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1 園園園園園 Chapter 6 – 園園 LIGHT 園園園 園園 園園園園園園 園園園園園園園 本本本本本本本本本 本本 本本 CC 本本本本 本本本本本 本本本本本本 -- 3.0 本本本本

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Page 2: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Back to the Land

Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations

and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution.

But there’s a lot of lost ground to make up

(Time, Oct. 26, 2009)

2

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大 綱• 光合作用• 植物空間配置與光線截取關係• 白化作用• 色素效用• 光週性• 光量與植物生長• 光源及其用途• 光量測系統

Page 4: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

INTRODUCTION

Plants respond to light quality, quantity, & photoperiod (光週)

Light is electromagnetic radiation (電磁波輻射) (fig.

7-2)

Wave Particles: photons (光子)

4

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Fig. 7.2 Electromagnetic spectrum電磁波長 400-700nm 範圍為可視光

Fig. 7.2 Electromagnetic spectrum

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光合作用過程(附圖 5-12, 圖 7.10 )

• 光吸收– 色素:葉綠素、輔助色素(如類胡蘿蔔素)

• 光能傳遞:激發能 (excitation energy)– 波長漸長,能量減少

• 光化學反應– 反應中心: PS1, PS2– 氧化還原反應– 電子傳遞– ATP, NADPH2形成

• 暗反應– Calvin cycle– CO2固定– 碳水化合物形成

Page 10: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Photosynthesis 12H2O + light + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Chloroplasts (fig. 7-15) Process of photosynthesis

Light rx Carbon dioxide fixation

3 carbon pathway 4 carbon pathway Crassulacean acid metabolism (景天酸代謝) (CAM)

( table 5-1)10

Page 14: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

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Ornamental cabbage Corn Jade plant

Page 17: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Spacing & orienting plants for light interception (光截取)

Optimal spacing Frequently planted at the ideal spacing for mature plants

Interplanting (間作) : plants w/ upright habits & spreading plants w/n or between rows is efficient

Programmed dense planting (計畫性密植) : dense initially, thinned later

Weed control Containerized plants (盆栽植物) Hydroponical growing (水耕) system: automatically

adjusting spacing 17

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Spacing & orienting plants for light interception

Double, triple or wide rows utilize space more efficiently for backyard gardeners (fig. 7-19)

Landscape plants must be properly spaced Other methods for fruit trees

Pruning (修剪)

Dwarf rootstocks (矮性砧木)

Plant growth retardants (植物生長抑制劑)

Manipulating difference between night & day temp (DIF)

18

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Orientation (方向) Often-debated subject Greenhouse orientation

East-west above 40°N North-south below 40°N

Gutter-connected (連棟) greenhouse North-south

Open garden The tallest plants to the north, and

the shortest to the south19

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Pruning plants for light interception Fruit trees

Thinning-out pruning ( 疏刪修剪) (fig. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10)

Open-center training (開心整枝) : peach (fig. 5-9, 5-10)

Objective Constant yield Good-quality fruits

Ornamentals Hedge (綠籬) : wider on the bottom than the top (fig. 5-12, 5-13)

Espalier (樹籬) (fig. 5-14)

Topiary (裝飾剪) (fig. 5-14)

Bonsai (盆景) (fig. 5-15)20

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An improperly pruned hedgeThe resulting holes impair the desired visual effect.(5-13)

Page 29: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Etiolation (白化) Plants often become etiolated in response to a blanching (去光、暗化)

treatment Symptoms (fig. 5-16)

White to yellowish stems & leaves Spindly growth of stems Extreme elongation of internodes Formation of seedling hooks (鉤)

Role of hook (fig. 5-19) Use

Cauliflower (fig. 5-20), table onion (fig. 5-21)

Vegetative propagation: cutting (扦插) , layering (壓條) (fig. 5-22)

29

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Effect of pigments-- carotenoids

Carotenoids (類胡蘿蔔素)

Accessory (輔助) pigments for photosynthesis Photoprotection (光保護)

Impart color to flower, fruits, seeds

37

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Cryptochromes (隱藏色素) & Phototropins

Blue-light photoreceptors Cryptochromes

Control stem elongation (如附圖 18.4 ;18.6 ) , cotyledon & leaf expansion, daily rhythms, & flowering

Phototropins (趨光素) : phototropism (向光

性) auxin38

Page 39: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

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18.4 Phototropism in wild type (A) and mutant (B) Arabidopsis seedlings

Page 41: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Phytochromes (光敏素) General characters

H. A. Bothwick & S. B. Hendricks of USDA Red (R) or far-red (FR) effect on lettuce seed germination (附圖 17.2 ) (table 5-

2)

Phytochrome interconversions (fig. 5-23)

The highest amounts exists in meristematic tissues & their newly formed daughter cells.

Seed Dormancy

Photoblastic Stimulated: carrot, gloxinia ( 大岩桐) , weeds Inhibited: tomato Unaffected: peas & sweet corn

41

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Phytochromes (Cont. 1)

• Branching & stem elongation (分支與莖伸長)– R: short internodes, vigorous axillary bud (腋芽)

growth (fig. 5-24)– Ecological significance (fig. 9.4, 5-25, 5-26)

• Anthocyanin (花青素) production– A typical high irradiance reaction mediated by phytochrome– Effect of light on coloring of eggplant (fig. 5-29) apple,

peach

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葉片高效率吸收可視光,但吸收較少遠紅外線

Fig. 9.4 Optical properties of a bean leaf

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Photoperiodism (光週性)• W. W. Garner & H. A. Allard (1920)• A response to day length

– Darkness is critical (附圖 25.19 )– Phytochrome is the photoreceptor (光接受器)(附圖 25.23 )– Each species has its own requirement for a minimum number of

inductive photoperiods• Flowering• Formation of storage organs• Stem elongation • Temperate trees & woody shrubs

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Flowering• Juvenile → adult• 3 distinct classes

– Day neutral plants (DNP)• Initiate flowers under a wide range of day length• Example

– Cucumber, everbearing (四季開花) strawberry, sweet corn

• Quantitative long-day plants – Petunia (牽牛花) , carnation

• Quantitative short-day plants – Tomato, Rieger begonia (秋海棠)

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Flowering (Cont. 1)

– Long-day plants (LDP)• Summer-flowering plants

– Evening primrose (報春花) , spinach (fig. 5-31)

– Short-day plants (SDP)• Late summer- or fall-flowering plants

– Cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum) (倉耳) , chrysanthemum, kalanchoe (厚葉屬) , poinsettia

– (附圖 25.18 )

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Flowering (Cont. 2)

• Photoperiodic control of flowering– Revolutionize the floriculture industry– Chrysanthemum can be programmed to flower at any desired time

at any location – Critical day length vary among crops & cultivars– Manipulate critical day length either by controlling lighting or by

providing darkness – Lighting

• Incandescent lamps are commonly used (fig. 5-34, 5-35)• Night interruption (暗期中斷) by lighting for 2-4 hr in the

middle of night

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64

Cuttings for vegetative propagation( 扦插苗營養繁殖 )

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Flowering (Cont. 3)

Darkening Black cloth or plastic is pulled over the crop in the late

afternoon & again in the early morning (fig. 5-36)

Alternating day lengths (變換日長)

SD followed by LD Bell flower (吊鐘花) , creeping white clover

LD followed by SD Kalanchoe & some lilies

67

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Formation of storage organs Stimulated by SD

Tubers of potato, Jerusalem artichoke (菊竽) , scarlet runner bean (紅花菜豆) , Begonia

Stimulated by LD Bulbs of onion, early garlic

Tuberous root formation of Dahlia occur under any day length, but greater root under SD (fig. 5-38)

69

Page 70: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

70Potato tubers from in response to short days.

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Formation of tuberous roots on dahlia is accelerated by short days.(fig. 5-38)

Page 72: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Stem elongation Runner (走莖) formation

Stimulated by LD: strawberry Stimulated by SD: spider plant (吊蘭) (fig. 5-19)

72

Page 73: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

73spider plant (吊蘭) (fig. 5-19)

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Temperate trees & woody shrubs Stimulated by SD

Fall coloration of leaves Leaf fall (abscission) Onset of cold hardness Onset of dormancy

Phytochrome is involved 75

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Light quantity & quality Light quantity & photosynthesis

Light compensation point (光補償點) Light saturation point (光飽和點)(附圖 9-7 ) Vary w/ plant spp. & growing condition ( 附圖 9-8 )

Shade tolerance (耐陰性) Sun & shade leaves Leaf area index (葉面積指數) Acclimatization (馴化) of foliage plants

76

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陽性與陰性植物在不同光度之光合成速率

Page 78: 1 Chapter 6 – LIGHT CC 3.0 CC 3.0. Back to the Land Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution

Shade tolerance (耐陰性)

Category (table 5-3) Nearly all vegetables & fruit crops grow best in full sun Must select the genotype to fit the location (fig. 5-41)

Many understory plants (樹冠下層植物) are quite

shade-tolerant & intolerant of full sunlight Foliage plants are produced under shading materials

(fig. 5-42, 5-43)

78

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80

Impatiens azaleas

Plants that grow well and flower in shaded locations

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Sun & shade leaves (陽性與陰性葉)

Comparison (table 5-4) Shade leaves under bright sunlight

Leaf scorch (焦化) (fig. 5-44) Photoinhibition (光抑制) , photodecomposition (光

分解)

87

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89

Leaf scorch (焦化) (fig. 5-44)

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Leaf area index (葉面積指數) Leaf area index (LAI)

Ratio of the area occupied by all the leaves to the surface of ground that the plant covers

LAI as related to the plant productivity ( 附圖 )

Leaf orientation (vertical) as related to yield

91

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93Fig. Crop growth rate (CGR) of soybean communities as a function of the leaf area index (LAI) (Loomis, R.S., D. J. Connor. 1992. Crop Ecology, p.42)

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Acclimatization of foliage plants (觀葉植物馴化)

Foliage plants frequently are raised outdoors in the full sun & must be properly acclimatized to prevent leaf-loss before being used for interior-scaping

Manipulate light, temperature, watering, & nutrition Light is the most important

Lower light levels to 40%-80% for 5 to more than 10 wk Grown under 40% shade

Placed indoors for decoration

light is the limiting factor (fig. 5-46)95

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Light sources & their use

Light source Sunlight Electric lamps

High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps Fluorescence Lamps (螢光燈) Incandescent Lamps (鎢絲燈)

97

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High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps

Types of lamps Mercury (Hg) Metal halide (MH) Sodium w/ high- or low- pressure

Property Spectral quality (fig. 5-34) Big ballasts (基座) & reflectors (fig. 5-47) More expensive but longer life expectancy

98

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Fluorescence lamps (螢光燈) Types of lamps

Cool white: more common Warm white

Spectral property (fig. 5-34) Used for seed germination & tissue culture Lower quantity of light & overcome by extending

day length100

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Incandescent lamps (鎢絲燈) Used primarily for photoperiodic control

Emit too much heat Low in blue end of the spectrum (fig. 5-34) Exhibit tall, succulent growth characters High in red end of the spectrum

Use bulbs w/ internal reflectors (fig. 5-35)

102

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Systems for measuring light Terminology

Flux: flow of a substance or transfer of energy across a surface; radiant or quantum flux

Photon (光子) : an individual particle of light Quantum (量子) : energy carried by a photon

Photometric System Radiometric System Photon (Quantum) Flux

103

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Photometric system Light intensity: luminous flux emitted by a point source per unit

solid angle (fig. 5-49) Units

Foot-candle, lumen/ft2 Lumens Candela Lux

Not very useful when describing for plants Deal specifically w/ spectral sensitivity of the “standard human

eye” Should not used when describing light for plant growth

104

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Radiometric system Irradiance

Light (radiant flux) intercepted per unit of area Unit

Joules/ sec. m2 = watt/ m2

Peak solar radiation level at sea level is about 1000 W. m2

The wavelength region must be specified From 400 to 700 nm: photosynthetically active radiation

(PAR) Instruments

Radiometers Spectroradiometers

106

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Photon (quantum) flux The primary photochemical act in photosynthesis depends on

the number of photons that are trapped. Photon flux Unit

μmole/ m2. sec Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)

Referred to 400 to 700 nm107

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版權聲明頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源

2Rural poverty and food shortage ……lost ground to make up

TIME Magazine, October 26, 2009. Vol. 174, No.16(http://www.time.com/time/magazine/asia/0,9263,501091026,00.html) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

5 P126. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

6 P126. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

8Plant Physiology (1999) 第 2 版 / Park S. Nobel

(Physicochemical & environmental plant physiology) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

9 P131. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源

11 P134. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

12P100. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

13揚州大學醫學院植物生理教研室表 4.2 C3 、 C4 、 CAM 植物的光合和生理生态特性的比较 (

http://jpkc.yzu.edu.cn/course/zhwshl/stjj/dyzc/dyzc04.htm) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

14Flickr / TommyHAGAハボタン  ornamental cabbage (

http://www.flickr.com/photos/tommyhaga/6457669081/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

14Flickr / Michael DavieCorn (http://www.flickr.com/photos/michaeldavie/4780324288/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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14Flickr / Traveling MermaidJade plant (http://www.flickr.com/photos/travelingmermaid/2341319763/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

15P103. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 5265 條合理使用。

16P104. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

21Wikimedia commons / SB_Johnny(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magnolia_after_corrective_pruning.JPG) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/9/27 。

22P108. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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23Flickr / VironevaehPeach orchard in bloom (http://www.flickr.com/photos/14549450@N03/4536818572) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

24P108. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

25Wikimedia commons / Brian Shaw(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conifer_Hedges_-_geograph.org.uk_-_196841.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

26Flickr / Moochy Hedge at Montacute House, Sommerset (http://www.flickr.com/photos/moochy/35472182/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

27Flickr / Sam HowzitWinnie the Pooh Topiary (http://www.flickr.com/photos/aloha75/7168066342/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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27Flickr / jpmatthEspalier (http://www.flickr.com/photos/jpmatth/441576257/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

27Flickr / edenpictures(http://www.flickr.com/photos/edenpictures/4922194949/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

28Flickr / Carol BrowneEspalier (http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolbrowne/5807234322/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

28Flickr / Carol BrowneBonsai! (http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolbrowne/5807239846/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

30P110. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源

31 P418. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

32P111. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

33Flickr / FluffymuppetCauliflower leaves (http://www.flickr.com/photos/fluffymuppet/6946871134/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

33Flickr / Linda N.Cauliflower (http://www.flickr.com/photos/22748341@N00/2639329808/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

34 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

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35 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

36P113. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

39 P447. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

40 P449. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

42 P419. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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43P115. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

44P115. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

45 P420. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

47P117. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

48 P201. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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49P117. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

50P118. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

51P119. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

53 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

54 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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55 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

56 P655. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

59 P650. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

60Flickr / Nemo's great uncle#5591 dandelions ( タンポポ ) (

http://www.flickr.com/photos/maynard/6930165559/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

61Flickr / Vietnam Plants & America plantsLeaves and flowers of Celosia Argentea (http://www.flickr.com/photos/phuonglovejesus2782010/5506717018/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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62Flickr / seven twenty fivepoinsettia (http://www.flickr.com/photos/725/2341380573/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

64Flickr / sassycrafterCuttings (http://www.flickr.com/photos/sassycrafter/2923728792/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

64Flickr / peganumRooted cuttings (http://www.flickr.com/photos/peganum/6073316303/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

65P124. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

66Flickr / geefour907Geo-thermal-powered greenhouses in FAI (http://www.flickr.com/photos/alaskatravelgram/3345478051/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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68Flickr / scott.zonaAroid shade house 2 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/scottzona/4668960957/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

70Flickr / Beau BWhite Potatoes (http://www.flickr.com/photos/beaub/2883480817/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

71Flickr / Satrina0Mascot Maya tuber trimming (http://www.flickr.com/photos/satrina0/4045279831/in/photostream/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

73Flickr / Peter BaerSpider Plant (http://www.flickr.com/photos/peterjbaer/4314902802/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

73Wikipedia / Wildfeuer(http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2006-12-12Chlorophytum02.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/9/27 。

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74Flickr / yellowcloudWindowsill clone warrior leaf (http://www.flickr.com/photos/yellowcloud/3616655104/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

77生態學 第四章植物的交互作用 / 屏東科技大學熱帶農業暨國際合作系 周昌弘(http://www.medie.com.tw/book/c/c04.htm) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

79P129. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

80Flickr / Steve Guttman NYCImpatiens under the lilac (http://www.flickr.com/photos/steveguttman/6138686112/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

80Flickr / ukgardenphotosLeonardslee Gardens, West Sussex (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ukgardenphotos/5431781852/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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81 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

82P130. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

83 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

84 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

85 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

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86P130. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

88P131. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

89Wikimedia commons / Hardyplants(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hosta33.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/09/27 。

89Flickr / jonathanjonl(http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonathanjo/520418118/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

90

Flickr / ukgardenphotosContainer gardening at Great Dixter Gardens, Sussex (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ukgardenphotos/8030880806/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。

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92 P201. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

93Loomis, R.S. and Connor, D.J. Crop ecology: productivity and management in agricultural systems. Chinese Translation. China Agricultural Press, Beijing, 487p. (2002). 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

94Adelana, B. O. & Milbourn, G. M. 1976. Relationship between leaf area and crop growth rate in maize. Ghana Jnl agric. Sci. 9, 175-178.(http://gains.org.gh/articles/gjas_v9_p175_178.pdf) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

96P133. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

99P134. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

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101 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。

105P137. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

1-124 轉載自 Microsoft Office 2010 PowerPoint 設計主題範本,依據 Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。