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Second EditionSecond Edition
Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.
Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods for Business Students
Research Methods for Business Students
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
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Chapter 4Chapter 4
Research Methods for Business Students
33
Key TopicsKey Topics To outline the key assumptions of the positivist,
interpretivist and realist research philosophies. To distinguish between two main approaches to
research: deductive and inductive. To identify the main research strategies and explain
why these should not be thought of as mutually exclusive.
To explain the benefits of adopting a multi-method approach to the conduct of research.
To explain the concepts of validity and reliability and identify the main threats to validity and reliability.
To understand some of the main ethical issues implied by the choice of research strategy.
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4.1 Differing approaches to research
The research process “onion:”
1. Research philosophy2. Research approaches3. Research strategies4. Time horizons5. Data collection methods
See figure 4.1 in page 83
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Phenomenology
Positivism
Deductive
Inductive
Experiment
Action research
Cross Survey
samplingsecondary data
observationinterviews
questionnaires
Researchphilosophy
Researchapproaches
Research strategies
Time horizons
Data collectionmethods
Case study
Grounded theory
Ethno-graphy
sectional
Longitudinal
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4.1 Differing approaches to research Research philosophy:
1. Positivism: The stance of the natural scientist
2. Interpretivism: The role of the interpretivist to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study in order to make sense of and understand their motives, actions and intentions.
3. Realism: Based on the belief that a reality exists. It is independent of human thoughts and beliefs.
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Positivism (Logical Positivism)Positivism (Logical Positivism)
• Positivists attempt to mirror the methods of the naturaland physical scientists.
• Through observing reality you can produce laws of the socialworld which can be generalised from one context to anothere.g Laws of Supply and Demand in Positive Economics.
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PositivismPositivism
• Your role is to be an objective analyst, collecting data andinterpreting it in a value free way. • You are detached, neither affect nor are affected by thesubject of your research.
• Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and replication(the ability to repeat research)
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Phenomenology emphasisesPhenomenology emphasises....
• That the world is too complex to be reduced to a series of law-like generalisations.
• the uniqueness of people, and circumstances and the constant nature of change.
• details matter - in an attempt to dig into deeperlayers of reality.
• subjective reality matters.
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PhenomenologyPhenomenology
Could be used to study –
• Organisational culture layer by layer – the visual symbols the mission statement, and the hidden world of taken for granted assumptions which influence thinking, feeling perceptions in the workplace.
Warning!
Finding ‘the reality working behind the reality’ may be too challenging for some!
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Research approaches
The research process ‘onion’
Research approaches
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Choosing a research approachChoosing a research approach
A deductive approach? You develop a theory and design a strategy to test hypotheses.A close ally to the philosophy of positivism. A scientific approach.
An inductive approach?
You collect data and develop a theory as a result of your data analysisA close ally to the philosophy of phenomenology.
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4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach: Deduction: testing theory:
1. Deducing a hypothesis from theory.2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational
terms.3. Testing this operational hypothesis.4. Examining the specific outcome of the
inquiry.5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light
of the findings.
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Deduction: testing theory
If theory is trueIf theory is true X will occurX will occur
X does occur - theory supported
X does occur - theory supported
X does not occur -theory challenged
X does not occur -theory challenged
Test XTest X
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A hypothesis states that there is a A hypothesis states that there is a relationship between two concepts and relationship between two concepts and specifies the direction of that relationshipspecifies the direction of that relationship..
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Age Gross annualincome
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Key terms explainedKey terms explained
The elements in the boxes are called concepts.
The lines between the boxes are called relationships.
Theories are composed of concepts linked by relationships.
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VariablesVariables
A positive sign shows a positive relationship, e.g.(hours of study rises, exam grades rise)
A negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g. (Price of houses rises, demand falls)
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VariablesVariables
A variable is a characteristic which has more than onecategory or value. e.g. ‘Age’
The effect is called a dependent variable (Y);The assumed cause is called an independentvariable (X)
An intervening variable (Z) is the means by which X affects Y……..
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variablesvariables
Education job income
X YZ
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4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach Deduction: testing theory Several important characteristics:
1. There is a search to explain causal relationships between variables.
2. Concepts need to be operationalized in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively.
3. Generalization.
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4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach Induction: building theory.
It enables you to take a more informed decision about your research design.
It will help you to think about those research approaches that will work for you and, crucially, those that will not.
A knowledge of the different research traditions enables you to adapt your research design to cater for constraints.
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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory
Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626
What is the experience of working at a particular firm?
We could interview employees in UNRWAto get a feel for the issues and then analyse the data, and eventually formulate a theory about job satisfaction.
With induction – theory follows data.
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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory
Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626
Human beings interpret their world – they have consciousness.
• They are not unthinking research objects who respondlike the coffee machine in the corridor to the stimulusof cash injections
• Humans devise alternative explanations to the orthodox view – they have their own stories (narratives).
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Induction: building theoryInduction: building theory
Sir Francis Bacon1561-1626
Context matters.
• A small sample may be appropriate.
• Qualitative methods acceptable.
• More likely to find out ‘why’ X is happening rather than ‘what’ is happening.
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4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach.
For major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research, please see box 4.1 in page 89.
2626
Research strategies
The research process ‘onion’
Research strategies
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
List:
1. Experiment2. Survey3. Case study4. Grounded theory5. Ethnography6. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies7. Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory
studies
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Experiment:
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis. Selection of samples of individuals from
known populations. Allocation of samples to different
experimental conditions. Introduction of planned change on one or
more of the variables. Measurement on a small number of the
variables Control of other variables.
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The experimental designThe experimental design
Control group
Pre-test Post-test
Pre-test Post-testExperimentalgroup
1.
2. 3. 4.
5.
3030
1. Allocate subjects to groups using systematic controls and randomization
2. Measure both groups on dependent variable
3. Introduce independent variable to experimental group
4. Measure both groups again on dependent variable
5.Compare both groups on dependent variable.
The experimental design: stages
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Survey:
The survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach.
They allow the collection of a large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way.
Using a survey strategy should give you more control over the research process.
The data collected by the survey strategy may not be as wide-ranging as those collected by other research strategies.
The questionnaire is not the only way to collect data.
323210
Research questions appropriate for Research questions appropriate for a surveya survey
1. Behaviour.
2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.
3. Characteristics.
4. Expectations.
5. Self-classification.
6. Knowledge.
3333
Main advantages of surveyMain advantages of survey
• ability to collect large amounts of data;
• the relatively cheap cost at which these data may be collected;
• perceived as authoritative (trustworthy) by some;
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Case study:
A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence.
The data collection methods employed may be various. They may include questionnaires, interviews, observation, documentary analysis.
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Grounded theory:
Data collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework. Theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations.
These data lead to the generation of predictions that are then tested in further observations which may confirm.
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Ethnography:
It emanates from the field of anthropology.
The purpose is to interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they interpret it.
Although not a dominant research strategy in business, ethnography may be very appropriate.
3737
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Action research:
The strengths of an action research strategy are a focus upon change, the recognition that time needs to be devoted to reconnaissance (fact finding and analysis), monitoring and evaluation and the involvement of employees throughout the process.
The action research spiral
See figure 4.2 in page 95.
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Time horizons
The research process ‘onion’
Time horizons
3939
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Time horizons:
We should emphasize here that these time perspectives to research design are independent of which research strategy you are pursing.
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Cross-sectional studies:
It is probable that your research will be cross-sectional, the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time.
We recognize that most research projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time constrained.
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4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Longitudinal studies:
The main strength of longitudinal research is the capacity to study change and development.
Even with time constraints it is possible to
introduce a longitudinal element to your research.
4242
Exploratory, descriptive and Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studiesexplanatory studies
More strategies…….
Goals or Purposes of Research
Descriptive
Explanatoryor Analytical
Exploratory
4343
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies Exploratory:
Exploratory Study: A valuable means of finding out “what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light”.
Three principal ways1. A search of the literature2. Talking to experts in the subjects3. Conducting focus group interviews
4444
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Descriptive studies: It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to the collection of the data.
It portrays a person, situation, or a phenomenon.
4545
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Explanatory studies: The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables.
4646
Research Possibilities Grid
Research Research PhilosophyPhilosophy
PositivismPositivism InterpretivisInterpretivismm
Critical Critical TheoryTheory
OtherOther
Nature of Nature of the datathe data
QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative Mixed Mixed Qual/QuantsQual/Quants
ResearchResearch
ApproachesApproachesDeductiveDeductive InductiveInductive
ResearchResearch
StrategiesStrategiesExperimentExperiment SurveySurvey Case StudyCase Study
ResearchResearch
PurposesPurposesExplanatoryExplanatory ++
PredictivePredictive
DescriptiveDescriptive ExploratoryExploratory
Time Time HorizonHorizon
Cross Cross SectionSection
LongitudinalLongitudinal
Data Data Collection Collection MethodsMethods
Secondary Secondary DataData
InterviewsInterviews QuestionnairesQuestionnaires ObservationObservationss
SomeSome
ResearchResearch
TraditionsTraditions
GroundedGrounded
TheoryTheoryAction Action ResearchResearch
EthnographyEthnography OrganizationOrganizationalal””
4747
4.2 The need for a clear research strategy Practitioner-researcher Researching in your organization or working
context.
Advantages:1. Familiarity2. knowledge
Disadvantages:1. Ignorance2. Status3. Time
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4.3 Using multi-methods
There are two major advantages to employing multi-methods in the same study.
Different methods can be used for different purposes in a study.
It enables triangulation to take place.
4949
4.4 The credibility of research findings Reliability: The same results in other occasions, by other researchers,
and in a transparent way of raw data collection.
were your work to be replicated by another, would the same result be produced?
Threats to reliability
1. Participant error (Monday morning and Friday afternoon)2. Participant bias (Interviewees may see what they think
their bosses want them to say)3. Observer error (Different approaches to elicit answers or
replies)4. Observer bias (Different approaches to interpret answers
or replies)
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4.4 The credibility of research findings Validity: Concerned with whether the findings are really about what they
appear to be about.
Did your approaches, methods and techniques relate to the issues you were exploring and the variables you attempted to measure?
Threats to validity:1. History (Research about job satisfaction conducted shortly after an increase
in salaries).2. Testing (Suppose your research included timing the number of sales entered
by a person on the checkout of supermarket – If the operators felt that the results of the inquiry would damage them this could affect the findings.)
3. Instrumentation (Suppose the operators were told to increase the sales and outcome between the times you tested the first and the second group of operators – this could affect the outcome.)
4. Mortality (Participants dropping out of studies: change in the management style which affects the results)
5. Maturation (Other events or factors happen during the time of the research: New manager being hired)
6. Ambiguity about casual direction (A is causing B or B is causing A. Negative attitude to performance causes the poor performance ratings or the later causing the first. Or ill health and unemployment)
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4.4 The credibility of research findings Generalisability
Logic leaps and false assumptions:
1. Identification of the research population( If you make generalisability then make sure you are talking about similar populations. E.g. what mapply in Bank of Palestine may not apply to Alarabi Bank.)
2. Data Collection (Be aware of possible political bias in certain newspaper or management bias and etc…)
3. Data interpretation (Why you are using this theory rather than the other one which may be equally or more appropriate.)
4. Development of conclusions (Do my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny of the members of the scientific/academic community.)
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4.5 The ethics of research design
Need to consider the extent to which you should collect data from a research population that is unaware of the fact they are the subject of research and so have not consented.
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4.6 Summary
Three main philosophical positions in relation to research: positivism, interpretivism and realism.
Two main approaches to research are deductive &. inductive.
The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research.
Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.
Using multi-methods to research with different purposes served and that triangulation of results is facilitated.