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EDU 5900KAEDAH

PENYELIDIKAN

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Kaedah Penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto

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OBJEKTIF

Menerangkan konsep, tujuan dan kepentingan kaedah penyelidikan Quasi-Eksperimen dan ex-post facto.

Menilai kesesuaian penggunaan kaedah tersebut bagi permasalahan kajian yang dikemukakan.

Merancang langkah-langkah pelaksanaan kajian mengikut kaedah tertentu.

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Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen

The word "quasi" means as if or almost, so a quasi-experiment

means almost a true experiment.

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Kenapa Quasi-Eksperimen? Dinamakan Quasi-Eksperimental kerana penyelidikan yang

dilakukan hampir menyerupai reka bentuk eksperimen, kecuali tiada pembahagian secara rawak dilakukan.

Pembahagian rawak sukar dijalankan dalam keadaan tertentu seperti pemboleh ubah atribut (jantina, ras, pendapatan penjaga dll) kerana akan menjejaskan pemboleh ubah seperti rasa terasing dalam kumpulan baru dan sebagainya. Oleh itu reka bentuk ini digunakan.

Kaedah reka bentuk quasi-eksperimen bukan sebenar-benar eksperimen kerana tiada pembahagian rawak dilakukan.

Gunakan kumpulan sedia wujud dalam (intact group).

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QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS; are usually constructions that already exist in the real world. Those designs that fall into the quasi-experimental category fall short in some way of the criteria for the true experimental group. A quasi-experimental design will have some sort of control and experimental group, but these groups probably weren't randomly selected. Random selection is usually where true-experimental and quasi-experimental designs differ.

Some advantages of the quasi-experimental design include:

• Greater external validity (more like real world conditions)

• Much more feasible given time and logistical constraints

Disadvantages:

• Not as many variables controlled (less causal claims)

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Ciri-Ciri Rekabentuk Quasi-Eksperimen

Dua atau lebih daripada kumpulan responden yang tidak diagih secara rawak.

Memerlukan kawalan terhadap pemboleh ubah luaran yang tegas.

Mengutamakan perbezaan antara kumpulan responden secara semula jadi.

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Perbezaan antara eksperimen dengan quasi-eksperimen.

Aktiviti bacaan: Sila baca artikel yang bertajuk;EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

True and Quasi-Experimental Designs.

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Kaedah Ex Post FactoPerbandingan Sebab(Causal Comparative)

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Ex post facto The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a

UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".

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Causal-Comparative Studies

Go beyond relationships/associations to examine cause-and-effects.

Two types of these studies: Ex Post Facto Correlational

Ex post facto

‘from what is done afterwards’

Ex post facto

The Latin term "Ex post facto" means, in a UK legal context: "by reason of a subsequent act".

Ex-post-facto designs ("after the fact")

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Definisi:

Kaedah ini digunakan untuk mengenal pasti punca atau penyebab (IV) sesuatu kesan (DV) yang diperhati dimana

IV adalah sesuatu yang telah berlaku dan tidak boleh dimanipulasikan(diluar kawalan penyelidik.

Casual Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable

on another.

Lihat contoh dalam Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 230

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Causal-Comparative StudiesImportant Issues:

Primary purpose should be developing cause-and-effect relationships when experimentation is not possible

The “intervention” (IV) must have already occurred Must identify and consider extraneous variables Differences between the groups not due to the

independent variable should be controlled Be careful with causal conclusions

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Reka bentuk ini menekankan sebab yang dijangka. Contoh 1: Adakah program pendidikan pemulihan

meningkatkan prestasi 3M murid-murid yang lemah? Contoh 2: Adakah program kaunseling individu

meningkatkan motivasi murid bermasalah? Tafsiran sebab-akibat (cause-effect relationship) Penyelidik perlu memastikan:

Terdapat hubungan antara A (IV) dan B (DV); A datang dahulu daripada B; Tidak ada kesan pemboleh ubah luaran terhadap A, B atau

interaksi A dan B.

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1. Perhubungan statistik yang signifikan antara pemboleh ubah bebas dan bersandar wujud dengan sah.

2. Pemboleh ubah bebas wujud sebelum pemboleh ubah bersandar.

3. Pemboleh ubah lain tidak mempengaruhi pemboleh ubah bersandar.

Tiga Jenis Bukti Yang Perlu Untuk Mengesahkan Hubungan Sebab-akibat

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1. Begin with subjects who differ on an independent variable (such as their principal instrument/voice) and study how they differ on dependent variables (such as levels of performance anxiety or music theory test scores).

2. Begin with subjects who differ on a dependent variable (such as attrition from music--comparing those students who drop out of music with those who persist) and study how they differ on various independent variables (such as how much they practice, how they feel about their relationship with their teacher, how they feel about themselves as musicians, etc.).

Two Basic Approaches to Ex Post Facto Research

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This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and

the investigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than students

from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from a certain town"

explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be

explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc.

Studies that investigate possible cause and effect relationships by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in time for plausible causal factors.

The ex post facto design is a variation of the "after-only with control group" experimental design.

The chief difference is that both the experimental and control groups are selected after the experimental variable is introduced rather than before.

Explores possible causes and effects. The independent variable is not manipulated, it has already been

applied. Focuses first on the effect, then attempts to determine what caused

the observed effect.

Characteristics of Ex Post Facto Researcher takes the effect/dependent variable and examines it

retrospectively Establishes causes, relationships or associations and their

meanings. Researcher has little to no control over independent variables. Flexible by nature. There is a control or comparison group. Intact groups are used. The treatment is not manipulated, it has already occurred. There may be both “treatment” and “control” groups, however these

will be existing, not assigned by the researcher. There is no manipulation of conditions

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Ex Post Facto research

Researcher cannot manipulate some variables and therefor selects participants that have certain values for those variables by themselves (gender, personality, illness, ...)

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The experimenter does not manipulate the IV... that is subjects cannot be randomly

assigned to the levels of the IV - rather they assign themselves because the IV is not

manipulated, it also qualifies as a descriptive technique

When to use this?

You can use this where more powerful experimental designs are not possible; when you are unable to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause and effect relationships directly, or when control variables except a single independent variable may be unrealistic and artificial.

Ex post facto advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Show a correlation where

more rigorous experimentation is not possible

Exploratory tool Useful to avoid articiality

in the research. Shows cause and effect

relationships

Disadvantages Lack of control for

independent variable and randomizing subjects.

Never certain if causative factor has been included or identified

Relationship between two factors does not est. cause and effect.

May be regarded as too flexible.

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• Melibatkan perbandingan antara kumpulan yang sedia wujud

Contoh: Menyelidik murid-murid yang menonton rancangan belajar bahasa Inggeris melalui siaran TV dan membandingkan prestasi mereka untuk mengkaji sama ada menonton program bahasa Inggeris di TV dapat membantu meningkatkan pencapaian mata pelajaran tersebut. Murid-murid dikumpulkan dalam beberapa kumpulan mengikut banyaknya mereka menonton siaran tersebut.

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Examples of Ex Post Facto Studies

•What is the effect of day care on the social skills of children?•What is the relationship between participation in extracurricular activities and self concept? •"smoking causes cancer”

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Ex Post Facto - example

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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Months

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Victim

Control

Depression in rape victims

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Research design

Y23Y22Y21 Y24X2 Y26Y25

Y13Y12Y11 Y14X1 Y16Y15

X1 = rape victim

X2 = control

Yij = average depression score in group i, at time j

---- indicates possible unequality of groups in both conditions

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• Kajian perbandingan sebab perlu digunakan apabila kajian eksperimen tidak dapat dilakukan.

• Keadaan sebab mesti berlaku sebelumnya. • Pemboleh ubah ekstranous perlu dikenal pasti

dan dicatat. • Perbezaan antara kumpulan perlu dikawal.• Hubungan sebab-akibat perlu dinyatakan dengan

berhati-hati!

Tips…

Baca Noraini Idris (2010), ms. 235 (Jadual 12.1)

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MIXED METHODS DESIGN

What Is Mixed Methods Research?

A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods in a single study to understand a research problem.

Combined Designs and Uses

Mixed MethodsResearch

ActionResearch

Combining quantitative andqualitative data to understand and explain a research problem better.

Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting

When to Use Mixed Methods Designs

When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a better understanding of your research problem than either type by itself

When one type of research (qualitative or quantitative) is not enough to address the research problem or answer the research questions.

To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise quantitative study

To build from one phase of a study to another Explore qualitatively then develop an instrument Follow-up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain more detailed

information

Identifying a Mixed Methods Study in the Literature The title includes words such as “mixed methods” or “multimethod,”

etc. Data collection section indicates both qualitative and quantitative

data were collected. Purpose statement and/or research questions indicate that the

researcher intends to collect both quantitative and qualitative data during the study.

Priority or weight: Qualitative, quantitative, or both equally Sequence of collecting quantitative and qualitative data is indicated Analyze both data sets

Combined in one analysis (integrated) Separate analysis

A Notation System for Designs

Study #1 QUAL + QUAN+ indicates the simultaneous or concurrent collectionof quantitative and qualitative data

Study #2 QUAN qual

Shows sequential collection ofquantitative and qualitative data

Uppercase letters indicate a priority or increased

weight for quantitative and/or qualitative data.Lowercase letters indicate a lower priority or weightfor either quantitative and/or qualitative data.

NOTATION USED

Types of Mixed Methods Designs

I. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design

II. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design

III. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design

QUANData and Results

QUANData and Results

+

QUALData and Results

QUALData and Results

qualData and Results

quanData and Results

Interpretation

Follow-up

Building

Mixed Methods Designs: Explanatory Design

Researcher places priority on quantitative (QUAN) data collection and analysis.

Researcher collects quantitative data first in the sequence.

Researcher uses the qualitative data to explain the results of the quantitative data.

Mixed Methods Designs: Exploratory Design

Research emphasizes qualitative (QUAL) data rather than quantitative (quan) data.

Researcher has a sequence of data collection that involves collecting qualitative data followed by quantitative data.

Researcher plans on the quantitative data to build on or explain the initial qualitative findings.

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs

Rationale for the design Collecting quantitative and qualitative data Priority Sequence Data analysis matched to design Diagram of the procedures

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Rationale

Rationale Test findings of first phase Explain results of first phase in more detail Provide a more complete understanding than either

quantitative or qualitative alone Collecting both quantitative and qualitative data

Numeric data Text data

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Priority and Sequence

Priority Equal weight QUAN carries more weight than qual QUAL carries more weight than quan

Sequence Collect both quantitative and qualitative data at the same

time Collect quantitative data first, followed by qualitative data Collect qualitative data first, followed by quantitative data

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs: Analysis and Diagram

Analysis matched to design (“mixing”) Data analysis strategies for triangulation design Data analysis strategies for exploratory design Data analysis strategies for explanatory design

Diagram of procedures Use notation system Identify priority Identify sequence

Examples of Visual DiagramsI. Triangulation Mixed Methods Design

II. Embedded Mixed Methods Design

QUAN(Data and Results) +

QUAL(Data and Results)

Interpretation

QUANData and Results

QUAN(Data and Results)

Interpretation

III. Explanatory Mixed Methods Design

IV. Exploratory Mixed Methods Design

QUAN(Data and Results)

QUAL(Data and Results)

qual(Data and Results)

quan(Data and Results)

Follow-up

Building

Examples of Visual Diagrams (cont’d)

Steps for Conducting a Mixed Methods Study

Determine if a mixedmethods study isfeasible

Develop quantitativeand qualitative research questions

Collect quantitativeand qualitative data

Analyze data separately orconcurrently

Write the report as a one- or two-phasestudy

Identify the data collection strategy andtype of design

Identify a rationale for a mixed methodsstudy Step 1Step 2

Step 4

Step 3

Step 5

Step 6

Step 7

PrioritySequenceVisualization

Choosing Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative

Approach

Match the approach to the problem Fit the approach to your audience Relate the approach to your experiences

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