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Marketing Research

Dr. A. K. Dey

Attitude Scaling

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Learning Objectives

To understand the linkage among attitudes, behavior, and marketing effectiveness.

To become familiar with the concept of scaling. To learn about the various types of attitude scales. To examine some basic considerations in selecting

a type of scale. To realize the importance of attitude measurement

scales in management decision making.

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Attitude

An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given matter

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Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

The term hypothetical construct is used to describe a variable that is not directly observable, but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior - attitudes are considered to be such variables.

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Attitude Measurement

Majority of questions in marketing research are designed to measure attitudes

Attitudes include

Information possessed

Feelings of like and/or dislike

Intentions to behave

Management wants to understand and influence behavior

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Reasons for Measuring Attitudes

Attitudes lead to behavior

More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and interpret behavior

Large capacity for diagnosis and explanation

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Attitude Research

Attitudes directly affect purchase decisions and these in turn, directly affect attitudes.

AttitudeAction/

Behavior

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Three Components of an Attitude

Affective Cognitive Behavioral

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Affective

The feelings or emotions toward an object

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Cognitive

Knowledge and beliefs

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Behavioral

Predisposition to action Intentions Behavioral expectations

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Concepts of Measurement and Scaling

Measurement• Standardized process of assigning numbers or

other symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rules

Scaling• Process of creating a continuum on which objects

are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object possesses

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Types of Measurement

• Type of measurement depends on type of data!

Type of Measurement

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

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Measurement Scales: Nominal

• Numbers identify and classify objects• No ordering or spacing are implied• Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of

each category• If one entity is assigned the same number as

another, they are identical with respect to the nominal variable.

• Examples: • Players in a football team• Colors of traffic light• Gender (female= 1; male = 2)

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Measurement Scales: Ordinal

• Objects are ranked in order with regard to some common variable.

• Numbers indicate the relative position of objects but not the magnitude of difference

• Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or mode

• Examples:• Result of 100 meter dash (1st, 2nd, 3rd)• Ranking of largest fast food companies

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Measurement Scales: Interval

• Object is measured on a continuum• Arbitrary zero point• Differences between objects can be compared• Entire range of statistical operations can be

employed (mean, correlation, ANOVA, regression)

• Examples:• Temperature• Attitudes

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Measurement Scales: Ratio

• Interval scale with fixed zero point • Possible to say how may times greater or smaller

one object is than another.• Comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible• Examples:

• Weight, length• Age• Store sales (1 million, 2002; 1.5 million,

2003)• Market shares (51% market share)

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Types of Scales and Their Properties

Type of Measurement Scale

Types of Attitude Scale

Rules for Assigning Number

Typical Application

Statistics / Statistical Tests

Nominal Dichotomous “yes” or “no” scales.

Objects are either identical or different

Classification (by sex, geographic are, social class)

Percentages, mode / chi -square

Ordinal or Rank Order

Comparative, Rank order, Itemized Category, Paired Comparison

Objects are greater or smaller

Rankings (preference, class standing)

Percentile, median, rank-order correlation / Friedman ANOVA

Interval Likert, Thurstone, Stapel, Associative Semantic-Differential

Intervals between adjacent ranks are equal

Index numbers, temperature scales, attitude measures

Mean, standard deviation, product moment correlations / t-tests, ANOVA, regression, factor analysis

Ratio Certain scales with special instructions

There is a meaningful zero, so comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible

Sales, incomes, units produced, costs, age

Geometric and harmonic mean, coefficient of variation

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Measuring Attitudes

• Ranking

• Rating

• Sorting

• Choice

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The Attitude Measuring Process

Ranking - Rank order preference

Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic

Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts

Choice - Selection of preferred alternative

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Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall performance on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

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Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses. The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object.

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Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

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Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other.

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Physiological measures of attitudes provide a means of measuring attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. for example, galvanic skin responses, measure blood pressure etc.

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Classification of attitude scales

Itemized Category

Scales

Comparative Scales

Q-sort Scales

Paired Comparison

Scales

Rank-Order Scales

Constant Sum

Scales

Pictorial Scales

Semantic Differential

Scales

Associative Scales

Stapel ScalesLikert Scales

Single-Item Scales

Continuous Scales

Attitude Scales

Multi-Item Scales

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Simple Attitude Scaling

In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories;

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Simplified Scaling Example

THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION

_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

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Multiple-item Scales

• Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average score

• Multiple item Scales

• Likert

• Semantic Differential

• Stapel

• Associative Scaling

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Category Scales

A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it provides more information.

Wording of questions is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.

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Example of Category Scale

How important were the following in your decision to visit Agra (check one for each item)

VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO

IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT

CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________

COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________

FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________

EDUCATIONAL/

HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ ___________ ___________

FAMILIARITY WITH

AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

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Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale

An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements.

Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.

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Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one.

___Strongly Agree

___Agree

___Not Sure

___Disagree

___Strongly Disagree

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Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward TennisCont.

There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke

that cannot be mastered.

___Strongly Agree

___Agree

___Not Sure

___Disagree

___Strongly Disagree

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Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.

___Strongly Agree

___Agree

___Not Sure

___Disagree

___Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward TennisCont.

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Semantic Differential

A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.

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A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

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Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex

Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

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Semantic Differential

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Numerical Scales

Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).

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Stapel Scales

Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.

The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.

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A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

Department

Store Name

+3

+2

+1

Wide Selection

-1

-2

-3

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Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. the more accurately you think the word describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the large the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

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Behavioral differential: the behavioral differential instrument has been developed for measuring the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. For example:

A 25-year old woman sales representative

Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not

Ask this person for advice.

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Paired Comparisons

In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the one they prefer. Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2). If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue and no longer carefully discriminate among them.

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Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand:

Brand A _________

Brand B _________

Brand C _________

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Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

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Graphic Rating Scale Stressing Pictorial Visual Communications

3 2 1Very VeryGood Poor

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Graphic Rating Scale

Uncomfortable

Scale A

Comfortable

Uncomfortable

Scale B

Comfortable

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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Monadic Rating Scale

A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup.

Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat VerySatisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

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A Comparative Rating Scale

A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.

TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

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An Unbalanced Scale

An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?

Neither Satisfied Quite VerySatisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied

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Steps in multiple-item scale development

Determine clearly what you are going to measure

Generate as many items as possible

Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items

Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used

Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale

Administer the items to an initial sample

Evaluate and refine the items

Finally, optimize the scale length

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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements

Validity

• An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is supposed to measure

Reliability

• The consistency with which the measure produces the same results with the same or comparable population

Sensitivity

• Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able to discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measured

Relevancy

• Relevance = reliability * validity