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1
園藝學原理Chapter 6 – 光線
LIGHT
羅筱鳳 教授國立臺灣大學 園藝暨景觀學系
【 本 著 作 除 另 有 註 明 外 , 採 取 創用 CC
「姓名標示-非商業性-相同方式分享」臺灣3.0
版授權釋出】
Back to the Land
Rural poverty and food shortage are forcing nations
and scientists to engineer a new Green Revolution.
But there’s a lot of lost ground to make up
(Time, Oct. 26, 2009)
2
3
大 綱• 光合作用• 植物空間配置與光線截取關係• 白化作用• 色素效用• 光週性• 光量與植物生長• 光源及其用途• 光量測系統
INTRODUCTION
Plants respond to light quality, quantity, & photoperiod (光週)
Light is electromagnetic radiation (電磁波輻射) (fig.
7-2)
Wave Particles: photons (光子)
4
5
Fig. 7.2 Electromagnetic spectrum電磁波長 400-700nm 範圍為可視光
Fig. 7.2 Electromagnetic spectrum
6
光線屬於電磁波輻射
Fig. 7.1 Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave
7
光合作用過程(附圖 5-12, 圖 7.10 )
• 光吸收– 色素:葉綠素、輔助色素(如類胡蘿蔔素)
• 光能傳遞:激發能 (excitation energy)– 波長漸長,能量減少
• 光化學反應– 反應中心: PS1, PS2– 氧化還原反應– 電子傳遞– ATP, NADPH2形成
• 暗反應– Calvin cycle– CO2固定– 碳水化合物形成
8(Nobel, P. S. 1999. Physical and Environmental Plant Physiology.)
採光天線
9Fig. 7.10 Basic concept of energy transfer during photosynthesis
Photosynthesis 12H2O + light + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Chloroplasts (fig. 7-15) Process of photosynthesis
Light rx Carbon dioxide fixation
3 carbon pathway 4 carbon pathway Crassulacean acid metabolism (景天酸代謝) (CAM)
( table 5-1)10
11
類囊體
Fig. 7.15 Transmission electron micrograph of a chloroplast from pea (Pisum sativum)
12
13
14
Ornamental cabbage Corn Jade plant
15
16
Spacing & orienting plants for light interception (光截取)
Optimal spacing Frequently planted at the ideal spacing for mature plants
Interplanting (間作) : plants w/ upright habits & spreading plants w/n or between rows is efficient
Programmed dense planting (計畫性密植) : dense initially, thinned later
Weed control Containerized plants (盆栽植物) Hydroponical growing (水耕) system: automatically
adjusting spacing 17
Spacing & orienting plants for light interception
Double, triple or wide rows utilize space more efficiently for backyard gardeners (fig. 7-19)
Landscape plants must be properly spaced Other methods for fruit trees
Pruning (修剪)
Dwarf rootstocks (矮性砧木)
Plant growth retardants (植物生長抑制劑)
Manipulating difference between night & day temp (DIF)
18
Orientation (方向) Often-debated subject Greenhouse orientation
East-west above 40°N North-south below 40°N
Gutter-connected (連棟) greenhouse North-south
Open garden The tallest plants to the north, and
the shortest to the south19
Pruning plants for light interception Fruit trees
Thinning-out pruning ( 疏刪修剪) (fig. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10)
Open-center training (開心整枝) : peach (fig. 5-9, 5-10)
Objective Constant yield Good-quality fruits
Ornamentals Hedge (綠籬) : wider on the bottom than the top (fig. 5-12, 5-13)
Espalier (樹籬) (fig. 5-14)
Topiary (裝飾剪) (fig. 5-14)
Bonsai (盆景) (fig. 5-15)20
21Thinning-out cuts(5-8)
22
23Maximize light interception(5-10)
24
26
An improperly pruned hedgeThe resulting holes impair the desired visual effect.(5-13)
Etiolation (白化) Plants often become etiolated in response to a blanching (去光、暗化)
treatment Symptoms (fig. 5-16)
White to yellowish stems & leaves Spindly growth of stems Extreme elongation of internodes Formation of seedling hooks (鉤)
Role of hook (fig. 5-19) Use
Cauliflower (fig. 5-20), table onion (fig. 5-21)
Vegetative propagation: cutting (扦插) , layering (壓條) (fig. 5-22)
29
30
31
32
hook
34
宜蘭三星青蔥
35
宜蘭三星青蔥─高畦栽培
36
Effect of pigments-- carotenoids
Carotenoids (類胡蘿蔔素)
Accessory (輔助) pigments for photosynthesis Photoprotection (光保護)
Impart color to flower, fruits, seeds
37
Cryptochromes (隱藏色素) & Phototropins
Blue-light photoreceptors Cryptochromes
Control stem elongation (如附圖 18.4 ;18.6 ) , cotyledon & leaf expansion, daily rhythms, & flowering
Phototropins (趨光素) : phototropism (向光
性) auxin38
39
18.4 Phototropism in wild type (A) and mutant (B) Arabidopsis seedlings
40
藍光抑制生長
Phytochromes (光敏素) General characters
H. A. Bothwick & S. B. Hendricks of USDA Red (R) or far-red (FR) effect on lettuce seed germination (附圖 17.2 ) (table 5-
2)
Phytochrome interconversions (fig. 5-23)
The highest amounts exists in meristematic tissues & their newly formed daughter cells.
Seed Dormancy
Photoblastic Stimulated: carrot, gloxinia ( 大岩桐) , weeds Inhibited: tomato Unaffected: peas & sweet corn
41
42
43
44
45
46
Phytochromes (Cont. 1)
• Branching & stem elongation (分支與莖伸長)– R: short internodes, vigorous axillary bud (腋芽)
growth (fig. 5-24)– Ecological significance (fig. 9.4, 5-25, 5-26)
• Anthocyanin (花青素) production– A typical high irradiance reaction mediated by phytochrome– Effect of light on coloring of eggplant (fig. 5-29) apple,
peach
47紅光多於遠紅外線
葉片高效率吸收可視光,但吸收較少遠紅外線
Fig. 9.4 Optical properties of a bean leaf
49
50
51
52
Photoperiodism (光週性)• W. W. Garner & H. A. Allard (1920)• A response to day length
– Darkness is critical (附圖 25.19 )– Phytochrome is the photoreceptor (光接受器)(附圖 25.23 )– Each species has its own requirement for a minimum number of
inductive photoperiods• Flowering• Formation of storage organs• Stem elongation • Temperate trees & woody shrubs
53
夜間才是關鍵
54
夜間才是關鍵
55
56
57
Flowering• Juvenile → adult• 3 distinct classes
– Day neutral plants (DNP)• Initiate flowers under a wide range of day length• Example
– Cucumber, everbearing (四季開花) strawberry, sweet corn
• Quantitative long-day plants – Petunia (牽牛花) , carnation
• Quantitative short-day plants – Tomato, Rieger begonia (秋海棠)
58
Flowering (Cont. 1)
– Long-day plants (LDP)• Summer-flowering plants
– Evening primrose (報春花) , spinach (fig. 5-31)
– Short-day plants (SDP)• Late summer- or fall-flowering plants
– Cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum) (倉耳) , chrysanthemum, kalanchoe (厚葉屬) , poinsettia
– (附圖 25.18 )
59
60dandelion( 蒲公英 )
61
62
63
Flowering (Cont. 2)
• Photoperiodic control of flowering– Revolutionize the floriculture industry– Chrysanthemum can be programmed to flower at any desired time
at any location – Critical day length vary among crops & cultivars– Manipulate critical day length either by controlling lighting or by
providing darkness – Lighting
• Incandescent lamps are commonly used (fig. 5-34, 5-35)• Night interruption (暗期中斷) by lighting for 2-4 hr in the
middle of night
64
Cuttings for vegetative propagation( 扦插苗營養繁殖 )
65
66
Flowering (Cont. 3)
Darkening Black cloth or plastic is pulled over the crop in the late
afternoon & again in the early morning (fig. 5-36)
Alternating day lengths (變換日長)
SD followed by LD Bell flower (吊鐘花) , creeping white clover
LD followed by SD Kalanchoe & some lilies
67
Formation of storage organs Stimulated by SD
Tubers of potato, Jerusalem artichoke (菊竽) , scarlet runner bean (紅花菜豆) , Begonia
Stimulated by LD Bulbs of onion, early garlic
Tuberous root formation of Dahlia occur under any day length, but greater root under SD (fig. 5-38)
69
70Potato tubers from in response to short days.
71
Formation of tuberous roots on dahlia is accelerated by short days.(fig. 5-38)
Stem elongation Runner (走莖) formation
Stimulated by LD: strawberry Stimulated by SD: spider plant (吊蘭) (fig. 5-19)
72
73spider plant (吊蘭) (fig. 5-19)
74
Temperate trees & woody shrubs Stimulated by SD
Fall coloration of leaves Leaf fall (abscission) Onset of cold hardness Onset of dormancy
Phytochrome is involved 75
Light quantity & quality Light quantity & photosynthesis
Light compensation point (光補償點) Light saturation point (光飽和點)(附圖 9-7 ) Vary w/ plant spp. & growing condition ( 附圖 9-8 )
Shade tolerance (耐陰性) Sun & shade leaves Leaf area index (葉面積指數) Acclimatization (馴化) of foliage plants
76
Shade tolerance (耐陰性)
Category (table 5-3) Nearly all vegetables & fruit crops grow best in full sun Must select the genotype to fit the location (fig. 5-41)
Many understory plants (樹冠下層植物) are quite
shade-tolerant & intolerant of full sunlight Foliage plants are produced under shading materials
(fig. 5-42, 5-43)
78
79
80
Impatiens azaleas
Plants that grow well and flower in shaded locations
81
美國加州家庭庭院陽性植物
82
83
84
海南觀葉植物生產圃
85
86
Sun & shade leaves (陽性與陰性葉)
Comparison (table 5-4) Shade leaves under bright sunlight
Leaf scorch (焦化) (fig. 5-44) Photoinhibition (光抑制) , photodecomposition (光
分解)
87
88
89
Leaf scorch (焦化) (fig. 5-44)
90
Leaf area index (葉面積指數) Leaf area index (LAI)
Ratio of the area occupied by all the leaves to the surface of ground that the plant covers
LAI as related to the plant productivity ( 附圖 )
Leaf orientation (vertical) as related to yield
91
Fig. 9.4 Optical properties of a bean leaf
葉片高效率吸收可視光
93Fig. Crop growth rate (CGR) of soybean communities as a function of the leaf area index (LAI) (Loomis, R.S., D. J. Connor. 1992. Crop Ecology, p.42)
94
Acclimatization of foliage plants (觀葉植物馴化)
Foliage plants frequently are raised outdoors in the full sun & must be properly acclimatized to prevent leaf-loss before being used for interior-scaping
Manipulate light, temperature, watering, & nutrition Light is the most important
Lower light levels to 40%-80% for 5 to more than 10 wk Grown under 40% shade
Placed indoors for decoration
light is the limiting factor (fig. 5-46)95
96
Light sources & their use
Light source Sunlight Electric lamps
High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps Fluorescence Lamps (螢光燈) Incandescent Lamps (鎢絲燈)
97
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps
Types of lamps Mercury (Hg) Metal halide (MH) Sodium w/ high- or low- pressure
Property Spectral quality (fig. 5-34) Big ballasts (基座) & reflectors (fig. 5-47) More expensive but longer life expectancy
98
99
Fluorescence lamps (螢光燈) Types of lamps
Cool white: more common Warm white
Spectral property (fig. 5-34) Used for seed germination & tissue culture Lower quantity of light & overcome by extending
day length100
101
Incandescent lamps (鎢絲燈) Used primarily for photoperiodic control
Emit too much heat Low in blue end of the spectrum (fig. 5-34) Exhibit tall, succulent growth characters High in red end of the spectrum
Use bulbs w/ internal reflectors (fig. 5-35)
102
Systems for measuring light Terminology
Flux: flow of a substance or transfer of energy across a surface; radiant or quantum flux
Photon (光子) : an individual particle of light Quantum (量子) : energy carried by a photon
Photometric System Radiometric System Photon (Quantum) Flux
103
Photometric system Light intensity: luminous flux emitted by a point source per unit
solid angle (fig. 5-49) Units
Foot-candle, lumen/ft2 Lumens Candela Lux
Not very useful when describing for plants Deal specifically w/ spectral sensitivity of the “standard human
eye” Should not used when describing light for plant growth
104
105
Radiometric system Irradiance
Light (radiant flux) intercepted per unit of area Unit
Joules/ sec. m2 = watt/ m2
Peak solar radiation level at sea level is about 1000 W. m2
The wavelength region must be specified From 400 to 700 nm: photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) Instruments
Radiometers Spectroradiometers
106
Photon (quantum) flux The primary photochemical act in photosynthesis depends on
the number of photons that are trapped. Photon flux Unit
μmole/ m2. sec Photosynthetic photon flux (PPF)
Referred to 400 to 700 nm107
108
版權聲明頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源
2Rural poverty and food shortage ……lost ground to make up
TIME Magazine, October 26, 2009. Vol. 174, No.16(http://www.time.com/time/magazine/asia/0,9263,501091026,00.html) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
5 P126. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
6 P126. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
8Plant Physiology (1999) 第 2 版 / Park S. Nobel
(Physicochemical & environmental plant physiology) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
9 P131. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
109
頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源
11 P134. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
12P100. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
13揚州大學醫學院植物生理教研室表 4.2 C3 、 C4 、 CAM 植物的光合和生理生态特性的比较 (
http://jpkc.yzu.edu.cn/course/zhwshl/stjj/dyzc/dyzc04.htm) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
14Flickr / TommyHAGAハボタン ornamental cabbage (
http://www.flickr.com/photos/tommyhaga/6457669081/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
14Flickr / Michael DavieCorn (http://www.flickr.com/photos/michaeldavie/4780324288/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
110
頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源
14Flickr / Traveling MermaidJade plant (http://www.flickr.com/photos/travelingmermaid/2341319763/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
15P103. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 5265 條合理使用。
16P104. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
21Wikimedia commons / SB_Johnny(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magnolia_after_corrective_pruning.JPG) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/9/27 。
22P108. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
111
頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源
23Flickr / VironevaehPeach orchard in bloom (http://www.flickr.com/photos/14549450@N03/4536818572) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
24P108. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
25Wikimedia commons / Brian Shaw(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conifer_Hedges_-_geograph.org.uk_-_196841.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
26Flickr / Moochy Hedge at Montacute House, Sommerset (http://www.flickr.com/photos/moochy/35472182/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
27Flickr / Sam HowzitWinnie the Pooh Topiary (http://www.flickr.com/photos/aloha75/7168066342/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
112
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27Flickr / jpmatthEspalier (http://www.flickr.com/photos/jpmatth/441576257/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
27Flickr / edenpictures(http://www.flickr.com/photos/edenpictures/4922194949/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
28Flickr / Carol BrowneEspalier (http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolbrowne/5807234322/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
28Flickr / Carol BrowneBonsai! (http://www.flickr.com/photos/carolbrowne/5807239846/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
30P110. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
113
頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源
31 P418. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
32P111. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
33Flickr / FluffymuppetCauliflower leaves (http://www.flickr.com/photos/fluffymuppet/6946871134/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
33Flickr / Linda N.Cauliflower (http://www.flickr.com/photos/22748341@N00/2639329808/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
34 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
114
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35 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
36P113. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
39 P447. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
40 P449. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
42 P419. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
115
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43P115. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
44P115. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
45 P420. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
47P117. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
48 P201. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
116
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49P117. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
50P118. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
51P119. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
53 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
54 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
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55 P651. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
56 P655. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
59 P650. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
60Flickr / Nemo's great uncle#5591 dandelions ( タンポポ ) (
http://www.flickr.com/photos/maynard/6930165559/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
61Flickr / Vietnam Plants & America plantsLeaves and flowers of Celosia Argentea (http://www.flickr.com/photos/phuonglovejesus2782010/5506717018/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
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62Flickr / seven twenty fivepoinsettia (http://www.flickr.com/photos/725/2341380573/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
64Flickr / sassycrafterCuttings (http://www.flickr.com/photos/sassycrafter/2923728792/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
64Flickr / peganumRooted cuttings (http://www.flickr.com/photos/peganum/6073316303/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
65P124. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
66Flickr / geefour907Geo-thermal-powered greenhouses in FAI (http://www.flickr.com/photos/alaskatravelgram/3345478051/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
119
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68Flickr / scott.zonaAroid shade house 2 (http://www.flickr.com/photos/scottzona/4668960957/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
70Flickr / Beau BWhite Potatoes (http://www.flickr.com/photos/beaub/2883480817/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
71Flickr / Satrina0Mascot Maya tuber trimming (http://www.flickr.com/photos/satrina0/4045279831/in/photostream/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
73Flickr / Peter BaerSpider Plant (http://www.flickr.com/photos/peterjbaer/4314902802/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
73Wikipedia / Wildfeuer(http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2006-12-12Chlorophytum02.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/9/27 。
120
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74Flickr / yellowcloudWindowsill clone warrior leaf (http://www.flickr.com/photos/yellowcloud/3616655104/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
77生態學 第四章植物的交互作用 / 屏東科技大學熱帶農業暨國際合作系 周昌弘(http://www.medie.com.tw/book/c/c04.htm) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
79P129. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
80Flickr / Steve Guttman NYCImpatiens under the lilac (http://www.flickr.com/photos/steveguttman/6138686112/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
80Flickr / ukgardenphotosLeonardslee Gardens, West Sussex (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ukgardenphotos/5431781852/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
121
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81 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
82P130. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
83 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
84 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
85 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
122
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86P130. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
88P131. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
89Wikimedia commons / Hardyplants(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hosta33.jpg) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/09/27 。
89Flickr / jonathanjonl(http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonathanjo/520418118/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
90
Flickr / ukgardenphotosContainer gardening at Great Dixter Gardens, Sussex (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ukgardenphotos/8030880806/) ,瀏覽日期: 2012/12/26 。
123
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92 P201. Taiz L. and Zeiger E. 2006. Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates,Inc. U.S.A. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
93Loomis, R.S. and Connor, D.J. Crop ecology: productivity and management in agricultural systems. Chinese Translation. China Agricultural Press, Beijing, 487p. (2002). 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
94Adelana, B. O. & Milbourn, G. M. 1976. Relationship between leaf area and crop growth rate in maize. Ghana Jnl agric. Sci. 9, 175-178.(http://gains.org.gh/articles/gjas_v9_p175_178.pdf) ,瀏覽日期: 2013/05/17 ,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
96P133. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
99P134. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
124
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101 國立臺灣大學園藝暨景觀學系 羅筱鳳 教授。
105P137. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read. 2005. The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey,依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。
1-124 轉載自 Microsoft Office 2010 PowerPoint 設計主題範本,依據 Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。