar energy, wind power and biofuels. Besides, in various transportations, they pay full attention to the improvement of efficiency of energy use.

With the support of supply-side policies, EU has launched several initiatives in the past years, aiming to improve the efficiency of energy use, reduce energy waste, and try to stabilize the

price of fuels so that the impact from economic oscillation can be alleviated. Some methods and implementing measures have existed in this field, including the promotion of co-generation, the study of alternative fuels and strengthening of the energy efficiency economically and technically. (European Union, 2015)

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7.5.2.2 Existing Initiatives and Projects

ICAO Global Framework for Aviation Alternative Fuels (GFAAF)

As the official project of ICAO, GFAAF was created in 2009 as a public website, accessible through ICAO portal, where news and materials related to aviation alternative fuels are collected. The GFAAF provides a continuously updated database about activities and developments in the field of alternatives for aviation, as well as useful documentation and links, to support information sharing and dissemination for the benefit of aviation fuels community. In addition, before and after the creation of GFAAF, ICAO has held a number of conferences related to the issue of aviation fuels and improvement.

Objectives: GFAAF encourages States to set a coordinated approach in their national administrations. This permits them to develop policy actions to facilitate and track the appropriate development, deployment and use of sustainable alternative fuels for aviation. GFAAF provides an opportunity for all the international and regional organizations and initiatives to communicate and cooperate to drive the reform and innovation of the drop-in alternative fuels for aviation which is an indisputable solution that will not require changes to the aircraft or fuel delivery infrastructure and can ensure the efficiency and environmental-friendliness.

Challenges: Capital investment also matter a lot in the process of the testing of new fuels and the establishment of new production facilities. Due to the small proportion (which is about only 5%) that energy consumption of civil aviation shares in worldwide liquid fuel consumption, it is very likely that the fuel producers will abandon the development of aviation fuel strategically and turn to larger markets. Still, when people take the use of alternative fuels in aviation into consideration of the strategy for minimizing the negative influence on the change of global climate, we should set up a series of frameworks of regulation and finance in order to ensure the availability of the sufficient alternative fuels. This reason leads to the fact that there are not sufficient quantities of alternatives fuels for international demand and the strict requirement of quality is hard to reach.

Achievements: After several years’ efforts, GFAAF has confirmed 5 certified pathways to produce drop-in jet fuels. Although the quantity is still a key barrier, there have been already more than 2200 commercial flights flown on sustainable alternative fuels and 2 airports distributing alternative fuels to regular flights. Still, there is a lot of room for this field to improve. (Megan Kuhn, 2009)

Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI)

CAAFI, started since 2006, seeks to enhance energy security and environmental sustainability for aviation through alternative jet fuels. This group is made up of US Federal Aviation Administration, manufacturers, enterprises, airports, and industry of energy, focusing efforts of commercial aviation to engaging the emerging alternative fuels industry.

Objectives: CAAFI attempts to achieve the development of new forms of alternative jet fuel equipped with equivalent cost and security with previous petroleum based fuels, yet prevailed in environmental friendliness and safety of energy supply for aviation.

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Challenges: The price fluctuation of fuel has become a great barrier for further development of airline operating in U.S. Meanwhile, the negative impact of civil aviation and its carbon emissions bring a lot of burden to the environment and form some difficulties internally and also in the international community. Still, the development of the aviation industry is also a challenge, since while consuming 3% of U.S. total energy consumption, it only takes up under 9% of national employment and drives 6% of U.S. GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is urgent to figure out how to develop the industry with security and sustainability in the following development.

After several years of efforts, the Fuel Readiness Levels that CAAFI has developed have been accepted by ICAO. (CAAFI, n.d.)

Alternative Fuels and Biofuels for Aircraft Development (ALFA-BIRD)

AlFA-Bird is a project funded by EU, started in July 2009. ALFA-BIRD is a project of research and technological development, aiming at viable technical solutions and R&D of new energy.

Objectives: ALFA-BIRD attempts to investigate and develop a variety of alternative fuels for the use in aeronautics, motivated by the need to ensure a sustainable growth of the civil aviation, while facing the impact of fossil fuels lack, climate change and the high prices of oil.

Challenges: Developing fuels that meet the strict operational requirements in aviation (e.g. flight in very cold conditions) and are compatible with current civil airplanes.

To address this challenge, ALFA-BIRD has gathered a large academic and research team which consists of organizations and industrial partners from all part of the field. Bring together their intelligence, they will create a brighter future for the fuels for aviation.

Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group (SAFUG)

SAFUG was formed as a international group in September 2008 with support and advice from the world’s leading environmental organizations such as the Natural Resources Defense Council. This group is focused on accelerating the development and commercialization of sustainable aviation biofuels and other forms of fuels.

7.5.3 Conclusion

Energy is a crucial topic in the improvement of the civil aviation industry. Air carriers will benefit from stabilized fuel prices and supply security. Sustainable alternative fuels for aviation will, on the other hand, offer a win-win solution for all consumers and manufacturers. Most importantly, the planet will benefit from lower carbon emissions and gain a better environment. (CAAFI, 2014)

8 Seat Application Nation Organization or Company

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Argentina Dominican Republic

Malaysia Saudi Arabia Airports Council International

Australia Egypt Mexico Singapore Flight Safety Foundation

Brazil France New Zealand South Africa International Air Transport Association

Burkina Faso

Germany Nigeria Spain International Coalition for Sustainable Aviation

Canada India Norway United Kingdom

SkyTeam Alliance

China Italy Portugal United States

Star Alliance

Cook Islands

Japan Russian Federation

Venezuela United Nations

Please choose up to 3 seats (at least one, sorted according to your preference) from the seats list above (may be different from the final seat distribution. Blue stands for member states; orange stands for observing organizations) and complete the following assignments for every seat you choose:

a. Why do you choose this nation/organization as your first/second/third choice, and what do you know about it?

b. Briefly state the nation/organization’s basic position on the topic and illustrate your expectation of the results of the conference as the role you choose. (No more than 500 words for each role)

Please also complete the following explanation assignment:

Please choose one or two concept(s) that is important for this conference but has not been minutely explained in this update, explain them delicately and analyze their relationship with this conference. (No more than 500 words per concept.)

After completing all those assignments, please compress your answers into one zip file with the following directory structure:

[Delegate Name]-[School].zip

--->Explanation.doc(x) (MANDATORY)

--->C1-[Nation/Organization Name of First Choice] (MANDATORY)

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-->Q1.doc(x)

-->Q2.doc(x)

--->C2-[Nation/Organization Name of Second Choice] (OPTIONAL)

-->Q1.doc(x)

-->Q2.doc(x)

--->C3-[Nation/Organization Name of Third Choice] (OPTIONAL)

-->Q1.doc(x)

-->Q2.doc(x)

Please replace all the placeholders within the square brackets to information as described. For instance, the directory structure of one’s assignment might be like this:

易轩-一零一中学.zip

--->Explanation.docx

--->C1-Cook Islands

-->Q1.docx

-->Q2.docx

--->C2-United Nations

-->Q1.docx

-->Q2.docx

In each answer file, please copy the question in the very beginning and then write down your answers. There’s no special request of fonts, but please do make it easily readable. After compressing, please send the zip file to [email protected] before 23:59:59 22nd July 2016 (GMT+8). The email title should be “SA - [Delegate Name] - [School]”.

Please join the QQ group for the committee as soon as possible. The group number is 475754278.

9 References 1. Adam W. (2014). Could Rising Aviation Emissions be Good for the Environment? Retrieved from http://www.theenergycollective.com/onclimatechangepolicy/425646/could-rising-aviation-emissions-be-good-environment 2. Athol Y. & Nara S. (2014). How Civil Aviation Threatens National Security

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3. Christian University. (2013). International Civil Aviation Organization – Role in Air Transport Safety 4. Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative. (2014). Fueling Solutions for Secure and Sustainable Aviation. Brochure 5. Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative. (n.d.). About CAAFI. Retrieved from http://www.caafi.org/about/caafi.html 6. Don H. (2006). The Influence of Human Factors on Operational Efficiency 7. Donald M. (2006). Introduction: Operational Efficiency in Aviation 8. Donald M. (2006). The Operational Efficiency of Passenger Aircraft 9. European Union. (2015). Eurostat Database 10. Friends of the Earth. (2005). Aviation and the Economy 11. Geraint H. & Peter T. (2009). The Impact of the Financial Crisis on Labour in the Civil Aviation Industry 12. Goedhuis D. (1955). The Air Sovereignty Concept and United States Influence on its Future Development 13. International Air Transport Association. (n.d.). Fuel Price Analysis 14. International Civil Aviation Organization. (2014). Guidance on Environmental Assessment of Proposed Air Traffic Management Operational Changes 15. International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.) ICAO and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/about-icao/aviation-development/Pages/SDG.aspx 16. International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). 2015 Safety Report. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/safety/Documents/ICAO_Safety_Report_2015_Web.pdf 17. International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). Balanced Approach to Aircraft Noise Management. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/noise.aspx 18. International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). Economic Contribution of Civil Aviation 19. International Civil Aviation Organization. (n.d.). ICAO Global Framework for Aviation Alternative Fuels. Retrieved from http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/GFAAF/Pages/default.aspx 20. Joyce P. (1999). Aviation and the Global Atmosphere 21. MaríaG.,Wei Y. (2013). Is Environmental Innovation Worth It? The Case of the Civil Aviation Industry of Emerging Markets 22. Megan K. (2009). ICAO creating alternative fuels web tool. Retrieved from https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/icao-creating-alternative-fuels-web-tool-335331/ 23. Neil D. (2014). Aircraft Noise Technology and International Noise Standards 24. Neil D. (2014). Local Air Quality and ICAO Engine Emission Standard 25. Ruwantissa A. (1997). Terror in the Skies: Approaches to Controlling Unlawful Interference with Civil Aviation 26. Ruwantissa A. (2011). Civil Unrest and Airport and Aviation Security 27. Ruwantissa A. (2012). Air Navigation Law 28. Ruwantissa A. (2012). Strategic Issues in Air Transport 29. Ruwantissa A. (2014). Convention on International Civil Aviation 30. U.S. Energy Information Administration. (n.d.). Energy Use for Transportation. Retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/Energyexplained/?page=us_energy_transportation#tab1 31. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. (2011). The Economic Impact of Civil Aviation on the U.S. Economy

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32. US Forest Service DOI Bureau of Land Management. (n.d.). Aviation Risk Management Workbook. Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/av_safety/risk_management/ARMW%20Individual%20Files/ARM_2011W.pdf 33. World Bank. (2012). Air Transport and Energy Efficiency