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du Canada
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I f pages are mlsslng contact the university which i;ran!ed the degree
Some pages may- have ~ndist~nct prmt especiall, i: Ihe original pages were typed with a poor !,pewri;er r i t r b n C: if the.university_sent us an Inferior phc;'c,copy
Prev~ousLy copyrighted rnater~als i jc~rr ;a l aCtc:e; c;o- lrshed tests etc ; are not frlmd 3 -- . .,
B.A:, U n i v e r s l t ~ o f W e s t e r n O n t a r l o , 1965 <
/ ' - -
A' THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTML &
F U L F I L L M ~ T OF THE REQUSEMENTS -?OR T H E D E ~ E E
MASTER OF ARTS:
In t h e ~ e p a r t m e n t
. G e o g r a p h y
Wber t L l o y d S h e r w o o d 1987
SIMON FRRSER UNIVERSITY
J u n e 1987 -i
All r l g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h l s . w ~ r k may n o t be r e p r o d u c e d In w h o l e o r i n pa r t , by p h o t o c o p y
or o t h e r means, w i t h o u t permission o f t h e author.
. . ' .
Permission has been granted - to the National Library of Canada to microfilm this thesis and to lend or sell copies of-the film.
--
~ h e author (copyright owcer) h a s r ' e s e r v e d o t h e r publication rights, and neither the ,thesis nor extensive ext acts from it
5 3 may be printed r otherwise reproduced without his/her writken p&rmiseion. -
ISBN '0
B
L'autorisation a &t& accordhe h la ~ibliothhque nationale , du Canada de lmicrof ilmer* 7
cette th&se et de prgter ou de vendre des exemplaires du film.
L'auteur (titulaire du droit d'auteur) se r&serve les autres droits de publicztion; ni la th&se ni de longs extraits de celle-ci ne doivent &tre imprim68 ou autrqment reproduits sans son autorisation hcrite.
APPROVAL
Name: Rober t Lloyd Shemood
Degree:. . Master o t A r t s
T i f l e of Thes is : - Eva lua t ion of M u l t i p s e c t r a l Video Remote ~ e n s i h g ' * . .b - t o r t h e De tec t ion of Hydfocarbon Spill Thickness
i 7
k x a m ~ n l n ~ C o m i t t e e : . -
Chainran: I. Hutchmson
A.C.E. Rober ts Sen io r S u p r v l s o r
- J.C. Day
H. C. S c h r e i e r A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r
E x t e r n a l Examiner /
Department o t S o i l s Sc ience U n i v q r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
->
. I hereby g r a n t t o Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y t h e r ~ q h , t ti- . l e n ~
my t h e s i s , p rb je t t o r extended essay ( t h e t i t l e o f wL7ich r s s , -c - . r , uelcw)
<to u5ers o f t h e Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 2nd t o m k s ?;I,-: i a l o r
s i n g l e cop ies o n l y f o r such users o r i n response t o a r e q w s - Tr - - i the
l i b r a r y of any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r educa t i ona l i f is- i , i . . - i - r~ GZ.
i t s own behalf o r f o r one o f i t s users . I f u r t h e r sg ree -::J' , I - . - G r -
f o r m u l t i p l e copy ing o f t h i s work f o r s c h o l a r l y cbrooses 1;;. :q cl-an-,z
by me o r t h e Dean o f Graduate S tud ies . I t i s dnderstcod 7 1 3 - ,lFr ! i r ~ g
o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s work f o r firanrial g s i n snsl I ;otU5+- I f - cd
w i t h o u t my w r i t r e n perx i i ss ion . 1 " .
'T- T i t l e o f T h e s i s / ~ r c ; e c + / E x t e n d e ~ Essc)
Eva1 u a t i o n o f Flu1 t i spec t ra l V ideo Revote --- S e n s i n q -----. f o r t h e -- _De.tecti.o-n---
o f Hydrocarbon Spi 11 Th ickness ---- -- --- - / - - - -
Author: -
( s i g n a t u r e ,
Robe r t - L l oyd Sherwood ,-.
June 26 , 1987
( d a t e )
ABSTRACT
" . - - - This s t u d y v a s d e s i g n e d to evalrrate whether hydrocarbon s p i l l
t h i c k n i s e , could be e s t i m a t e d by measuri* l i g h t : ref ; lectance d i f f e r e n c e s
a c r o s s t h e photographic spec t rum ( 330 - '1 10 0 nanometers ) . The t h e o r e t i c a l
a s p e c t s of hydrocarbon s p i l l remote s e n s i n g were reviewed t o a r , r i ve a t an - *
unders tanding of how hydrocarbons a c t on water a n d how t h e e l e c t r u n a ~ e t i c
spectrum can be u t i l i z e d f o r imaging o i l s p i l l s . The l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h
o p e r a t i o n a l and expe r imen ta l o i l s p i l l remote sensing: r e y e a l e d t h a t
o p e r a t i o n a l systems have been m&inly complex an expens ive , b u t no t designed - P f o r de te rmining s p i l l t h i c k n e s s . S e v e r a l e x p r i m e nka l s t u d i e s d i sag reed a s
t o whether s e l e c t e d photographic spectrum bands c o u l d be e f f e c t i v e l y used f o r "
t h i c k n e s s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
I n i t i a l pho tog raph ic exper iments and t h e h igh l e v e l of r a d i o m e t r i c
I
r e s o l u t i o n of v ideo cameras s t r o n g l y favored t h e i r p o t e n t i a l u se t o t e s ' t t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of d e t e c t i n g hydrocarbon s p i l l t h i c k n e s s . Graph ica l and
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s of c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y test d a t a s,howed t h a t v i d e o
imagery c o l l e c t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c f i l t e r s cou ld p rov ide comparat ive e s t i m s t e s
of hydrocarbon t h i c k n e s s up t o 1000 microns ( I -1. O i l t h i ckn ' e s s
a. d i sc r imina t ion , was b e t t e r f o r t r a n s l u c e n t hydrocarbons s u c h 3 low30 o i l , .
d i e s e l o i l and g a s o l i n e t h a n f o r c rude o r waste oils*. The m e t e f f e c t i v e .
f i l t e r s were 88A; 550nm bandpass and a 301A/46 combinat ion. \
1 ~ n a l y t ' i c a l r e s u l t s of a f i e l d t r i a l u s i n g a c o n t r o l l e d
P
Bur ra rd I n l e t confirmed t h a t it was p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i v e
s p i l l ' t h i c k n e s s from r e f l e c t a n c e measurements, a l though n o t wi th t h e same -
s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e 'as i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s . The most e f f e c t i v e
iii
+
;e 1BA and 500nm bandpass under t h e s p e c i f i c environmental + --
encountered. Analyses of 35 nun c o l o r photographic iplagery a l s o
f i l t e r s w e
cond i t ions
a c w r e d during t h e f i e l d t r i a l confirmed the importance o f t h e blue-green . .
band i n imaging s p i l l t h i c k n e s s .
,- 3- d q >
Completion of t s s s t u d y w a s ?nly p$$~,le th rough t h e '-nerous
6
-2 ' - P' * .
a s s i s t a n c e of many a number of ageficies. My t hanks are . - J
e s p e c i a l l y extended t o ,br 4 Roberts , my s e n i o r !Superviaor ! who p a t i e n t l y .-
p i l o t e d me and i t&oughxthe s tudy . I a l s o thank D r . . Chad Day
B f o r h i s camments, and D r . John P i e r c e f o r h i s i n s i g h t s
1 , on s t u d y method. j
E n v i r o e n t Canada was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n making t h e p r o j e c t succes;
and w a s a t a l l t i m e s ve ry s u p p o r t i v e , o f my e f f o r t s . The Environmental
Emergencies Branch of t h a t Department o f f e r e d a c c e s s t o i t s r e c o r d s and o i l
s p i l l l i t e r a t u r e . Kei th Hebron c a r r i e d o u t s u r f a c e sampling d u r i n g t h e f i e l d
t r i a l . Richard S t r u b provided l a b a s s i s t a n c e , Lee Harding and Roger McNetill
made a v a i l a b l e t h e i r knowledge i n canpu te r systems and s t a t i s t i c s , H a l Nelson b
and Duane Bro the r s ekped i t ed t h e Ocean --ping Approval P r o c e s s ' for t h e f i e l d - -
t r i a l and Merv inga gas generous ly donated funds from Environment Canada - 3 ,
h e a d q u a r t e r s . Ka r l Fupka and John Mi l len p e r m i t t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y
i n my work scHedule a t Environmental P r o t e c t i o n t o enable 'me t o under take t h e
I n d u s t r y suppor t i nc luded t h a t of Andy Hofbauer of S h e l l Canada
Limi ted who "p rov ided hydrocarbon samples, dock usage and 45 g a l l o n drums. 1"
B l a i r Humghrey of Seakem Oceanography L imi t ed - loaned equipment f o r f i e l d ,
- t r i a l s u r f a c e sampling. Martyn' Green and s t a f f o f Burrard Clean Limited were.
e s s e n t i a l i n my g a i n i n g pe rmis s ion f o r a marine d i e s e l s p i l l because of t h e
rkspons ib i l i - t y . t h e y assumed f o r . s p i l l c o n t r o l and c l eanup . I
L i l l i a n Pearson i s a p p r e c i a t e d f o r h e r d r a f t i n g a s s i s t a n c e , Viv ian
Wray f o r h e r prompt and a c c u r a t e %word p r o c e s s i n g , an@ Deb sherw&$,' my wi fe ,
f o r h e r p a t i e n c e and unde r s t and ing .
APPROVAL ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE -OF CONTENTS LIST OF-T I%s LIST OF FI 3 URES r '
1 INTRODUCTION 1 . 1 Study Object-iv-e
TABLE OF CONTENTS --
PAGE - ii iii
v v i
v i i i X
* . . 4
' 1 1
-
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF HYDROCARBON -SPILL RmOTE SENSING The Behaviour of Hydrocarbons on Water F o r t i o n s of t h e E l e c t r a a g n e t i c Spectrum Used i n O i l S p i l l Remote Sens ing U l t r a v i o l e t V i s i b l e Near I n f r a r e d Thermal I n f r a r e d Microwave
S-rY #
3 OIL SPILL RP~OTE SENSING 3 . 1 Opera t iona l Systems 3 . 1 . 1 Remote Sens ing of O i l S p i l l s i n Canada 3 . 1 . 2 Opera t iona l Systems i n Other Cqun t r i e s 3 .2 Experimental S t u k e s '
3 . 2 . 1 Sensor Systems 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 ' Photographic cameras s ~ r d r n b l t i s p e c t r a l s c a n n e r s 3 .2 .1 .2 Video Systems 3 .2 .1 .3 ULTV 3 .2 .1 .4 Radar
, 3 . 2 . 2 S p e c t r a l Bands 3 .2 .2 .1 U l t r a v i o l e t 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 V i s i b l e 3 . 2 . 2 . 3 Near o r photographic i n f r a r e d 3 . 2 . 2 . 4 Thermal i n f r a r e d , 3 . 2 . 2 .*5 Microwave 3 .2 .3 O i l Type 3 .2 .4 O i l Thickness 3 . 3 Determina t ion of Study Ob jec t ive and Senaor System
. - TABLE OF CONTWCS - C b n t i n u e d
- - 3 -
% PAGE - 4 HETHOD IXVELOPWT AND CONTKlLLED TESTS 4 .1 Method of D a t a C o l l e c t i o n 4 .1 .1 P i l o t T e s t 4.1.2' She1 l b u r n R e f i n e r y Tes t_- 4.1.3 F i n a l C o n t r o l l e d T e s t 4.2 D a t a C o m p i l a t i o n 4 .3 - D a t a A n d l y s j s a n d 1 n t e r 6 e t a t i o n
L
5 'FIELD TRIAL e <
5 .1 Method of Data C 6 l l e c t i o n 5 .2 D a t a C o m p i l a t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 Surf ace S a m p l e s - 5.2.2 I m a g e r y 5.3 D a t p A n a l y s i s a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n '
>
6 " DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS . 92
REFERENCES 98 i
APPENDIX 1. DESCRIPTION OF W O T E SENSING INSTRUMENTATION 104
APPENDIX 2. PREFERRED FILM AND F I L T E ~ TYFES USED FOR RENOTE' SENSING OF OIL SPILLS " 113
- ? L'
APPENDIX 3. ' TRANSMITTANCE RANGS OF FILTERS USED I N ONTmLLED i
TESTS AND FIELD TRIAL
APPENDIX 5 . LAB PROCEDURES FOR QUANTIFICATION C$Z DIESEL" OIL COLLECTED I N a~~ SOGENT PAD DURING FIELD TRIAL SURFACE SAMPLING . 130
4
-
TABLE - ' 1
2
3
4
(r
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 *
A Guide t o t h e R e l a t i o n ~ h i c k n & s a n d Volume o f
D e s c r i p t i v e V ~ e r m i n o l o g y
PAGE - Between t h e Appearance, F l m t i n g O i l 5
f o r O i l S i g h t i n g s .7 a
! 4
Summary and E v a l u a t i o n o f F a c t o r s R e l a t e d - t o ' O i l S p i l l D e t e c t i o n 13
0
Canadian A i r b o r n e Remote S e n s i n g C a p a b i l i t y A
f o r O i l S p i l l s 17
Summary o f Sensor System E v a l u a t i o n S t u d i e s -
'Condi t ions R e l a t e d t o Remote S e n s i n g of O i l S p i l l T h i c k n e s s 4 1
a
Hydrocarbon T h i c k n e s s and Adjus ted Mean Grey L e v e l b y Hydrocarbon Type and ~ i l t e i Type 1n - .
Shade C o n d i t i o n s i n F i n a l C o n t r o l l e d T e s t - 56
R e s u l t s of L i n e a r a n d Logar i thmic ' M u l t i p l e Combined R e g r e s s i o n s o f F i n a l C o n t r o l l e d T e s t Data b y Hydrocarbon Type 63
\ .
R e s u l t s of- b g a r i t h m i c M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n s of A d j u s t e d Mean Grey U v e l s A g a i n s t Hydrocarbon T h i c k n e s s e s by Hydrocarbon Type and F i l t e r Type • ’ 0 ; - ~ i n a l C o n t r o l l e d T e s t m t a 65 *
Sample Weigh ts Determined by Chemical A n a l y s i s and C o r r e s p o n d i n g C a l c u l a t e d Sample Th i c hesses 7 7
Measured Diesel O i l T h i c k n e s s e s and A d j u s t e d Mean . Grey L e v e l s by F i l t e r Type ,in F i e l d T S i a l 80
Measured Diesel O i l T h i c k n e s s k s and Band R a t i o s From F i e l d T r i a l 35 nun Color Photography 8 1
Results of L i n e a r and L a g a r i t h m i c Combined R e g r e s s i o n s o f F i e l d ~ r i a i Data
R e s u l t s of L i n e a r and I o g a r i t h i c M u l t i p l e -
R e g r e s s i o n s o f Adjust-ed Mean Grey L e y e l s A g a i n s t Diesel O i l T h i c k n e s s e s by F i l t e r Type f b r F i e l d T t i a l D a t a
v i i i
/ -- -
I l
LIST OF TABLES - Continued ,
t PA GE - .
- - Resu l t s of Linear and Iagar i thmic Mul t ip le Regressions of Band Ra t ios ~g ia ins t* Diesel O i l Thicknesses f o r F i e l d Trial 35 mm Photography 88 h 1
TAB LE - e
15
Measured Diese l O i l Thicknesses and F i l t e r
- Rat ios f r o m F i e l d T r i a l ~ i d e 0 1 k a ~ e r ~ , ' 90
Resul ts of Linear alid Logarithmic W l t i p l e Regressions of F i l t e r Rat ios Against Diese l O i l Thiclmesses f o r F i e l d T r i a l Video Imagery , \
1
B 5
, LIST QP FIGURES. < -
FIG~JRE - t. . t *
. I ' , . Q I
PAGE - k 1
0
Major Marine Hydrocarbon S p i l l s i n i B r i t i s * ~ o l u m b i a , 1972-19840 .
**
2 I * . - Gross weatherPngCC ~ x o c e s sepa as Tbey Af fec t
041 on the &a S q f a c e P \
8 t
d , ' c'
u s 3 \ . ma ' ~ l ~ & t ~ ~ ~ ~ g n e t ~ ~ ' ~ ~ t r u m ' " C v
', 2, X 4 Spec,trqJ Radiance &om a m , i n Layer of
C . Crude O i l and. Moderately C l e a r C o a s t a l e.
4 , . ' : water of f n f i n i t e " .- Qepth wi th 4 3 O S o l a r
. . I ' ~ l t i t l u d e I . . - a . - ..
5 . E'rench ~ u p e r k ~ c l o p e m~canngr System * 9
0
Swedish M a r i t i m e S u r v e i l l a n c e System e
7 U. S . 1i reye S u r v e i l l ance S$stem
8 A r r a g e m e n t of P i l o t T e s t Buckets , Simon F r a s e r Un ive r s igy Remote Sens lng Labora to ry , 15 August 1986 443 , I
. - 9 S p e c t r a l S e n s i t i v i t y of t h e RCA Newicon and
Sony CCD Video cameras 4 4 I - .
Transmi t t ance S i g n a t w e of 46 i
Design Q•’ Pipe C y l i n d e r s i n 4 7
. Schematic of 4 5 Gal lon r rum Layout, S h e l l b u r n Re f ine ry T e s t , 15 September 1986 !
4 9 4
4
. Arrangement of 4 5 Gal lon Drums, S h e l l b u r n ~ e f i n e r ~ T e s t , 1,5 September 1986' * 50
14 Example of a D i g i t i z e d Image - Diesel O i l ,
I = 301A/46 Combination F i l t e r , Shade - Showing Nanina l Th icknes se s From 1 M l q o n t o 10000 Microns 6 3
Example of a P r o f i l e d and Graphed Image - Dlese l O i l , 301A/46 Combination F l l t e r , Shade 5 5:
C
-- - - - - - - I h - 1 . . -
LIST OF FIGURES - Cont inued
. % - -
F I G URE - PA GE - 16 . P l o t o f A d j u s t e d Mean 'Grey L e y e l V e r s u s
H y d r o ~ a r b o n T h i c k n e s s b y F i l t e r Type f o r Crude O i l '. 5 7
17 P l o t o f A d j u s t e d Mean Grey L e v e l Versus
Hydrocarbon ~ h i c k n e s s by F i l t e r Type f o r Waste O i l 5 8 4
18 . P l o t of A d j u s t e d Mean Grey L e v e l V e r s u s 1 . . H y d r o c a r b o n - T h i c h e s s by F i l t e r Type f m
i <( 10W30 011 - 59 -
19 P l o t o f ~ d j u s t e : Mean Grey L e y e l V ~ ~ S U S P
- 1
Hydrocarbon T h i c k n e s s by F i l t e r Type • ’ o r <., D i e s e l O i l
i
2 0 P l o t of A d j u s t e d Mean Grey L e v e l V e r s u s Hydrocarbon ~ h i k h e s s b y F i l t e r Type f o r G a s o l i n e - 6 1
2 1 F i e l d Trial S t u d y Area 68
2 2 Schemat ic of Video System i n A i r c r a f t f o r F i e l d T r i a l
S p e c t r a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f F i l m s Used - i n F i e l d T r i a l
= 1
Diagram of Ross-Belore O i l T h i c k n e s s Sampler
A e r i a l V i e w .of F i e l q T r i a l , B u r r a r d I n l e t , 18 March 1987 * \
~ x a m ~ l e o f a P r o f i l e d a n d Graphed Image - F i e l d Tr ia l , B u r r a r d I n l e t , . 18 March 1987
P l o t o f A d j u s t e d Mean Grey L e v e l Versus Hydrocarbon T h i c k n e s s by F i l t e r Type for A l l F i e l d T r i a l F l i g h t L i n e s
P l o t o f A d j u s t e d Mean Grey L e v e l Versus Hydrocarbon T h i c k n e s s by F i l t e r Type Wi thou t F i e l d mial F l i g h t L i n e s 5, 8 a n d . 9 a
f l ~ x a m ~ l e of ~ s e u d o - & l o r e d S p l i t Image - F i e l d T r i a l , B u r r a r d I n l e t , 18* March 1987
d . .
k - xi
Two h u n d r e d a n d e l e v e n m a j o r h y d r o c a r b o n s p i l l s occurred i n B r i t i s h
~ b ~ u m b i a n m a r i n e watets b e t w e e n 1972 a n d 1984 ( C a n a d a , 1986a). T h e s e spills
were w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d a l & n g t h e coast ; b u t t h e , m a j o r concentrations were I n
t h e i n d u s $ r i a l r z e d s o u t h w e s t ( F l q u r e 1 ) .
E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d economic losses f r o m s u c h s p i L l s c a n be
significant. I n a J a n u a r y . 1 9 8 6 , s p i l l , a n e s t i m a t e d 350 w a t e r f o w l w e r e
# s e r i o u s l y o i l e d i n Sooke ~ a y - • ’ r a n what a p p e a r e d td be clandestine b l l g e
pumplng ( C a n a d a , 1 9 8 6 b l . A 1973 s p l l l o f f West Vancouver f r o m a s h l p
c o l l ~ s l o n r e s u l t e d i n c l e a n u p c o s t s of o v e r $600 ,~000 ( C a n a d a , 1983b: 3 4 ) .
E a r l y d e t e c t i o n a n d knowledge o f t h e d l s t r l b u t i o n and t h l c k n e s s of
s u c h 6 p l l l S c a n ass is t I n r e d u c l n g t h e l r environmental a n d ecoznan ic cpsts by
effectively g u i d l n g c l e a n u p e f f o r t s t o a r e a s of max-lm h y d r o c a r b o n d concentration. A number 0: r e m o t e s e n s l n g s y s t e m s v a r y l n g considerably I n
c o m p l e x i t y , a c c u r a c y a n d cost h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r s p l l l d e l i n e a t r o n , b u t
n o n e h a v e b e e n able t o d e p l c t t h e t h i c k n e s s o f s u c h r e l a u v e l y t h l a s p i l l s .
I . % s t u ' Obi ective
The o b j e c t i y e of t h l s s t u d y was t o e v a l u a t e w h e t h e r h y d r o c a r b o n . - s p i l l t h l c k n e s s c o u l d be e s t i m a t e d b y n e a s u r l n g l l g h t i e f ~ k c t a n c e d l • ’ f e r e n c e s
u s i n g m u l t i s p e c t r a l v i d e o r e m o t e s e n s i n g . V i d e o was c h o s e n ' b e c a u s e i t h a s
p o t e n t i a l f o r r e a l - t l m e , a n a l o g t o d l g l t a l image a n a l y s l s u s l n g
m i c r o c p m p u t e r s . V l d e o c a m e r a s ~ l s o h a v e a h l g h l e v e l o f radiometric =<
I r e s o l u t i o n and- t h e r e f o r e can be expec ted t o perform b e t t e r t h a n f i l m . In .
a d d i t i o n , t h e y a r e much lower i n c o s t t h a n o t h e r s y s t a n s such as
m ~ l t i s ~ e c t r a l ' s canne r s .
L o g i s t i c a l l y , v i d e o systems have t h e advantdge of compactness and
low we igh t f o r installation I n l i g h t aircraft. Use of a four-camera a r r a y k -
made a m u l t i s p e c t r a l approach p o s s i b l e by .permitting s imul taneous imaging of 9
up t o fou r bands @ t h i n t h e p h o t o g ~ a p h r c spec t rum ( 3 0 0-1 100 nanometers ) . - I
Subsequent ana lyses determined t h e more ef f e c t l v e f l l t e r s f o r estimating o
\ spill t h i c h e s s . The system s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s tudy was l n t ended t o be
I
exper lmehta l o n l y ; a f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l v ldeo sys tem would r e q u i r e ad& t l o n a l *
evaluation under a b roade r r ange of f i e l d m n & t l o n s .
me Behavim of E y d r o c u k r p s on W a t e r
Hydrocarbons a s s o c i a t e d wcth m a r i n e s p i l l s i n c l u d e n a p t h a s ,
g a s o l i n e s , k e r o k e n e s , d i e s e l f u e l s , b u n k e r s and c r u d e o i l s . T h e i r a p p e a r a n c e ,
on w a t e r depends on q u a n t i t i e s p r e s e n t , spill ' d u r a t i o n , w e a t h e r i n g and
v i s c o s i t y . AS $ h w n i n ~ & l e 1 and o r i g i n a l l y deScrib\ed b y H o r n s t e i n '( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
* hydrocarbon s p i l l s c a n be characteristically,silvery, i r i d e s c e n t , d a r g brown
'-7
t o b l a c k , o r 'a l l g h t e r brown r e p r e s e h t i n g a t h i c k n e s s r a n g e o f 0.0001 to 1
m. However, a p p e a r a n c e a l s o c a n v a r y depending on hydrocarbon t y p e and '
environmental c r ; n & t i o n s ; a mre r e l i a b l e s e n s o r t h a n t h e human e y e 1s r,
t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d .
There a r e s e v e r a l major w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s whlch d e t e r m i n e t h e C
f a t e p f h y d r o c a r b o n s , o r 011 c o l l o q u i a l l y , o n m a r i n e w a t e r s ( p l g u r e 2 ) .
These i n c l u d e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s such a s e v a p o r a t i o n , c h e m i c a l i n f l u e n c e s as .
would o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f d i s p e r s a n t s and b i o l o g i c a l p o c e s s e s l i k e
b i o d e g r a d a t i o n . E v a p o r a t i o n u s u a l l y i s t h e dominant f a c t o r i n t h e
decompos i t ion o f hydrocarbons .
Envi ronmenta l conditions and w e a t h e r i n g c a n r e s u l t i n a v a r i e t y o f
p h y s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . of o i l s p i l l s o n w a t e r ( T a b l e 2 ) . Srmoth s l i c k s a r e ,
t h e common c o n c e p t i o n o f s p l l l s . However, i n many c a s e s , s p i l l s can a p p e a r
i n s t r e a m e r s o r windrows, i s o l a t e d p a n c a k e s o r consolidated t a r l a l l s .
I. H o l l i n g e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) h a s shown t h a t t h i c k r e g l o n s of s l i c k s c o n t a i n more t h a n 90
p e r c e n t o f t h e o i l l n less t h a n t e n p e r c e n t of t h e s l l c k area. T h l s
emphas izes t h e a d v a n t a g e s f o r s p i l l c l e a h u p i f r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s e s c a n be
r e m o t e l y d e t e c t e d .
TABLE 1. A GUIDE TO THE RELATION BETWEEN THE APPEARANCE, THICKNESS I
AND VOLUME OF FLOATING 01 L -
O I L CONDITION APPEARANCE APPROXIMATE APPROXIMATE 'THICKNESS (mm) VOLUME (m3/km2) *
/
0
Light s h e e n S i l v e r y 0 .0001 0 . 1
Heavy s h e e n
U n e r n u l s i f i e d o i l
a I r i d e s c e n t
E m u l s i f i e d Brown/orange 1 o r m o r e 1000 .0 011
d
L
- A d a p t e d f r o m : C a n a d a , 1 9 8 4 a : 1 1 v - 9.
ADSORPTION: PROCESS OF OIL ADHERING TO THE SURFACE OF SOtfE SUBSTANCE- GENERALLY LEADS TO SINKING. !
i -
l
?' 4
BIODEGFADATION: CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AN OIL THROUGH BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY. w
-- -
*
- -
. -
-
CHE~ICAL DISPERSION: REDUCTION OF OIL/UATER INTERFACIAL TENSION BY THE ADDITION OF SURIACTENTS TO OIL WHICH AID ITS DISPERSIOH.
'+ + - -
1 -- I - *
i I)
FIGURE 2. GROSS WEATHERING PROCESSES AS THEY f AFFECT OIL ON THE SEA SURFACE
a
. \
I
. N
DISSOLUTION: -A PROCESS WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR THE SOLUBLE HYDROdARBONS IN OIL DISSOLVING IN THE WATER. 1
>
NLSIFICATION: A MIXTURE OF OIL AND WATER WHICH IS CAUSED BY SONE STIRRING ACTION (SUCH AS WAVES), EWULSIONS ARE EITHER WATER IN OIL OR,OIL IN WATER, DEPENDING ON THE RELATIVE PERCENTAGES OF EACH SUBSTANCE. I
I
EVAPORATION: CowERsIoN OF A LIQUID m A v u o ~ , m RATE OF AMORATION DEPENDS OH THE VOLATILITY, TEMPERATURE, WIND AND SURFACE AREA' OF THE SLICK. EVAPORATION WILL USUALLY ACCOUNT FOR A LARGE PORTION OF LOST qIL.
P
OXIDATION: THE COMBINATION OF HY~RocARBoNS WITH OXYGEN. SUNLIGHT WILL AID OXIDATION. THIS IS CALLED PHOTO-OXIDATION, PRODUCING OTHER COF~OUNDS WHICH HAY DISSOLVE IN WATER OR DISPERSE QUICKER.THIS IS A SLOW PROCESS, AND LIMIT~D TO ?KE SURFACE OF A SLICK. \
, \)
SOURCE: Pavio, R o b r r t , and D.L, Poyton, 1983: 346 T i
MOUSSE: A WATER-IN-OIL P~ULSION FORMED WHEN WATER IS MIXED W ~ H OIL BY SOME A G I T A T I O N P R O C E S SUCH AS W A V ~ ACTION. T H I S FORM O F O I L IS MORE READILY FORMED BY HEAVIER OZLS THAN LIGWTER OILS. IF A MOLLSSE IS FORMED-IT CAN RANGE 1 COLOR FPOM L I G H T BROWN T O RUST AND DARK BROWN. THE COLOR IS DEPENDENT ON T k TYPE 6 F O I L , AMOUNT OF WEATTHERIYG I T HAS UNDEACONE AND T H E PRESENCE A O P SURFACE A C T I V E AGENTS.
0 .
PANCAKES: ARE GENERALLY SEEN A S ISOLATED PATCHES OF WEATHERED O I L . THEY ARE ROUGHLY ROUND OR OBLIQUE, G I V I N G R I S E T O . T H E I R NAME, AND CAN RANGE I N S l Zt FROM ABOUT 6 CM T O A FEW KILOMETERS I N FSEjIUS.
SHEEN: ' THE NAME A S C R I B E D T O O I L THAT IS DFTECTIBLE BY A DAMPthEL, OH " S L I C K " SEA SURFACE. SHEEfj CAh RANGE FROM BEING V I S I B L E ONLY BY THE. S L I C K I T tUf lMS-
T O HAVING A RAINBOW OR GRAY COLPR ASSCCIA!I'ELJ WITH I T . 1 -
S L I C K : A SMOOTH SEA SURFACE AREA RESULTING FROM S U P F R E S S l O t i OI SMGL CAPILLARY WAVES BY O I L .
STREAMERS : L I N E S OF O I L , OF ANY FORM, 3
TARBALLS: A FORMATIOfj OF "GLOBULES OF O I L " @CURRZ NG WHEh WEATHEhELi 01 L UNDERGOES A SERIES OF PHYSICAL PROCESSES THA++-BREAK UP L A R G L ~ D A T C H E ~ u t ,CJIL I N T O COMPACT SSEMI-SOLID OR S O L I D MASSES RANGING FRW 5 MM T O 15 M1". 1 K
DIAMETER.
WINDROWS: PARALLEL BAPiDS O F FLOATING MATERIAL Oh THE W A T E R S U P J A C L . ( c I I L , SARGASSUM, E T C . ) WITH THE LONG A X I S A L I G h E D WITH THE W I N b L,IFE.C'IIOh.
WIND S L I C K S : PATCHES OF CALM SEA SURFACE CAUSEL BY L a ' k L I Z t L , h % A S Ob W l NIg SHEAR WHERE WIND CONDITIONS CHANGE S O RAPIDLY T H h l ' C h P I L L k R Y lrikVE.5 WI hO'X
HALE TIME T O DEVELOP. WIND S L I C K S DG NOT CONCENThATE PATEHJAL bh THt WIs'IEJ- - SURFACE AS DO WINQkDWS. WIND S L I C K S MAY BE C ~ J N F U S E . ~ WITH At* O l L 5 L I L K .
. Source: P w i a , Robert, a n d D . L . Payton, 1983: 3 4 7
-
c-.d - -- p--pp----- --
Research under taken by Ahmadjian et a l . (1976) i n d i c a t e d t h a t , -- --
a l though weather ing a f f e c t s t h e p h y s i c a l and chemical p r o p e r t i e s o f s p i l l e d
o i l , it does no t u s u a l l y o b v i a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r remote d e t e c t i o n . Far
mre c r i t i c a l to remote s e n s i n g are such f a c t o r s as c loud cove r a n d sea s t a t e
which can e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e t h e use of some s e n s o r s such a s s a t e l l i t e
p l a t f o r m s . -In development of t h e method f o r t h i s s t u d y , t h e s e and o t h e r
f a c t o r s were taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n and a r e ekp la ined acco rd ing ly . 2
a Portions of the Electromagnetic Spectnm Used i n O i l Sp i l l Reaote
The e l ec t romagne t i c spectrum i s a continuum of energy t r a v e l l i n g a t < -
t h e speed of l i g h t ( 3 X lo8 s e c m x s e c and i s d e s c r i b e d i n te rms
of wavelength o r f requency . F i g u r e 3 i l l u s t h a t e s t h e spec t rum a n d p r w i d e s
I
d e s c r i p t i y e terms f o r c e r t a i n bands w i t h i n it. Based on Canada (1984b) ,
Canada (1983a ) , Axelssun and Ohlsson ( 1 9 7 3 , Cakoe (1973) and E s t e s e t a l . ' -- (1972) , a b r i e f summary
f. 7 1
11
fo l lows .
,
2.2.1 U l t r a v i o l e t .
i 0.4 micrometers (p) o r
band g e n e r a l l y used f o r
a
of t h e bands used i n t h e remote s e n s i n g of o i l s p i l l s
I
s
The u l t r a v i o l e t (UV) spectrum ranges from 0.1 t o ,
160 t o 400 n a n a n e t e r s ( m n ) . The p r t i o n of t h e W
remote s e n s i n g purposes i s between 0.3 and 0 .4pm; 4
a b s o r p t i o n by t h e atmosphere i s v e r y s t r o n g below 0.29 p m . - There a r e two mechanisms f o r d e t e c t i n g o i l s l i c k s i n t h e W: t h e
i
r e f l e c t a n c e d i f f e r e n t i a l between o i l and wa te r , and f luo rescence . A s
i 1 lu s t ; a t ed i n F i g u r e 4 , o i l h a s a h i g h e r r e f l e c t a n c e t h a n s e a water i n t h e 4
FIGURE 4. SPECTRAL BADLANE FROM A THlN L N € R OF CRUDE OIL AND MODERATELY CLEAR - COASTAL WATER OF INFINITE DEPTH WITH . 43' SOLAR ALTITUDE
C i I 1 I I
300 $00 500 600 TOO 800 900 lo(
WAVELENGTH X ( N M )
S O U R C E : Un-lted S t a t e s , . 1971 a : 701 .
I n e a r u l t r a v i o l e t . S e n s o r s which s e l e c t i v e l y f o c u s on t h i s part of t h e
-- A
e l e c t r a n a g n e t i c s p e c t r u m t h e r e f o r e are t h e o r e t i c a l l y capableYof s u p e r i o r o i l
s p i l l - d e t e c t i o n . The second phenomenon, f l u o r e s c e n c e , occurs when a p o r t i o n
o f t h e u l t i a v i o l e t a b s o r b e d by o i l is r e L e m i t t e d a t a l o n g e r wave leng t
0.4 t o 0 .7 pm, p r o v i d i n g a r e l a t i v e l y weak s i g n a l f o r o i l s p i l l d e t e c t i o n -
p u r p o s e s .
2.2.2 V i s i b l e . The v i s i b l e p o r t i o n of t h e s p e c t r u m between 0 .4 and
0 .7 pm i s t h e r e g i o n s e n s i t i v e t o t h e human e y e . The mechanism f o r 011
d e t e c t i o n i n t h i s band i s t h e r e f l e c t a n c e d i f f e r e n t i a l between o i l a n d w a t e r . - -
The d i f f e r e n t i a l 'is w e a k e s t between 0 .45 and 0 .5 p m ; w a v e l e n g t h s below and - above usualJy p r o v i d e improved o x l / w a t e r c o n t r a s t .
$
.'
2.2.3 N e a r Infrared. The n e a r i n f r a r e d r e g l o n (IR) f rom 0 . 7 t o 1 . 1 prn
i s n o t d e t e c t i b l e by t h e human e y e . I ts pr imary usefulness f o r r e m o t e
d e t e c t i o n i s a l s o t h e r e s u l t of t h e r e f l e c t a n c e d i f f e r e n t l a 1 between w a t e r
and o i l a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F l g u r e 4 . I n f a c t , i n t h l s r e g i o n t h e r a d i a n c e from
a n o i l s l i c k c a n be between 2 0 and 100 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t m n from t h e
S w r a u n d i n g w a t e r ( C a t o e , 1973: 2 6 9 ) .
- 2.2.4 Thermal Infrared. The shor twave l n f r a r e d between 1 . 2 and 3.0 pm
h a s l i t t l e u t i l i t y i n t h e r e m o t e s e n s l n g of 011 s p i l l s o n w a t e r . Beyond
3 . 0 p m , e m i t t e d ( t h e r m a l ) i n f r a r e d becomes a p r l m a r y s o u r c e of d e t e c t l b l c
e n e r g y . I n t h e t h e r m a l i n f r a r e d , r e m o t e s e n s i n g i s u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d t o
, s p e c t r a l r e g i o n s c a l l e d a t m o s p h e r i c windows where t h e a t m o s p h e r e 1s
- - - I
0
- - - - -
3 ' . - + u f f i c i e n t l y t r a n s p a r e n t t o a l l o w r a d i a t i o n t o t r a v e l
+ - /
-- '%. .a r -
- o v e r p a t h s of
i s i g n e i f i c a n t l e n g t h w i t h l i t t l e abso rp t ion . The main windows are f r a n 3.1 t o J- < .-
4.1 prn and 8 .0 t o 14.0 p m . T h e 6 0 i l s p i l l d e t e c t i o n mechanism i n t h e thermal @,
i n f r a r e d i s t h a t of t h e the rma l emiss ion d i f f e r e n t i a l between w t e r and o i l
which i s g r e a t e s t i n t h e 8.0 t o 14.0 pm r e g i o n (Catoe and McLean, 1979: 4 ) . u 0
2.2-5 , Hicrwave. The microwave p o r t j o n of t h e e l ec t romagne t i c
spectrum ranges from 1 mm t o 1 .meter i n wavelength. A p r i n c i p a l mechanism
f o r o i l s p i l l d e t e c t i o n i n t h e p a s s i v e microwave r a g i o n (0 .1 cm t o 30 cm) i s # ,
* e
t h e emis s ive d i f f e r e n t i a l between o i l and water ; t h e emis s ive s i c p a t m e of
pe t ro leum p r o d u c t s is s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t han t h a t of a calm s e a (Canada, . 1984b: 2 .19 ) . Sea s u r f a c e damping (wave s t r u c t u r e modif icat ion ' ) a l s o p l a y s a
- I
r o l e i n t h e microwave r e g i o n by r educ ing s e a s u r f a c e roughn s and e m l s s i v i t y
(Catoe and McLean, 1979: 8 ) . ? The a t t i v e p o r t i o n ( 1 . 5 cm t o 70 cm) of t h e microwave spectrum i s
known a s t h e r a d a r r e g i o n . I n ' t h i s band, t h e damping ef f e c t o f o i l o n water
can r e s u l t i n what i s known a s a b a c k s c a t t e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n d i f f e r e n t i a l .
That i s , o i l ' s damping e f f e c t on s u r f a c e wa te r s r educes t h e a m u n t of energy -.
be ing b a c k s c a t t e r e d compared t o sur rounding wave-tossed a r e a s . According t o P ,
I
to Catoe ( 1973: 2701, ' a dec rease of up t o t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude i n r e t u r n
sign% s have been observed f o r n a t u r a l o i l s l i c k s . .
2
-I 2.2.6 -. fl, 3 summarizes t h e d s t e c t i o n mechanis VP a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h d k l e c t r a n a g n e t i c bands d i s c u s s e d above. Table 3 a l s o
i d e n t i f i e s weather c o n s t r a i n t s , f a l s e a la rms and t h e poten., t ial f o r day and
's,
TA
BL
E
3.
SUM
MA
RY
AN
D
EV
AL
UA
TIO
N
OF
FAC
TO
RS
RE
LA
TE
D
TO
* O
IL
SP
ILL
DETECTION
"
SP
EC
TR
'UM
D
ET
EC
TIO
N
MEC
HA
NIS
M
w EA
T H
BR
F
AL
SE
~
FW
S
- C
ON
ST
RA
INT
S
,Near
W
Re
fle
cta
nc
e
Dif
fe
re
nti
al
Ha
ze
, F
og
a
nd
F
ish
-Oil
S
lic
ks
C
lou
ds
Su
spe
nd
ed
S
oli
ds
W
ind
S
lic
ks
F
luo
res
ce
nc
e
0 I
L,
4 gr
Z
Heav
y
Fo
g
Su
spe
nd
ed
S
oli
ds
U
pw
ell
ing
s
Th
erm
al
Mis
sio
n
sd
0,
U
Vis
ible
Th
erm
al
I ~
ii
fe
re
nt
ia
l
I a
nd
R
ain
I
Su
spe
nd
ed
S
oli
ds
o"
~e
ar. I
R
Di
f f
er
en
tia
l
* +
-
Th
erm
al
Em
issio
n
Re
fle
cta
nc
e
~i
fg
er
en
ti
al
Re
fle
cta
nc
e
Dif
fe
re
nti
al
Heav
y
Clo
ud
s
"B
ac
ks
ca
tte
r C
ros
s-
Se
cti
on
D
iff
er
en
tia
l
Clo
ud
s
an
d
Fo
g
i
q i
Fis
h-O
il
Sli
ck
s
eJ 3
rc 81
L.I A
cti
ve
L, .-,I
Te
ch
niq
ue
s
DA
Y
OP
S
Ye
s
Ye
s
~i
sh
-0
il
;~
li
ck
~
- S
usp
en
de
d
So
l.id
s
Clo
ud
s
an
d
Em
iss
ive
D
iff
er
en
tia
l
Wav
e s
tru
ctu
re
Pa
ss
ive
T
ec
hn
iqu
es
Ye
s
sh
ail
ow
Wat
er
Fis
h-O
il
Sli
ck
s
Mo
dif
ica
tio
n .
-4
Wav
e S
tru
ctu
re
-A
Mo
dif
ica
tio
n
I
Ye
s
Yes
Yes
H
eav
y
Ra
in
I Yes
-
Up
we
llin
gs
S
usp
en
de
d
So
lid
s
Calm
S
ea
s
Heav
y
Ra
in
NIG
HT
1
~b
s~
en
de
d
So
lid
s
Ca
lm S
ea
s
If acti
e 4
37
Ad
ap
ted
fr
om
: C
at&
, C
lare
nc
e
S.,
a
nd
Ja
me
s T
. M
cLei
m,
19
79
: 2
0
C
0-
d
n i g h t o p e r a t i o n s f o r each band. Weather c o n s t r a i n t s i n c l u d e haze , f o g ,
c l o u d s , h a i l and r a i n . F a l s e a la rms which can c a u p l i c a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
s e n s o r d a t a i n c l u d e f i s h o i l s l i c k s , suspended s o l i d s , wind s l i c k s , sha l low -i
wate r , upwel l ings and calm s e a s (Un i t ed S t a t e s , 1974 1 . Remote s e n s i n g i n a l l
of t h e e l ec t romagne t i c spectrum (between u l t r a v i o l e t and microwave) i s
a v a i l a b l e under d a y l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . However, p a s s i v e remote s e n s i n g u s i n g
t h e photographic p o r t i o n of t h e spectrum ( 0 . 3 - 1.1 p m ) i s n o t p o s s i b l e b
f t
d u r l n g hours of darkness . ,
Much of t h e o i l s p i l l remote sens ing undertaken t o d a t e h a s been
i n r e l a t i o n t o l a r g e s p i l l s from t a n k e r s o r o f f s h o r e o i l r i g s . The o i l s
involved have been p r i m a r i l y heavy crudes. L i t t l e remote sens ing e f f o r t has
been p u t i n t o t h e more chronic problem of smal l harbour s l i c k s of l i g h t e r
hydrocarbons such as d i e s e l o r gaso l ine . This chapter examines t h e r eco rd of
o i l s p i l l remote sens ing by reviewing ope ra t iona l systems and summarizing t h e
r eco rd of experimental s t u d i e s .
3. 1 Operational Systems
Considerable v a r i a t i o n e x i s t s amongst c o u n t r i e s i n terms of t h e i r
use of remote sens ing f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n of o i l s p i l l s . There is no
cons is tency i n e i t h e r system types o r c o s t s . The s e c t i o n s which fo l low
desc r ibe systems used on s p i l l s i n Canada, Europe and t h e United S t a t e s .
3.1.1 Remote Sens ing of Oil Spills in Canada. According t o an
ex tens ive l i t e r a t u r e search , p r i m a r i l y through t h e Canada Centre f o r Remote
Sensing (CCRS), t h e r e i s l i t t l e documented use of remote sens ing of a c t u a l
s p i l l s i n Canada. Thornson and McColl (Canada, 1972) descr ibed a remote
sens ing survey on t h e 4 February 1970 of a Chedabucto Bay bunker C o i l s p i l l .
That survey was undertaken t o a s s i s t i n d e l i n e a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of o i l
and t o eva lua t e t h e use fu lnes s of an 8 - 14pm i n f r a r e d l i n e scanner
(Appendix 1 ) and s e v e r a l 35 and 75 mm photographic cameras. F l i g h t s were
scheduled under day and n i g h t condi t ions . The au tho r s determined t h a t bo th
sensor t ypes were capable of m n i t o r i n g s l i c k a r e a . The thermal scanner
.- - -
/ I- /=
c o u l d o n l y be u s e d u n d e r l i m i t e d c o n d i t i o n s when t h e r e w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t
t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e between ~ i l and water. The p h o t o g r a p h t c imagery w a s
l i m i t e d t o d a y l i g h t f a i r w e a t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n . Pho tography was t h e a u t h o r s I' p r e f e r e n c e f o r simple s u r v e i l l a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h c e r t a i n f i l m / f i l r 7 c o m b i n a t i o n s s u c h as Kodak Plus-X w i t h a W r a t t e n 39 ( u l t r a v i o l e t
f i l t e r . -- / /
The o n l y o t h e r major Canad ian s p i l l o f o p p o r t u n i t y ,doted i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e w a s frpm t h e K u r d i s t a n o i l t a n k e r . O ' N e i l e t a (Canada, 1980) -. i u s e d a r e l a t i v e l y e x t e n s i v e s%nsor package t o s e a r c h f o / a n d map bunker C 011
which had been s p i l l e d from t h e K u r d i s t a n o n 16 March 1979. I n c l u d e d i n
. -- t h e i z ' c h o i c e 'of s e n s o r s w a s a r n u l t i s p e c t r a l s c a n n e r w i t h i n f r a r e d and t i s i b l e
c h a n n e l s , a low l i g h t l e v e l t e l e v i s i o n (LLLTV) camera (Appendix I ) , l a r g e a
f o r m a t p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o n n a i s a n c e cameras and a s p e c i a l i z e d " m u l t i - d e t e c t o r
e l e c t r o - - 0 p t l c a 1 imaging s c a n n e r " . Between 17 March -and 2 A p r l l , a t o t a l of
n l n e s o r t i e s were f lown w i t h o i l b e i n g o b s e r v e d and mapped on s l x of t h e s e . Q r
- , Each o•’ t h e s e n s o r s p r o v e d t o be c a p a b l e of o i l d e t e c t i o n u n b r s p e c i - f i c . I
con&t ions , b u t t h e a u t h o r s d i d n o t p r o v i d e a c o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n . T h e l r
o n l y r e f e r e n c e t o s p i l l t h i c k n e s s was t h a t t h l n s l i c k s showed b r l g h t a g a i n s t 4
t h e d a r k w a t e r w i t h W and c o l o r p h o t o g r a p h y . D
A l t b u g h CCRS, a few o t h e r government a g e n c i e s and s e v e r a l p r i v a t e
remote s e n s i n g f i r m s have been i n v o l v e d i n t h e development and evaluation of
o i l s p i l l d e t e c t i o n s y s t e m s i n Canada ( T a b l e 4 ) , t h e r e i s a l a c k of o t h e r
p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n on a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e s y s t e m s t o real o i l
sp i l l s . Whi le i t is known t h a t v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i ' o n s from a i r c r a f t a r e o f t e n
accompanied by t h e u s e o f 35 mrn cameras w i t h + e i t h e r o r b o t h s k y l i g h t and
- p o l e r i z i n g f l l t e r s (Canada, 1 9 8 6 ~ ) ~ i t a p p e a r s t h a t m r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d
TABLE 4. CANADIAN AIRBORNE RPllOTE SENSING CAPABILITY FOR OIL SPILLS
AGENCY OR COMPANY AIRCRAFT SENSORS
Canada Cent re f o r Convair 580 Falcon - Remote Sensing DC3 ( 2 ) - (Federa l Department - of Energy, Mines - and Resources) -
- -
LLLTV Dual channel l i n e scanner M u l t i s p e c t r a l l i n e scanner Four channel r e s e a r c h SAR Laser f luorosensor AGSV and cameras MEIS (exper imenta l )
Ontar io Cent re f o r Navaho Chief t a n - Daedalus I R l i n e scanner Remote Sensing - 2 Vintens (70mm) and (P rov inc i a l Min i s t ry (9" x 9") of Natura l Resources) - 4 Hasselblad (70mm)
- A e r i a l v ideo
Atmospheric Environ- E l e c t r a ( 2 ) ment Serv ice ( I c e Branch) Fede ra l Department of Environment
- APS 94D Radar - Bendix thermal mapper - 70mm camera
Department of Aurora CF104 National Defense
- Reconofax X IIIA l i n e scanners
- Other c l a s s i f i e d m i l i t a r y eq uipme n t
A t l a n t i c Canada PA23 Piper Aztec - LLLTV Airborne Sensing - B&W daytime TV (& c o l o r ) (Crown Corpora t ion) - FLIR
- Cameras
MARS Aer i a l Remote Grumman G I Sensing Limited
- Motorola APS 94 D - SLAR - Aer ia l cameras - I R l i n e scanner
I n t e r a Technologies Cessna 41 1 Limited Cessna 310
P ipe r Navaho
- Daedalus I R l i n e scanner ( s i n g l e and d u a l )
- A e r i a l cameras - LLLTV - SAR - SLAR
L
TABLE 4. CANADIAN AIRBORNE REMOTE SENSING CAPABILITY FOR OIL SPILLS - Cont 'd
OR COMPANY A1 RC RAFT SLWSORS # 7
A e r i a l Mapping & Beechcra f t - Z e i s s RMK A 15/23 aer ia l Photography L i m i t e d S u p e r King A i r B-200 camera - - - Radar a l t imeter (FP-kI) ' - LLLTV
'I - TV (B&W) - B&W s u p p o r t p h o t o l a b
Les Releves . F l y i n g by I - Bendix t henna1 mapper
Geophysiques I n c . Aerophoto I n c . - 70mm camera
Eiorcor E n g i n e e r i n g B r i t ten-Norman - Bendix RDR ground s e a r c h and Research L i m i t e d I s l a n d e r Q r a d a r
' - RCA 1040 I S I T TV s y s t e m - 7kun camera
Adapted from: Canada, 19845: 3-104 and 3-106 and canadd; - l983a: 248
s y s t e m s are i n f r e q u e n t l y u t i l i z e d p r o b a b l y as a r e s u l t of t h e i r g r e a t e r
c a n p l e x i t y , l a c k of a v a i l a b i l i t y or g r e a t e r cost.
3.1.2. 0perational,Systemsbin Other C o u n t r i e s . - Massin (1981) d e s c r i b e d - ,
a n a i r b o r n e r e m o t e s e n s i n g s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d b y F r a n c e f o r d e t e c t i n g ,
i d e n t i f y i n g , c l a s s i f y i n g , mapping and t r a c k i n g o i l s p i l l s . The French s e n s o r - I
package i n c l u d e d a n i n f r a r e d l i n e s c a n n e r , a n a v l g a t l o n s y s t e m , a videotape
r e c o r d e r t o combine t h e s c a n n e r and n a v i g a t i o n d a t a , a n d e o & s p l a y , a r a d ~ o
t r a n s m i b t e r and v a r i o u s p h o t o g r a p h l c carnerds whlch c o u l d a l l be c a r r l e d I n a
twin-eng ine a i r c r a f t . The ground r e c e p t o r sys tem was composed of a r a d r o
/ - r e c e i v e r , a s y s t e m t o s e p a r a t e scan'ner and f l i g h t d a t a , a v l d e o d l s p l a y u n l t ,
a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r and a l a s e r beam r e c o r d e r f o r h a r d copy. F l g u r e 5
p r o v l d e s a s c h e m a t i c of t h i s " S u p e r c y c l o p " sys tem.
According t o Mass ln , t h e s y s t e m was operationally l l r n l t e d w l t h
r e s p e c t t o w e a t h e r c o n & t l o n s a n d l a c k o f consistency I n t h e l n f r u e d bdnd . b e c a u s e of t h e r m a l v a r l a b l l l t y c a u s e d by c o l d w a t e r r l s r n g ~ n t h e wake of
v e s s e l s o r l n t e r f e r e n c e from c l o u d s : B p a n s l o n of t h e sys tem to overcrme
t h e s e l i m i t a t r o n s i n c l u d e d a p r o p o s a l f o r t h e u s e of a m u l t r s p e c t r a ' l l i n e
s c a n n e r and a s l d e - l o o k l n g a l r b o r n e r a a a r . Massrn a l s o suc jges tea ttla t >
comparison of I n f r a r e d and v l s l b l e Imagery c o u l d p r o v r d e some ~ n f ormat l o n
a b o u t a v e r a g e s p l l l thickness, b u t d r d n o t & t a r 1 tYjw t h l s c o u 1 d . t ~ -
Backlund and ~ o l m s t r a n ( 1 9 8 3 ) described a Swedish package -
c a n p r i s l n g a n i n t , e g r a t e d s r d e - l o o k i n g a l ~ b m n e r a d a r ( h p p n d l x 1 ) , a n
4, ~ n f r a r e d / u l t l a v r o l e t s c a n n e r and p h o t o g r a p h l c cameras. L a t a t i t o r a y e a n d -
+ d o c m ~ n t a t i o n i n c l u d e d - . a P o y a r o l d camrjra a n d d r g i t a 1 cassette r e c o r d e r .
.
. FIGURE 5. FRENCH SUPERCYCLOPE SCANNER SYSTEM
EQUIPMENT ON B O A R D -
I I 1 CONTROL SCOPE
S O U R C E : M a u i n , ,J. M. , 1981 : 177
! /
e
Naviga t iona l d a u were integrated i n t o t.ke system as w e l l . S y s m add-ons - - i nc luded image l i n k s -to t h e ground by microwave, a .handheld TV camera, a
microwave r ad iome te r and a l a s e r f l u o r o s e n s o r ( F i g u r e 6 ) .
The Swedish system h a s been i n o p e r a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s i n c e 1980 and
h a s been t e s t e d i n v a r i o u s f l i g h t programs f o r t h e French and Dutch
Q governments, t h e European Economic Canntuni t y and Swedish Coast Guard.
I
Although Backlund and Holmstrom provided no a n a l y s e s from t h e l r exper iments ,
t h e y c la imed t h e system had performed very , s a t i s f a c t o r i l y. The W &anne l on
t h e scanne r was used s u c c e s s f u l l y t o i p g e s p l l l a r e a and t h e IR channel t o
i n d i c a t e r e l a t i v e o i l t h i c k n e s s . Unfo r tuna te ly , t h e y provlded no d e t a l l s on
t h i c k n e s s & s c r i m i n a t i o n performance. While t h e a u t h o r s a ~ g u e d t h a t t h e
\ . Swedish system was low we igh t , lo; volume, low I n p v e r c o n s w n p t ~ o n , r e h a b l e
and needed only a minimum of s e r v i c e , Backlund ( 1 9 7 9 ) quoted system
i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t s a t t h a t t ime a s $ 5 3 ~ ~ . 0 0 0 U.S., a h i g h sum f o r m e t
emergency response groups.
perhap; ' the most e l a b o ? a t e and t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced 011 spr 11
- - s u r v e i l l a n c e system 1s t h e U . S. Coast Guard ' s "Alreye" ( N h l t e and Schmldt, '
1983 ) . I t was deslgned t o l n c l u d e a s ide- looklng a l r b o r n e r a d a r , a t h r e c -
channel i n f r a r e d / u l t r a v i o l e t l l n e s canne r , an a e r l a1 r wxronnal sance cam ra , a n
a l r b o r n e d a t a a d a p t a t i o n system and a c o n t r o l d i s p l a y and r ecv rd c o n s o l e - In
add i t i o . . , t o i d e n t l f y p l l u t l n g v e s s e l s a t n l g h t , an a c t l v e cp tcd t e l c v l s m n
was developed f o r t h e Alreye . Each senso r could p r o d u c e a n r i o t atc~ci hard c q l y
imagery ( ~ i q u r e 7 ) . A s of 1583, t h e sys tem was t o be installed o n six U..he
Coast Guard j e t aircraft.
A key f e a t u r e of t h e Alreye crxn1,uter was i t s o r i t r ~ r d imacjr:-
processing c a p a b i l l t l e s whlch Inc luded s u c h enhancerent f u r r ~ " , I o n s as s ~ t l t 1 a1
i
FIG
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7.
U.S.
AIR
EY
E
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1980:
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- -- - f i l t k r i n g , i n t e n s i t y s c a l i n g , f r o-frame, averaging , m a g n i f i c a t i o n zoom, -
h i g h r e s o l u t i o n zoom, a u t a n a t i c cter generat ion! -g raph ic o v e r l a y and
a geometr ic c o r r e c t i o n . A comple and i n t e g r a t e d system, t h e Aireye w a s ve ry
expensive and r e q u i r e d a h igh degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g f o r use .
I t was developed p r i m a r i l y f o r s p i l l a n d - v e s s e l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n purposes ; t h e
- - L i t e r a t u r e d i d no t document i ts a b i l i t y t b measure s p i l l t h i c k n e s s .
The ,French , Swedish and American systems were developed a f t e r
ex tens ive ' r e s e a r c h and f i e l d t r a i n i n g . Although each was claimed t o be. a n
i n t e g r a t e d package c a p a d e of o i l d e t e c t i o n under v i r t u a l l y any c i rcumstance ,
problems of poor wea the r , heavy s e a s t a t e s and f a l s e t a r g e t s have r e s t r i c t e d
t h e i r u t i l i t y . While s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ' w a s t h e r ea son f o r t h e i r v e r s a t i l i t y , i t
w a s a l s o - t h e cause of t h e i r h igh c o s t s . Moreover, whether t h e y were A l e to
a c c u r a t e l y i d e n t i f y s p i l l t h i c k n e s s cou ld n o t be determined from t h e
l i t e r a t u r e .
The .video system developed f o r t h i s s tudy i s more l i m i t e d i n scope ,
d b u t much lbwer i n c o s t . I n a d d i t i o n , i t s performance i n lneasuring t h i n s p i l l
t h i c k n e s s
may b e s u p e r i o r . Assess ing i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n de te rmining s p i l l -
i s h c ~ main o b j e c t i v e of t h i s s t u d y . *
Experimental Studies
To e v a l u a t e t h e c a p a b i l i t y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of o i l s p i l l s e n s o r s \
t h . r h expe r imen ta l s t u d i e s , it i s u s e f u l t o have a d e s i g n concept of what
/
might be cons ide red a n ' i d e a l ' system. O'Neil e t a l . (1981) sugges ted such -- a sys tem shou ld :
- - -
- - - - - - - -- -
Oprovide cont inuous , day and n i g h t , a l l weather , wide a r e a , real-time surveillance - -
* d e t e c t any o i l s p i l l t h a t occu r s i n t h e marine m v i r o n m e n t b o t h o n and below t h e s u r f a c e
Oconfirm t h a t t h e d e t e c t e d subs t ance i s i n f a c t o i l Ornap t h e a r e a l e x t e n t of t h e s p i l l Oo\tain t h e t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n and q u a n t i f y t h e amount of o i l s p i l l e d
Oiden t i fy t h e sou rce of p o l l u t i o n and t h e s p e c i f i c t y p e of p o l l u t a n t be ing d i scha rged
Oprovide p r e c i s e n a v i g a t i o n a l accuracy f o r s p i l l and sou rce l o c a t i o n a n d p o s i t i o n i n g of c l ean -up v e s s e l s t
Odocument a l l c o l l e c t e d d a t a o n - h a r d copy r e c o r d s f o r l e g a l ev idence .
TFis 'is a demanding l is t and one no t cap'ab,le of berng s a t i s f l e d by
any s img le senso r . Nonethe less t h e list can s e r v e a s a r e f e r e n c e when
e v a l u a t i n g e x i s t i n g i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . Table 5 a l p h a b e t i c a l l y l i s t s s t u - * ~ s of
a c t u a l f i e l d t r i a l s of many d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r s c o v e r i n g much of t h e c
/
e l ec t romagne t i c spectrum. Some ,of , t h e s t u h e s compara t ive ly e v a l u a t e d one
. I
p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of s e n s o r such a s pho tog raph ic camer%s, whi le o t h e r s canpar ed
d i f f e r e n t s enso r t y p e s such a s m u l t i s p e c t r a l s canne r s and r a d a r . Appendlx 1
d e s c r i b e s t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t y p e s r e f e r e n c e d i n Table 5 .
Table 5 s h o w s - t h a t s e n s o r e v a l u a t i o n s t u d l e s h l s t o r l c a l l y have
o c c u r r e d i n two main t i m e p e r i o d s - t,he e a r l y 1970's a-nd t h e 1980's . I_ - * Research f o r t h e f i r s t of t h e s e p e r i ~ d s sugges ted a heavy emphasls on
pho tog raph ic s e n s o r s a s w e l l a s i n i t i a l exaam@atlon of a wlde v a r l e t y of
s e n s o r s ove r much of t h e e l ec t romagne t i c spectrum. Work I n t h e 1980's has $
been based on improvements i n t h e electronics of s ens lng a n d r e c o r & n g u r u t s .
3.2. 1. - Sensor a s t e r s . Examination of t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d l n Tabl-e
5 l e a d s t o t h e fo l lowing c o n c l u s i o n s with r e s p e c t to senso r s y s t a n s , s p e c t r a l
bands , o i l t ype a n d o i l t h i c k n e s s .
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s i
0 mm
mo
dis
ied
K
-24
ae
ria
l cam
ep
a,
Kodak
W
ratt
en
18
A
an
d U
V
to
mid
- v
isib
le
fi
lt
er
s ,
Kodak
(8
40
3)
Tri
-X
Ae
rec
on
B
lac
k
an
d W
hit
e
film
.
Be
nd
ix
TM
/LN
-2
an
d B
en
dix
T
M/L
N-3
in
fra
re
d l
ine
s
ca
nn
ers
.
Fix
ed
b
eam
, d
ua
l p
ola
riz
ed
m
icro
ka
ve
ra
dio
me
ters
.
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
OR
FR
EQU
ENC
Y
Vis
ible
an
d p
ho
to-
gra
ph
ic
infr
are
d
Ult
rav
iole
t t
o
mid
dle
w
av
ele
ng
th
vis
ible
-
I 4
-
5.5
pm
an
d
8 -
14
pm
res
pe
ct-
iv
ely
6
Ce
nte
r fr
eq
ue
nc
ies
o
f 1
0.2
GHZ
an
d,
d
30
GH
z re
sp
ec
t-
ive
ly
%+
- In
f ra
red
giv
es
sli
gh
tly
sh
arp
er
oil
wa
ter
co
ntr
as
t a
t l
ow
su
n
an
gle
s,
bu
t b
oth
v
isib
le a
nd
in
fra
red
co
loz
a
re
us
efu
l i
n s
pi
ll
de
tec
tio
n.
- 0
.36
t
o 0
.40
pm
are
mo
at
uq
efy
l w
av
ele
ng
ths
fo
r h
yd
roc
arb
on
d
ete
ct i
on
, b
ut
0.6
0
als
o h
as
p
ote
nti
al.
- 8 -
14
Prn
ima
ge
ry is
muc
h s
up
eri
or
to
4 -
5.5
pm
an
d is
be
st
of
all
im
ag
ery
o
f a
uth
ors
un
de
r c
lea
r
we
ath
er
co
nd
itio
ns
.
- M
icro
wav
e s
en
so
rs h
av
e
po
ten
tka
l i~
oi
l s
pi
ll
de
tec
tio
n a
s a
n a
ll*
w
ea
the
r b
ack
-up
t
o o
the
r s
en
qr
s,
alt
ho
ug
h m
icro
wav
e s
en
so
rs c
ap b
e c
on
fuse
d b
y
sh
ips
' w
akes
an
d
se
a
co
nd
itio
ns
.
Ge
rac
i a
nd
Ca
lta
bia
nc
(
19
83
)
Goo
dman
a
nd
Mo
rris
on
L
(19
85
)
TAB
LE 5
. SU
MM
ARY
OF
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
EV
ALU
ATI
ON
S
TU
DIE
S -
Co
nti
nu
ed
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
~a
va
l' Re
sea
rch
L
ab
ora
tory
fo
ur
fre
qu
en
cy
du
al
po
lar-
iz
ed
sy
nth
eti
c a
pe
tatu
red
ra
da
r.
Co
nv
en
tio
na
l 3
5 m
rn
ca
me
ras
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n
12
fil
ter
,*
Kod
ak
Hig
h
Sp
ee
d
an
d K
od
ak
Ek
tac
hro
me
In
fra
red
Co
lor
f il
ms
.
Air
bo
rne
AG
A
Th
erm
ov
isio
n
Sy
ste
m.
- -
~o
no
ch
ko
me
LL
LT
V
wit
h a
C
orn
ing
7
-51
f
il
te
r a
nd
p
la
ri
ze
r.
Ba
rr
an
d
Str
ou
d t
he
rm$
l jm
a g
e r .
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
OR
FREQ
UEN
CY
Ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
, in
fra
re'd
fr
om
0
.7
to
0.9
pm
Th
erm
al
in•’
rak
ed
fr
om
2
.0
to
5.6
j.&
m
Ult
rav
iole
t an&
ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
in•
’ rare
d
7
RE
SUL
TS
- R
eli
ab
le o
ii
sp
il
l d
ete
cti
on
is
'pd
ss
ible
ov
er
wid
e
qre
as
un
de
r a
dv
ers
e w
ea
the
r c
on
dit
ion
s,
bu
t th
ere
is d
iff
icu
lty
i
n o
bta
iniq
g.
rea
l-ti
me
p
roc
ess
ing
.
- C
olo
r in
fra
red
ph
oto
gra
ph
s c
an
be
dig
itiz
ed
to
de
term
ine
ar
ea
co
ve
r-
ag
e o
f o
il
sp
ills
. -
Bo
th
infr
are
d p
ho
tog
rap
hy
a
nd
'
the
rma
l in
fra
red
im
ag
ery
are
e
ffe
cti
ve
in
. id
en
tify
ing
oi
l 0
0
wa
ter,
b
ut
the
y m
ust
be
use
d t
o-
ge
the
r to
pro
vld
e
ac
cu
rate
da
ta
inte
rpre
tati
on
. -
Ne
ith
er
met
ho
d is
ca
pa
ble
of
de
term
inin
g o
il
ty
pe
or
th
ick
ne
ss
.
- Im
ag
ery
w
as
com
bin
ed
into
a c
oq
po
s-
. ite
mo
nit
br
imag
e w
ith
re
d f
or
IR
, G
lue
fo
r W
a
nd
g
ree
n f
or
po
sill
ion
.
ima
ge
ry.
I
- E
ss
en
tia
l o
il
sp
il
l a
rea
l in
foq
ka
- ti
on
pro
vid
ed
i
n a
re
ad
ily
un
d4
r-
sto
od
fo
rma
t in
re
al-
tim
e.
I I I
. I
_TA
B'L
E 5.
SUM
MA
RY
OF
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
EV
ALU
ATI
ON
. S
TU
DIE
S -
Co
nti
nu
ed
RE
SEA
RC
HE
R
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
W
AV
ELEN
GTH
O
R
FREQ
UEN
CY
Co
nv
en
tio
na
l v
ide
os
f
or
V
isib
le s
pe
ctr
um
p
os
itio
na
l a
nd
na
vig
ati
on
- $1 i
nfo
rma
tio
n.
Go
rdo
n e
t a
l.
--
Nin
e
inc
h F
air
ch
ild
T-1
1
- U
ltra
vio
let
( U
n,i
ted
S
tate
s,
ca
me
ras
wit
h a
la
rge
(0
.32
-
0.4
0 p
m)
19
71
bl
an
d
va
rie
ty o
f f
il
te
r a
nd
fi
lm
to
M
unda
y --
et a
l.
(19
71
) ty
pe
s.
in•
’ r a
red
(0
.72
-
0.8
0 pm
-)
70
mm
fo
rma
t c
am
era
s w
ith
a
lar
ge
va
rie
ty o
f f
il
te
r
, a
nd
f
ilm
ty
pe
s.
Mu
ltis
pe
ctr
al
lin
e s
ca
nn
er
wit
h
17
ch
an
ne
ls e
ac
h.
Ho
rva
th
an
d
Ste
wa
rt
Mu
ltis
pe
ctr
al
lin
e s
ca
nn
er
0.3
2 -
0.3
8 p
m
(Un
ite
d S
tate
s ,
wit
h
17
c
ha
nn
els
. 0
.45
-
0.4
7
pm
1
9jl
a)
,
0.5
5 -
0.5
8p
m
9.3
-
11
.7 p
m
I
RE
SUL
TS
6
- E
qu
ipm
en
t p
ort
ab
le,
ea
sil
y i
ns
tall
-
ed
, lo
w
in
ma
inte
na
nc
e-a
nd
ea
sy
to
o
pe
rate
.
. P
- G
oo
d
thin
sli
ck
de
tec
tio
n i
s p
ra-
vid
ed
b
y
W +
-
blu
e
ba
nd
ph
oto
g~
ap
hy
th
ick
s
lic
k b
y
gre
en
ba
nd
. -
Red
a
nd
ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
infr
are
d b
an
ds
are
no
t u
se
ful
fo
r o
il d
ete
cti
on
, b
ut
the
rma
l in
fra
red
ca
n d
ete
ct
oil
-
Bo
th p
ho
tog
rap
hy
a
nd
sc
an
ne
r d
ata
g
ive
go
od
r
es
ult
s;
ph
oto
gra
ph
y is
c
he
ap
er,
b
ut
sc
an
ne
r c
an
be
ea
sil
y '
qu
an
tifi
ed
.
*
- S
un
a
ng
le,
hy
dro
ca
rbo
n t
yp
ee, a
nd
s
lic
k t
hic
kn
es
s c
an
va
ry
the
re-
f le
cta
nc
e a
nd
th
erm
al
info
rma
tio
n
rec
ord
ed
b
y
dif
fe
re
nt
ch
an
ne
ls.
- O
il
ty
pe
c
an
no
t b
e
dis
tin
gu
ish
ed
b
y
MSS
in
str
um
en
tati
on
, b
ut
re-
fle
cta
nc
e r
eg
ion
s
(UV
to
IR) d
efi
ne
ar
ea
l e
xte
nt
an
d,
tog
eth
er
wit
h
the
rma
l d
ata
, c
an
ap
pro
xim
ate
s
pi
ll
-
thic
kn
es
s.
-
RES
EAR
CH
ER
Low
e a
nd
Ha
se
ll
( 1
96
9)
Ma
rte
c
Lim
ite
d
(Can
ada,
1
98
5)
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
Mu
ltis
pe
ctr
al
lin
e s
ca
nn
er
wit
h
12
ch
an
ne
ls.
Ha
sse
lbla
d 5
00
EL
/M,
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n
18A
f
ilte
r,
Kod
ak
Tri
-X
Bla
ck
an
d W
hit
e fi
lm
Pe
nta
x M
E-S
uper
3
5 nun,
no
f
ilte
rs
, K
od
ac
olo
r 2
00
a
nd
Ilf
ord
XPl.
RCA
Mod
el
TC
1030
H
Low
L
igh
t L
ev
el
Te
lev
isio
n
wit
h a
C
orn
ing
7-
51
fi
lt
er
a
nd
ho
riz
on
tal
po
lari
ze
r.
Th
erm
al
Imag
ing
L
td.
Sy
stem
80
20
P
yro
-Ele
ctr
ic
Vid
ico
n.
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
OR
FR
EQU
ENC
Y
Ult
rav
iole
t to
th
erm
al
in•’
rare
d
Ult
rav
iole
t
Vis
ible
Ult
rav
iole
t a
nd
n
ea
r in
fra
red
Th
erm
al
infr
are
d
(8
- 1
4p
m)
RE
SUL
TS
- Bo
th u
ltra
vio
let
an
d t
he
rma
l in
fra
- re
d p
rov
ide
th
e b
es
t c
on
tra
st
ag
ain
st
bac
kg
rou
nd
se
aw
ate
r.
- Good
res
ult
s a
re
ac
hie
va
ble
un
de
r a
de
qu
ate
li
gh
t c
on
dit
ion
s,
bu
t sy
ste
m i
s n
ot
ca
pa
ble
of
rea
l-ti
me
o
pe
rati
on
or
de
term
ina
tio
n o
f o
il
ty
pe
or
th
ick
ne
ss.
- Vis
ible
ph
oto
gra
ph
y is
no
t a
s
dis
cri
min
ati
ng
as
W.
- E
xc
ell
en
t o
il-w
ate
r d
isc
rim
ina
tio
n
res
ult
s w
ith
ov
erc
as
t s
kie
s a
nd
c
alm
wa
ters
. - T
his
sy
ste
m h
as
a w
ide
fie
ld o
f v
iew
, is r
eli
ab
le a
nd
ea
sy
to u
se.
- O
il
de
tec
tio
n c
ap
ab
ilit
ies
of
un
it
are
min
imal
.
TAB
LE
5.
SUM
MAR
Y O
F SE
NSO
R
SY
ST
EM
, EV
AL
UA
TIO
N
ST
UD
IES
-
Co
nti
nu
ed
.
P
Mau
gh
an e
t a
l.
--
( 1
97
3)
- O
il
ca
n b
e d
ete
cte
d,
ev
dn
un
de
r n
igh
t c
on
div
ion
s ,
bu
t n
um
ero
us
fa
lse
ta
rg
ets
ar
e r
ec
ord
ed
, th
e
fie
ld g
f v
iew
is
na
rro
w a
nd
in
terp
reta
tio
n is
dif
fic
ult
.
Ba
rr a
nd
~
tr
ou
d IR
18
T
he
rma
l In
fra
red
Im
ager
y
Sy
ste
m.
Th
erm
al,
in
fra
red
(
8 -
14
pm
)
sli
ck
ra
the
r th
an
sli
ck
it
se
lf.
Oil
sp
ills
Se
nso
r w
hic
h
me
asu
res
sp
ec
tra
l ra
dia
nc
e
fro
m
va
po
ur
clo
ud
fro
m
-. T
his
sy
ste
m p
rod
uc
es
vir
tua
lly
no
u
se•’
ul
da
ta e
xc
ep
t u
nd
er
ve
ry
sp
ec
ial
co
nd
itio
ns
o
f lo
w w
ind
a
nd
Th
erm
al
inf;
are
d
(8
'-
14
pm
)
hig
h
ev
ap
ora
tio
n.
- d
ly
po
sit
ive
co
lor
film
(S
O-3
97
) w
ith
Wra
tte
n
1A
fi
lt
er
ca
n p
rov
ide
a
de
qu
ate
im
ige
ry q
ua
lity
un
de
r le
ss t
ha
n o
pti
mu
m w
ea
the
r c
on
dit
ion
su
ch
as
clo
ud
or
ha
ze
.
An
arr
ay
of
thre
e H
ass
el-
b
lad
5
00
EL
70
mm
c
am
era
s,
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n
1A
fi
lt
er
w
ith
Kod
ak
Co
lor
SO
-39
7,
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n
12
fi
lt
er
w
ith
~d
dk
kk
Ker
och
rom
e C
olo
r In
fra
red
(2
44
3)
an
d
no
f
il
te
r w
ith
Kod
ak
Plu
s-
X
Pa
nc
hro
ma
tic
(
24
02
).
Ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
spec
;ru
rn
\
L
,
Mil
lard
et a
l.
( 1
97
3)
--
Mil
lard
a
nd
Wo
ole
ver
(
19
73
) a
nd
- U
se
of
a
Co
rnin
g
7-5
1
fi
lt
er
(W
ve
0
.67
prn
an
d b
elo
w
0.4
2 pm
) o
n pn
ine
xp
en
siv
e
co
nv
en
tio
na
l te
lev
ks
ion
c
am
era
w
ith
bla
ck
a
nd
wh
ite
mo
pit
or
ca
n g
rea
tly
. e
nh
an
ce
de
tec
tio
n k
f o
i s
pil
ls r
el
at
ie
to
th
e e
ye
.
Vid
eo
c
am
era
w
ith
sp
ec
tra
l a
nd
po
la<
izin
g
fil
tra
tio
n.
Ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
spe
ctr
um
TA
BL
E
5.
SUM
MA
RY
O
F
SEN
SOR
SYSTEM
EV
AL
UA
TIO
N STUDIES -
Co
nti
nu
ed
I
,
4
Tw
o v
ide
o c
am
era
s w
ith
b
P
ho
tog
rap
hic
-
Th
e
two
ca
me
ra
sy
ste
m c
an
min
imiz
e
ea
ch
v
lew
ing
th
rou
gh
a
, t
he
ef
fe
cts
of
su
n
gl
in
t w
hen
o
pe
rati
ng
i
n a
s
ub
tra
cti
ve
po
lar-
p
ola
riz
ati
on
f
il
te
r o
rl'e
nt
ed
90•‹ t
o t
he
oth
er
. iz
inq
fa
sh
ion
.
i I
I R
r~
nti
c
~mer e
t a
1 .
1 An
a
rr
ay
of
fou
r H
aa
se
l-
--
CI!
A
, I
tV
7J
)
1 bla
d
50
0 EL/M
70m
m
ca
me
ras
a
nd
I'
i ancl
a
Ze
~s
s RM
K
15
23
1 , Ru
dd
er ~t
61
. --
ca
me
ra,
a
wid
e
ran
ge
of
I (
Un
l*
~d
5'
~t
~s
,
1'37
2 )%
f 1 l
te
rs
~
nc
lud
lng
Ko
dak
I
1 W
ratt
en
IH
A,
39
C,
47
8,
32
,
I 1
35
, 6
5,
75
, 9
8
an
d
99
,
li j
Km
lak
T
r L
-X
Ae
rcy
rap
hlc
, B
lark
a?
d
Kh
lt
e
(24
03
1,
RE
SUL
TS
-
I I , Nevi l
l~
t*
t a
l.
( 1
97
9)
--
I I
' h
'i,~
iak
Ek
tac
hrm
e HS
Ae
ro-
1 y
r<
lph
lr C
olo
r
( 2
24
H 3
an
d
1 K
~<
dd
k A
ero
dir
?n
p Co i
or
I I
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
OR
F
RE
QU
EN
~K. \
t I RL
.ISWH
CH
EH
SEN
SOR
SY
STE
M
I ~
ma
ge
or
da
y
us
e
in
hig
h se
a s
tate
$.
I
LL
LT
V
wit
h a
h
or
izo
nta
l p
ol
dr
~z
~n
g
f~
lt
er
a
nd
-
Co
rn
~n
y 7-5
1
f ~
lt
er
.
Ul
tr
av
~o
le
t, v
ls-
ib
le a
nd
p
ho
tn-
gra
ph
lc lnf r
are
d
1
- H
igh
c
on
tra
st,
re
al-
t.im
d
ynam
ic
ima
ge
ry
of
oil
sp
il
l p
os
sib
le u
nd
er
va
r io
ue
sk
y c
on
dit
ion
s.
- N
igh
t u
se
ii
mit
ed
wh
en
lig
hts
in
- M
ult
iba
nd
ph
oto
gra
ph
s
tog
eth
er
wit
h
co
lor
ph
oto
gra
ph
s a
re e
ff
ec
tiv
e i
nl
o
i 1 s
pi 1
1 d
ete
cti
on
. I
- M
axim
um
ima
ge
c
on
tra
st
en
ha
na
em
en
tl
- P
"
of
hy
dro
ca
rbo
ns
is
ac
hie
ve
d
wit
h
the
fo
llo
win
g
fil
m/f
rlt
er
c
au
bin
a-
tio
ns
:
24
03
/99
a
nd
2
40
3/3
2
(vis
i-
ble
b
an
d),
2
42
4/9
9
an
d
24
24
/32
(ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
inf
r.a
red
b
an
d).
I.
*
TAB
LE
5;
SUM
MAR
Y O
F
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
EV
ALU
ATI
ON
S
TU
DIE
S -
Co
nti
nu
ed
RE
SEA
RC
HE
R
5 S
EN
SO
R
SYST
EM
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
. OR
FR
EQU
ENC
Y
1
. (1
97
5)
I
S m
ult
i-b
an
d
ca
me
ra w
ith
V
isib
le t
o t
he
rma
l in
fra
red
ae
ria
l fi
lms
. in
fra
red
Wil
d RC-8
ae
ria
l c
am
era
"
wit
h c
olo
r a
nd
bla
ck
a
nd
w
hit
e
film
s.
I Fu j
its
u t
he
rma
l s
ca
nn
er.
I
lin
e s
ca
nn
er .'
-7
Th
aman
e
t a
l.
(19
72
) A
v
ari
ety
of
ca
me
ras,
--
Ult
rav
iole
t t
o
fi
lt
er
s a
nd
fi
lm t
yp
es
. p
ho
tog
rap
hic
in
fra
red
Ult
rav
iole
t sc
an
ne
r.
Ult
rav
iole
t
Nin
e
ch
an
ne
l b
lac
k
an
d ,
* I ul
tra
vio
let
to
I w
hit
e m
ult
isp
ec
tra
l I i
nfr
are
d
1 sc
an
ne
r.
I
RE
SUL
TS
- C
olo
r p
ho
tog
rap
hy
is
su
ita
ble
fq
r
de
term
ina
tio
n o
f s
lic
k a
rea
, e
sp
ec
iall
y w
ith
fe
w c
lou
ds
an
d
low
w
ind
s.
- T
her
mal
im
ag
es
are
eff
ec
tiv
e f
or'
th
ick
oi
l s
lic
ks
on
ly.
c
- B
lac
k
an
d w
hit
e p
ho
tog
rap
hy
an
dJo
r s
ca
nn
er
ima
ge
ry g
ive
ad
equ
a&
are
al
info
rma
tio
n o
n s
pil
ls;
co
lor
fia
rns
ad
d little
ex
ce
pt
co
st.
- T
on
al
va
ria
tio
ns
, w
hic
h
ca
n b
e re
pre
se
nta
tiv
e o
f o
il
fil
m t
dlo
k-
, n
es
s,
are
mre
ea
sil
y i
de
nti
fie
d o
n
ph
oto
gra
ph
s.
- D
iffe
ren
tia
l p
ola
riz
ati
on
ca
n a
dd
c
on
tra
st
be
twe
en
o
il
an
d w
ate
r.
Th
om
son
and
McC
oll
(C
an
ad
a,
19
72
)
/ Yor
sf
~e
ld et a
l.
--
TA
BL
E
5.
SUMMARY
OF
SE
NSO
R
SYST
EM
EVA
LUA
TIO
N
STU
DI4
3S -
~o
nt'
inu
ed
'
SEN
SOR
SY
STE
M
WA
VEL
ENG
TH
- R
ESU
LT
S -
'4
OR FREQUENCY ''
Sid
e-l
oo
kin
g
sy
nth
eti
c
ap
era
ture
ra
da
r.
Rad
ar
ban
d
da
y-n
igh
t c
ap
ab
ilit
y,
co
nd
itio
ns
are
hig
h
Vin
ten
70mm
ca
me
ras
wit
h
se
ve
ral
film
an
d
fi
lt
er
ty
pe
s.
Mo
d~
fie
d Re
co
no
fax
in
fra
red
li
ne
sc
an
ne
r.
Co
nv
en
tio
nal
da
yli
gh
t te
lev
~s
lon
an
d
LL
LT
V.
cbb
b'f Le
ica
M
-3
35m
m cameras,
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n,
28,
18A
, 3
9,
8913 f
il
te
rs
in
va
rlo
us
co
mb
inati
on
s w
ith
Kod
ak
Plus-X
Ae
rog
rap
hic
P
an-
ch
ro
ma
t~c
Infr
are
d
(24
24
) a
nd
K
odak
H
~g
h Sp
ee
d
Ek
ta-
ch
rom
e
Co
lor
fllr
ns.
P
P
Ult
rav
iole
t,
vis
- ib
le a
hd
ph
oto
- g
rap
hic
in
fra
red
8 -
14
,%m
I - ,
Th
e b
es
t f
ilm
/fil
ter
c
an
bin
ati
on
f
or
de
lin
ea
tin
g o
il s
lic
ks
is Kodab
Plu
s-X
w
ith
Kod
ak
Wra
tte
n 3
9.
- T
he
infr
are
d l
ine
sc
an
ne
r is
us
efu
l i
n o
il
de
tec
tio
n o
nly
wh
en
the
re
is
a
sig
nif
ica
nt
tem
pe
ratu
re d
if f
ere
nc
b
etw
ee
n
oi
l a
nd
wa
ter.
Ult
rav
iole
t,
vis
- ib
le a
nd
ph
oto
- g
rap
hic
in
•’ ra
red
Vls
ible
sp
ec
tru
m
1
- T
he
re i
s s
ign
ific
an
t d
ete
cti
on
ca
pt
ab
ilit
y i
n t
he
ult
ra
vio
let
an
d b
lu
~
ba
nd
s,
less i
n t
he
in
fra
red
an
d
alm
ost
no
ne
i
n t
he
gre
en
an
d r
ed
. -
Best
fil
m/f
ilte
r
ca
nb
ina
tio
ns
a
re
eit
he
r 2
42
4 o
r 2
40
2 f
ilm
wit
h e
ith
r
18A
o
r 39
fil
ter
s.
f -
Oil
ty
pe
c
an
no
t b
e
sp
ec
ific
all
y
dete
rmin
ed
, *
bu
t Lt
may
be p
oss
ible
I to
sh
ow
oi
l t
yp
e
dif
fere
nc
es
wh
en
mo
re
tha
n'o
ne
ty
pe
1s
pre
se
nt-
~ .,
- U
sefu
l f
or
vie
w
of
sp
ill
du
rin
g
I
fli
gh
t a
nd
to
aid
fli
gh
t li
ne
n
av
iga
tio
n a
nd
tr
ac
k r
ec
ov
ery
.
I -
RE
SEA
RC
HE
R
Yu
anfu
e
t a
l.
(19
82
) --
Zw
ick
e
t a
l.
(19
81
) --
TAB
LE
5.
SUM
MAR
Y O
F SE
NSO
R
SYST
EM
EVA
LUA
TIO
N
ST
UD
IES
~-
Co
nti
nu
ed
SEN
SOR
SY
STEM
W
AV
ELEN
CJT
H
OR
FR
EQU
ENC
Y
I
- C
olo
r a
nd
mu
ltis
pe
ctr
al
Ult
fav
iole
t ,
vis
- c
am
era
sy
g te
rns.
. ib
le,
ph
oto
gra
ph
ic
an
d t
he
rma
l in
fra
- re
d a
nd
mic
row
ave
Th
erm
al
infr
are
d s
ca
nn
er.
b
an
d
Sc
an
nin
g m
icro
wav
e ra
dio
- m
ete
r.
LL
LT
V
wit
h a
p
ola
riz
ing
f
il
te
r a
nd
a
sp
ec
tra
l f
il
te
r c
en
tere
d a
t 0
.40
p
m a
nd
0.7
5 p
m.
RE
SUL
TS
- S
en
sit
ivit
y i
n b
lue
a
nd
g
ree
n m
akes
it p
refe
rab
le t
o p
ho
tog
rap
hy
, y
et
ine
xp
en
siv
e .
I
- U
ltra
vio
let
is b
es
t f
or
de
tec
tin
g I
thin
oi
l s
lic
ks
, b
lue
-gre
en
is
nd
t
be
st,
re
d f
or
th
ick
sli
ck
s a
nd
p
ho
tog
rap
hic
in
fra
red
' ii
ot'
ve
ry
use
•’ ul.
-
Co
lor
ph
oto
gra
ph
y of
•’e
ra t
on
al
dif
fere
nc
es
re
lati
ve
to
va
rio
us
o
il
co
nd
itio
ns
. I
\
- H
igh
est
co
ntr
as
t f
or
mu
ltis
pe
ctr
a
- p
ho
tog
rap
hy
is
qu
rin
g o
verc
ast
i
sk
ies
, b
ut
un
de
r n
o c
on
dit
ion
s u
rn
oi
l t
yp
e
or
th
ick
ne
ss
be
reli
ab
ly
de
term
ine
d,
1 -
Th
erm
al
infr
are
d a
nd
mic
row
anre
s
en
sin
g c
an
de
tec
t o
il
du
rin
g b
otl
! d
ay
an
d
nig
ht.
I
Vis
ible
sp
ec
tru
m
- -
Co
ns
iste
ntl
y h
igh
tai
l a
nd
wak
er
co
ntr
as
t f
or
al
l o
il
ty
pe
s b
ut
no
a
pp
are
nt
va
ria
tio
n f
or
th
ick
ne
ss
.
M
Photographic -as and rriltispsctral -ers. - -
1. These s e n s o r s o p e r a t e b e s t with f e w c l o u d s , l i t t l e haze and low
winds jShimoda e t a1 . , 1 9 7 5 ) . -,
2 . P h o t o g r a p h i c a n d s c a n n e r i n f o m t i o n b o t h p o v i d e f a i r 011 -
s p i l l d e t e c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y (Munday , 1971 ; U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
3. Good a r e a l i n f o r m a t i o n c a n be p r o v i d e d by t h e s ~ s e n s o r s ( G e r a c l
and C a l t a b i a n o , 1983; Shimoda -- e t a l . , 1975 ) ; c o l o r a p p e a r s t o
p r o v i d e l i t t l e a d v a n t a g e o v e r b l a c k and w h l t e (Thaman -- e t a l . ,
4. D i f f e r e n t i a l ' p o l a r i z a t i o n c a n i n c r e a s e 011 and w a t e r c o n t r a s t
9
(Tharnan e t , a l . , 1972) . -- 5. Although l l r n i t e d by a l a c k of r e a l - t l m e c a p a b l l l t y , -
photographic cameras have t h e a d v a n t a y e of b e l n y c p n e r a l l y 1-5
expensive t h a n s c a n n e r s (Munday e t a l . , 1971; U n i t e d S t a t e s , --
6
6. The b e s t f l l m / f l l $ e r combinations a p p a r t o be 2402/18k o r 3 ( > ,
24d3/32 o r 99 , 2424/18A, 3 2 , 39 o r 9 9 , and SO-397/1A (Vlz ) . , , .
1974; Maughan -- e t a 1 ; , 1973; Reinheirner e t a1 . , 1973; Canada , -- 1972;, Uni ted S t a t e s , 1 9 7 2 ) . T h l s I S a wide a w r t r w n t of f ~ l m
and f l l t e r t y p e s , b u t the most p r e f e r - r e d b a n d s a rn r )nqx t t l i e s c *
a p p e a r s t o be t h e W - b l u e a n d r e d ( h p ~ a n d l x 2 ) .
areal sp i l l deilin 6 a t i o n (Canada, 1985; Zwick e t al . , 1981;
N e v i l l e e t a l . , 1979). -- W and red o r I R bands t o g e t h e r o f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l e o i l l w a t e r
Z
c o n t r a s t enhancement ( M i l l a r d and Woolever, 1973; M i l l a r d e t -
a - d l . , 1913). - P r a c t i c a l advantages of v ideo s y s t e s i n c l u d e r ea l - t ime viewing
and r eco rd ing , p o r t a b i l i t y , e a s e of i n s t a1 l a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n ,
low c o s t , and u s e i n f l i g h t l i n e n a v i g a t i o n and t r a c k recovery
( ~ a n a d a , 1985; Goodman and Morrison, -1985; N w i l l e e t dl., -- 1979; Worsf ie ld e t a l . , 1975) . --
3-2.1.3 LLISV- - 1. Capable of d e t e c t i n g o i l on water under n i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , t h i s
s e n s o r ty* a l s o o f f e r s t h e advantages of r e a l - t i m e d a t a
p r e s e n t a t i o n , wide f i e l d view and e a s e of u se (Goodman and
M o r r i k n , 1985; N e v i l l e e t a l . , , 1979). -- 2. May be l i m i t e d i n n i g h t u s e when l i g h t s a r e i n image o r i n d a y ,
use i n h i g h s e a s t a t e s ( N e v i l l e e t a l . , 1979). - -- 3. No a p p a r e n t a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t t h i q k n e s s (Zwick e t a l . , 1981 ). --
3.2.1.4 Radar.
1. T h i s s e n s o r can d e t e c t o i l under adve r se weather c o n d i t i o n s and
a t n i g h t b y measuring b a c k s c a t t e r d i f f e r e n c e s between o i l e d and
u n o i l e d wa te r s i n moderate s e a s t a t e s , but, i s n o t capab le of
r e a l - t i m e p r o c e s s i n g o r d e t e c t i o n a d e r calm o r s e v e r e s u r f a c e
c o n d i t i o n s (Thaman e t a l . , 1972; Aukland e t a l . , 1971; Catoe - - -- -- and O r t h l i e b , 1971; United S t a t e s , 1970).
3 6
Spectral Bands-
Ultraviolet.
1. T h i s b a n d i s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e p o r t e d t o o p t i m i z e t h e c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n o i l a n d uater, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t to t h r n
s l i c k s ( C a n a d a , 1985; Yuanfu -- et a l . , 1982 ; V l z y , 1974; Auk land
e t a l . , t 9 7 1 t C a t o e a n d O r t h l i e b , 1971'; Munday e t a l . , 1971; -- --
U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1971b; U n i t e d S t a t v 1970; L o w e a n d H a s e l l , "e
1969) .
V i s i b l e .
1. The b l u e band n e a r t h e u l t r a v i o l e t h a s so-me c a p a b i l r t y f o r o o l l
s p i l l detection (Yuanfu -- e t d l . , 1982; V ~ z y , 1 9 j 4 ; Hurlday - e t
a l . , 1971 ; uni ' ted ' S t a t e s , 1 9 7 1 b ) . -
2 . Some s o u r c e s r e p r t e d t h a t t h e g r e e n b i n d r s u s e f u l f o r
recording t h r c k 011 s l l c k s (Munday -- e t a l . , 1971 ; U n l t e t l b t a t c b , 'r
? 3 7 1 b ) , w h i l e a n o t h e r a r g u e d f o r t h e r e d b a n d (Yuanfu -- e t a1 .,
1 9 8 2 ) . V l z y ( 1 9 7 4 ) c l a i m e d n e i t h e r was s u l t a t l e .
/ H e a r or photographic infrared.
1. T h r s band by l t s e l f h a s p r o v e n of llttle u s 0 ~n 011 7 3 ~ 1 ~ 1 1 *- -
d e t e c t r o n o t h e r t h a n f o r t h e prx51ble e x ( - q ' t l o r , o f l o w bun
a n g l e c o n d r t l o n s (Yuanf u -- e t a l . , 1982 ; k u k l a r ~ d -- ct a! . , I 4 7 1 ;
C a t o e a n d O r t h l l e b , 1471; Munday -- e t a l . , 19711 U n i t e 4 St ate . , ,
1971b; UrA:ted States, 14751.
1. While several a u t h o r s r e p o r t t h a t t h i s port'ion of t h e spectrum I
i s s u i t a b l e f o r o i l s p i l l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (Yuanfu 'kt dl., 1982;
Munday e t a l . , 127-1; United S t a t e s , 1971b; &owe and H a s e l l , . ,
1
1969) , c e r t a i n c a v e a t s may apply . Fbr example, sane t h e r m a l B
s e n s o r s a r e much less e f f e c t i v e - t h a n o t h e r s , some image t o o - "
many f a l s e t a r g e t s (Canada, 1985) a n d some a r e o n l y capab le of
d e t e c t i n g t h i c k s l i c k s i n c l e a r weather c o n d i t i o n s (Shinad: et
?.$This p o r t i o n of t h e spectrum can be u t i l i z e d by c e r t a i n
i n s t r u m e n t s as dl 1-weather backup t o o t h e r se nso rs , b u t
e x i s t i n g microwave i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n can be confused by b o a t H
wakes o r s e a waves (Aukland e t a l . , 1971 ; Catoe a n d Or th l ieb , ' -- 197P; United S t a t e s , 1970).
O i l Type. -
- No s e n s o r system i s a p p a r e n t l y capab le of a c c u r a t e l y
i d e n t i f y i n g types of s p i l l e d o i l (Canada, 1985; G r a c i , and
.iZaltabiano, 1983; Yuanfu -- e t a l . , 1982; Horvath and Stewar t , .
1971) . However, i t may be p o s s i b l e t o ~ s h o w o i l t ype u
d i f f e r e n c e s when more than one o i l t ype i s p r e s e n t (Vizy ,
3 ,
- - -
oil 'IbLckmere.
- There i s reportedly l i m i t e d potentla1 for E-ta a a n s i n g --
t e c h n i q u e s t o i d e n t i f y o i l s p i l l t h i c k n e s s . l b n a l variat ions f
in c o l o r photogr-aphy may i n d l c a t e t h i c k n e s s d i f f e r e n c e s
(Thamanf et g., 1972) as might a combina t ion of mu l t i s p e c t r a l
bands from u l t r a v i o l e t t o thermal - (Uni ted S t a t e s , 1971a ) . These c o n c l u s i o n s as d e r ~ v e d from Table 5 a r e l n a g r e e w n t m t h
/
s l m i l a ~ summarizat ions by s e v e r a l o t h e r a u t h o r s r n c l u d n g Canada (1984b) ,
and Wobber ( 1 9 7 1 ) . Their reviews summarize senso r t y p e s and spectral bands,
b u t provldp no r e f e r e n c e s from t h e L i t e r a t u r e . -
-4 I
3.3 Determination of Study Objective and Sensor System.
' The preceding interpretation of Table 5 r n d l c a t e d t h h t d ~ a h l c
a r e a l d e l l n e a t l o n of o r 1 s p ~ l l s was f e a s r b l e wi th a v a r r e t y of s e n s o r s a n d
under a range of environmental c o n & t r o n s . Such was' no t t h e c a s e m t h 011
type o r t h l c k n e s s . The l r t e r a t u r e was c l e a r t h a t 011 type denti if l c a t l o n has
r,ot h e n ach leved , but t h e r e 1s &sagreerrrent over whether 61,111 t h ~ c k n c s s car)
be determrned . ..Id
Canada ( l 9 8 5 ) , Geracl and Ca l t ab rano (1983 J , Zwzck e t al. (1981 ) , --
Shlmoda e t a l . ( l 9 7 5 ) , Thaman e t a l . ( 1972) and United S t a t e s ( 1971a) kla-ve -- -- l n d l c a t e d t h a t 011 t h l c k n e s s de te r rn lna t lon by remote scnsl ncj t e c klrilques 16
u n c e r t d l n a t b e s t . However, wl thrn t h e v l s ~ b l e s ~ , e ~ t r u m , some su:c:es& a t o i l
t h i c k n e s s i d e n t l f r c a t r o n has been achleved accord lny t o Yuanf u -- e t al. ( 1982 1,
Munday -- e t a l . (7971) and Unrted S t a t e s ( 1 9 7 1 t ) t h r o u g h u s e of the ultraviolet
, - band f o r t h i n s l r c k s and t h e red orr green bands f o r t h l c k e l l c k $ .
In a n e f f o r t t o r e s o l v e t h e m a t t e r , a aeries Q•’ testa and a field - -
t r i a l w e r e undertaken in t h i s s t u d y wi th t h e o b j e c t i v e o f de t e rmin ing whether -
o i l s p i l l t h i c k n e s s c o u l d be determined through s e l e c t e d f i l t r a t i o n i n t h e
photographic spectrum. It w a s i n t ended t h a t t h e s e experinrents exaqine ,
s e v e r a l o i l t ypes and a range of s e n s o r f i l t e r s f r a n t h e , W t o I R i n r e l a t i o n
t o s p i l l t h i c k n e s s .
Imaging of o i l s p i l l t h i c k n e s s can be a f f e c t e d by o i l type-, o p t i c a l .
such as s k y l i g h t and camera a n g l e , and water c o n d i t i o n s such a s
s u r f a c e r,oughness and t u r b i d i t y . Table 6 l ists t h e s e condi t ions : r a t e s t h e i r
importance and d e s c r i b e s how each w a s & a l t w i th i n t h i s s t u d y . Owing t o t h e /
. - -
r e p u t e d d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c u r a t e l y s e n s i n g o i l t h i c k n e s s , most of ' these
v a r i a b l e s were e l i m i n a t e d o r minimized i n o r d e r t o i s o l a t e f i l t e r t y p e a s - t h e
key t h i c k n e s s de t e rminan t .
With r e s p e c t t o s e n s o r system s e l e c t i o n , Table 5 i n t e ; p r e t a t l o n
s u g g e s t s very p r a c t i c a i r e a s o n s f o r choos ing v ideo : r e a l + i m e viewing a n d
r e c o r d i n g , p o r t a b i l i t y , e a s e of i n s t a l l a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n and u s e i n f l i g h t
. x
l i n e n a v i g a t i o n and t r a c k r ecove ry . Its a n a l o g t o d i g i t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , "
C a l low r a p i d and a c c u r a t e computer enhancement and a n a l y s i s . Video a l s o h a s
s a t i s f a c t o r y s e n s i t i v i t y in t h e b l u e and green bands f o r optimum u s e i n l i g h t
o v e r c a s t c o n d i t i o n s . The f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s of most emergency response
o r g a n i z a t i o n s a l s o a rgue s t r o n g l y i n f a m r of v ideo because of i t s low c o s t .
With t h e s e advantages , v i d e o consequen t ly became t h e pr imary system of 1
cho ice . O .
..
TABLE 6. CONDITIONS &TED TO REMOTE S E N S ~ N G OF O I L SPILL THICKNESS - .
--
I L
w
Optical C o n d i t i o n s
O i l Type
Water C o n d i t i o n s
IMPORTANCE.
Majo r
M o d e r a t e
&]or
Major
Majo r "
Ma ] o r
M o d e r a t e
Min6r
CONDITIONS
S u n l i g h t
S k y l i q h t - t
Camera a n g l e
Crude o i l Waste o i l 10W30 o i l D i e s e l o i l ~ a s o l i n e
Surf ace r o u g h n e s s
T u r b i d i t y
M a r i n e v e g e t a t i o n
Tempe r a t u r e S a l i n i t y D i s s o l v e d
o x y g e n
i HOW DEALT WITH I N STUDY
Near ve r t i ca l sun angle$ t e s t e d . T e s t f n g d o n e with o v e r c a s t s k i e s . k o k a n g l e c o n s t a n t a t vertic'al'.
%
A\ IC
Each o i l t y p e s e p a r a t e l y imaged w i t h a v a r i e t y of f l l t e r s .
S e a s t a t e c a n g r e a t l y a f f e c t r e f l e c t i v i t y ; o n l y calm conditions imaged. F i l t r a t i o n i n t h e r e d band t e s t e d . This c a n be a f a c t o r n e a r - s h o r e ; n o n e a r s h o r e areas i m a g e d .
T h e s e a re n o t o f s u f i l c i \ e n t i m p o r t a n c e t o l n f l u e n c e r e s u l t s .
CBLLPTKR 4. lLgTHOD DlWEtO- AND '-LIsD -S 1
* L
Canmencing i n t h e summer of 1986, a s e r i e s of e o n t r o l l e d -
exper iments were c a r r i e d o u t t o tes t t h e hypo thes i s tha&,sel"ected v i d e o
f i l t r a t i o n can determine r e l a t i v e s p i l l t h i c k n e s s . These 9 . " exper iments were c o n t r o l l e d - t o l i m i t t h e v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g t h e - o p t i c a l - -:
I
t h i t h e s s r e l a t i o n s h i p . F o r , example, envi ronmenta l i30nditions such as 0 . '1
su r f a c e roughness and . t u r b i d i t y cou ld be e l i m i n a t e d , whi le a p p r o p r i a t e
weather c o n d i t i o n s cou ld be used when t h e y became a v a i l a b l e . In a d d i t i o n , % .
t h e exper iments p e r m i t t e d s e l e c t i v e t e s t i n g of v a r i o u s v ideo ,cameras and
f i l t e r s p r i o r t o a c t u a l f i e l d u se . q -
.+*> . - -. The c o n t r o l l e d t e s t s p r p g r e s s i v e l y improved on one ano thea u n t l l a
v4
r e l t a b l e da t a s e t was adqu i r ed . Data were c o l l e c t e 6 f o r each expell'irnent i n
2.
t h e s e r i e s , b u t d i g i t a l d a t a compi l a t ion and a n a l y s i s werg completed o n l y f o r
t h e f i n a i t e s t .
4.1 M e t h o d of Data Collection -
Z
P?
4. 1. 1 Pilot Test. On 15 August 1986, a p i l o t t e s t was under taken a t
~ k m n F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y f o r a b r i e f s i m p l i f s e d look a t whether th ickr iess \
- d i f f e r e n c e s cou ld be o b s e v e d . ' S i x t e e n t e n - l i t e r wh i t e bucke t s were f i l l e d
B I
with f r e s h w a t e r . F i f t e e n of t h e s e were in t roduced w i t h v a r y l n g q u i n t i t i e s \
(one drop t o 5 0 0 ml*) of waste o i l , d i e s e l o i l and g a s o l i n e . The o t k h was
- - l e f t wi th o n l y f r e shwa te r a s a c o n t r o l (Figure 8 ) . A Sony CCD v i d e o camera,
w i t h a s p e c t r a l s e n s i t i v i t y from t h e W t o t h e I R ( F i g u r e 9 ) was u t i l i z e d t o h -
image t h e c l u s t e r o f L b u c k e t s under b o t h d i r e c t s=ligh:t a n d f u l l shade
FIGURE 8. ARRANGEMENT OF PILOT TEST BUCKETS, SIMON FRASER UNIVEKSITY mOTE SENSING LABORATORY, 15 AUGUST 1986
Note: This 35 mm photograph shows shadow and sun lit areas i n t h e white buckets. The video imagery used for evaluat ion purposes i n t h e t e s t was c o l l e c t e d under f u l l sun condit ions i n i t i a l l y and then under f u l l shade condi t ions t o l i m i t exposure problems corn sun-shade c o n t r a s t .
#
\' .
-
-
FIGURE 9. SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY ' OF THE RCA NEWVICON AND SONY CCD V I D E O CAMERAS -
400 550 700 85(r . 1000 1150 I300
W A V E LENGTH ( N M I . -
,
SOURCE : Roberts, A ., and 0 . J. Evans, 1986: 7 3 2
condi t ions . S ix d i f f e r e n t f i l t e r types (18A, 88A, 400nm, 450nm, 500nm and
600nm) were s e p a r a t e l y mounted i n f r o n t of t h e camera l e n s to provide
s p e c i f i c wavelength coverage wi th in t h e photographic spectrum. The
t ransmi t tance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 18A g l a s s f i l t e r i s shown in Figure 10
by way of example. Appendix 3 shows t h e t r ansmi t t ance ranges of a l l of t h e
f i l t e r s used i n t h e p i l o t test .
The r e s u l t i n g recorded imagery was d isp layed on a monochrome
monitor i n t h e l a b and examined v i s u a l l y without enhancement. N o d i g i t a l o r
s t a t i s t i c a l ana lyses were undertaken. A t t h i s s imple l e v e l of examination,
t h e t e s t succeeded i n d a m n s t r a t i n g t h a t i t was p n s s i b l e t o v i s u a l l y
d i sc r imina te amongst t h i c k l a y e r s ( g r e a t e r t han 100 p m ) and o i l t ypes such as
crude o i l and gaso l ine , b u t n o t amongst t h i n n e r l a y e r s ( less t h a n 100 p m ) . However, it was considered a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t d i g i t a l enhancement and
a n a l y s i s would be a b l e t o e i t h e r provide t h i s d i sc r imina t ion and/or s e t
d i sc r imina t ion limits f o r t h i n n e r l a y e r s . One p o t e n t i a l cause of t h e poor
t h i n l aye r d i sc r imina t ion w a s t h e t r ans lucence and *ite c o l o r of t h e buckets
which would have s i g n i f i c a n t l y i nc reased l i g h t l e v e l s (a lbedo) •’ran bottom
r e f l e c t a n c e . In t h e " t h i n l aye r " buckets t h i s would have added t o t h e
non-oil r e f l e c t a n c e and masked t h e weaker o i l r e f l e c t a n c e . A second t e s t was
t h e r e f o r e planned t o e l imina te t h i s background albedo problem.
4. 1.2 Shellburn Refinery Test. Arrangements were made wi th Shel lburn
Refinery, Burnaby, B.C., f o r u s e of i t s dock and foreshore f o r t h e second
test i n t h e series. I n each of f i v e 45 ga l lon drums donated by S h e l l Canada
Limited, f i v e e igh t - inch diameter ABS p l a s t i c p ipe c y l i n d e r s one foo t i n
l e n g t h were clamped v e r t i c a l l y ' (F igu re 11 1. A s i x t h 45 ga l lon drum was t o be
TOP P L A N
45 GALLON STEEL TANK
CLAMP MOUNTS
8 . DlA. A B S PLASTIC PIPE
MATTE BLACK INNER COATING ON 45 GALLON S T E E L TANK AND CYLINDERS
S E A W A T E R u OBLIQUE CUTAWAY VIEW
- - - - --- -
* 1
used as a c o n t r o l and t h e r e f o r e had n c clamped c y l i n d e r s . All of t h e
c y l i n d e r s a n d t h e i n t e r i o r of e v e r y drum w a s p a i n t e d m a t t e black t o r e d u c e
t h e h c k g r o k d a1 bedo. 1 I
The s i x drums were p o s i t i o n e d i n a n exposed area a d j a c e n t t o t h e
S h e l l b u r n Qck where seawater w a s pumped t o w i t h i n two i n c h e s of t h e top of
each drum. Diesel . o i l , g a s o l i n e , b u n k e r f u e l , w a s t e o i l and c r u d e o i l were
, , e a c h i n t r o d u c e d i n t o d i f f e r e n t drums i n f i v e q u a n t i t i e s r a n g i n g • ’ r a n 0.0324
cc t o ' 3 2 . 4 c c ( F i g u r e s 12 and 1 3 ) .
The q u a n t i t i e s o f h y d r o c a r b o n p l a c e d i n t h e c y l i n d e r s ' i n each drum
were o r i p n s l l y i n t e n d e d t o s u n u l a t e f i v e d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s e s r a n g i n g •’rom
1 t o 10000 pm. U n f o r t u n a t e l y p o o l i n g o f t h e s m a l l e r h y d r o c a r b o n q u a n t i t i e s
(when t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e w i t h i n e a c h c y l i n d e r w a s n o t c o v e r e d ) r e s u l t e d i n
some u n c e r t a i n t y as t o e x a c t t h i n l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s . C a l c u l a t i o n s of - quantities f o r t b e purpose of r e p r e s e n t a t l n g t h i c k n e s s e s were as f o l 1 . 0 ~ ~ :
I n s l d e a r e a of each c y l i n d e r = t(r2 = 3.1416 ( 10.16 cm12 = 324 a n 2
If 1 p m = 0.001 mm, t h e n 10000 p m = 10 mrn = 1 cm
T h e r e f o r e , t o c o v e r a n a r e a of 32.4 cm2 t o a t h i c k r . e s s of 10000 a m , 324 cc
( 3 2 4 cm2 x 1 cm) were required*
~ o r r e s p o k d l n ~ t h i c k n e s s e s f o r o t h e r c y l i n d e r s were:
100 pn - 3.24 cc '
Imaglng was done under sun and s h a d e conditions w l t h a Sony CCD
vzdeo c a n e r a s e t on a p e d e s t a l m u n t b e s l d e th& S h e l l b u r n Qck a p i x o x l m t e l y
FIG
UR
E
12.
SC
HE
MA
TIC
O
F 4
5
GA
LL
ON
DR
UM
LA
YO
UT
, S
HE
Lk
8U
RN
.
RE
FIN
ER
Y
TE
ST
J,
15
SE
PT
EM
BE
R
CO
NT
RO
L
WA
ST
E O
IL
OJ
ES
EL
OIL
BU
NK
ER
F
UE
L
6
GA
SO
LIN
E
FIGURE 13. ARRANGEMENT OF 45 m L U N DRUMS, SHEL&BUIW W I N E R Y TEST, 15 SEPTEMBER 1986
above t h e drums pos i t i oned on t h e foreshore . F i l t e r s used i n t h e t e s t were
18A, 87B, 88A, 450nm, 550nm and 650nm (Appendix 3 ) .
On v i s u a l l y reviewing t h e v ideo imagery l a t e r on a monochrane
monitor, it was discovered t h a t , although some v a r i a t i o n s i n o i l type and
t h i c k n e s s were d i sce rnab le , t o o l a r g e an a r e a appeared i n each image. This
meant t h a t i n d i v i d u a l c y l i n d e r s were too s m a l l f o r proper viewing o r
d i g i t i z i n g . In a d d i t i o n , t h e non-ver t ica l sun ang le caused d i r e c t sun and
deep shade c o n t r a s t s i n t h e drums which r e s u l t e d i n a t o o wide exposure range
t h a t made a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i v i t y measurements very d i f f i c u l t . Consequently,
it was necessary t o design a t h i r d and f i n a l c o n t r o l l e d test.
4.1.3 Final Cbntrolled Test. The s e t u p f o r t h e f i n a l c o n t r o l l e d t e s t
(05 October 1986) a t S i m n Frase r Univers i ty was s i m i l a r t o t h e Shel lburn
Refinery test except t h a t t h e drums were pos i t i oned i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e and
imaged i n d i v i d u a l l y from a near v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n . The water c o n t r o l was i n
t h e c e n t r e of each drum between c y l i n d e r s r a t h e r t han i n a s e p a r a t e drum.
Hydrocarbon types were c rude o i l , waste o i l , 10W30 o i l , d i e s e l o i l and
gasol ine . Hydrocarbon q u a n t i t i e s were aga in 0.0324 c c t o 324 c c t o r e p r e s e n t
t h i cknesses r ang ing by o r d e r of magnitude b e t w e n one and 10000 pm
(micrometers o r microns) . However, pool ing of t h e sma l l e r q u a n t i t i e s (0.0324
- 3.24 c c ) made accu ra t e de te rmina t ion of t h e s e t h i c k n e s s e s impassible .
The camera s e t u p was i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of t h e p i l o t t e s t except
t h a t an RCA Newvicon r a t h e r t h a n a Sony CCD v ideo camera was used.
F i l t r a t i o n inc luded no f i l t e r , 18A, 88AI 650nm, 550nm, 450nm, 301A/92
combination, 50 and 30 1A/46 combination (Appendix 3 ) . (No f i l t e r impl ied
f u l l t r ansmi t t ance throughoGt ' t h e photographic spectrum according t o t h e
I s p e c t r a l s e n s i t i v i t y of the capera - F i g u r e 9 . ) A t e n - s e c o n d d u r a t i o n
hydrocarbon image a n d a separate f i v e - s e c o n d label led image were r e c o r d e d o n .
a Sony 8mm v i d e o cassette r e c o r d e r ( V C R ) far each h y d r o c a r b o n type under b o t h _r
I direct strn a n d f u l l s h a d e c o n d i t i o n s .
4.2 Data Caqilation
The imagery a c q u i r e d i n t h e f i n a l c o n t r o l l e d t e s t was f l r s t
examlned f o r c a n p l e t e n e s s and c lar l t y . T_he f lve - second l a b e l l e d images . *
-- - A .-- , ,' ' ' preced lng ,_ the t en-second hydrocarbon linages were used t o l d e n t l f y t a p e
c o u n t e r r e a d i n g s on t h e VCR for each f i l t e r f o r each .hydroci i rbon for suf, a n d
s h a d e c o n d i t i o n s . W i t h i n e a c h t en-second h y d r o c a r b o n image i n t e r v a l
. ( a p p r o x i m t e l y 3 0 0 v i d e o f r a m e s ) , t h e c l e a r e s t r o ' k i o n w a s s e l e c t e d b r 1
d l g i t i z a t i o n .
p i g i t i z a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t on t h e Simon F r a s e r TJri lversl ty VAX
1 l/7SG IIS image a r i a l y s l s s y s t e m u s i n g a waveform r ron l to r and t l m e b a s e
d o r r e c t o r . The l a t t e r two p l e c e s of ha rdware were ~ n c l u d e d I n t h e s y s t e m t o
adjust t h e peak v o l t a g e f o r e a c n unage t o e n s u r e H o p e r e x p o s u r e and t o
p r o v l d e lmage s y n c h r o n l z a t l o n f o r the v l d e o d l g l t l z e r I n t h e a n a l y s l s sys tem.
An example of a d i g i t i z e d image o f b e s e l o i l u s i n g a 3 3 1 A / 4 6 cor rbrna t lon
f l l s e r under f u l l s h a d e conditions and v a r y i n g t r c k n e s s e s 1s p r o v l d e d I n / R
F l g x e 14. ) 3 b
~ o l l o w l n ~ & g ; t l z a t l o n , t h e l n d l v l d u a l llcage f r a m e s were v r s u a l l y ..
examined. I t was n o t i c e d t h a t a nuraker of d x e c t s - m c o n h t m n rmages were
4 o v e r e x p s e d o r a e q r a d e d b e c a u s e of oveA?roltage f l a r e from s p e c u l a r
re f ;e=ance. F i n a l a ~ a l y s e s f o r t h l s c o n t r o l l e d t e s L were t h r e f o r e
FIGURE 1 4 . EXAMPLE OF A DIGITIZED IMAGE - DIESEL OIL, 301A/46 COMBINATION FILTER, SHADE - SHOWING NOMINAL THICKNESSES FRCM 1 M1CW)N TO 1 0 0 0 0 MICRONS
- ---- -- ---
/
reqtricted t o shage cond i t ions only , because of t h e d i f f i c u l t y of dea l ing
wi th t h e s e d i s t o r t e d high c o n t r a s t images.
Using t h e XIS System 5 0 0 sof tware ( I n t e r n a t f o n a l Imaging Systems
Lnc., 19801, s e v e r a l da ta ewmina t ion p rocedwes were run or- each image.
P r o f i l e s and graphs of r ad iomet r i c va lues , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 15, were -
f i r s t used f o r s e l e c t e d t a r g e t r e f l e c t a n c e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s to determine i f
d i g i t a l b r i g h t n e s s l e v e l s ( a l s o known a s r e f l e c t i v i t y o r grey l e v e l s )
inc reased I n r e l a t i o n -to hydrocarbon q u a n t i t y (i .e . , approximite t h i c k n e s s ) . This appeared t o be t h e case , s o another so f tware r o u t i n e ( b l o t c h ) was used
\
t o measure grey l e v e l s In des ignated a r e a s o r b l o t c h e s .
F i n a l l y , f b r each s e l e c t e d t a r g e t a r e a , each p l x e l was individually
examined to r e c o r d p i x e l - s p e c i f i c grey l e v e l values ( 8 kt r e s o l u t i o n : 0-256
l e v e l s ) . I n each image f o r each q u a n t i t y ( o r approximate t h i c k n e s s ) , 1 2 grey
l e v e l p l n t s were sampled and averages acrcss t h e s l l c k a r e a . An ad lacen t
water a r e a was a l s o sampled 12 t imes , averaged and s u b t r a c t e d f r m t h e
hydrocarbon mean grey l e v e l t o reduce any h i a s caused b y radlometr lc camera
l e n s distortions such a s l r g h t f a l l -o f f . The r e s u l t i n g values were def lned
a s a d j u s t e d mean grey l e v e l s ( o r r e f l e c t l n t y l e v e l s ) and w r e recorded by
hydrocarbon type and filter type ( T a b l e . 7 ) . These d a t a provrded t h e b a s l s
f o r 'subsequent s t a t l s t l c a l calculations . ' r"
\
The
us i ng STATPRO
nicr ocomputer
4.3 Data Analysis and Interpreation 3
data compi la t ion i n Table 7 was graphed by hydrocarbon type
sof tware (Penton Software Inc. , 1985 ) on an IBM-AT
(F igures ' t 6 - ? 0 ) . I n al l . f l v e graphs. t h e r e appeared t o be a,n i
FIGURE 15- EXAMPLE OF A PROFILED AND GRAPHED IMAGE - DIESEL OIL, 3 0 9 A / 4 6 CCMBINATION FIUPER, SHADE
X-axis: Number of pixels along selected red profile Y-axis : Reflectivity or grey level where
0 = f u l l darkness and 256 = f u l l brightness
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, i n c r e a s e i n a d 2 u s t e d mean grey l e v e l (or w i t h a n i n c r e a s e ._
- - - . . - i n hy&ocarbon q u a n t i t y or a p p r o d m t e
i However, t h e a d j u q t e d mean g r e y l e v e l betweep 1 09 and 10000 m i c r o n s d i d n o t
-- d f o l l o w t h i s v e n d . a I n s t e a d , v p l u e s (?line s l o p s ) over 100.0 h i c r o n s were m r e
I 4 B or less n e u t r a l w i t h no g e n e r a l p o s i t i v e t r e h d a p p a r e n t .
t . . f J
A n d y r e d by hydrocarbon t y p e , e l o p e s be&een 1 a n d f00O.
rmcrons a p p e a r e d s t e e p e r f o r t h q trans n t h y d r o c a r b o n s s&h as- 10W30 011, -. - 1 -
&esel 011 a n d gasoline. 1n t h e =re ue c r u d e and w a s t e o l l , s , t h e y d l d , 9
n o t shov ,as much r e f l e c t a n c e & f f e r e n t r a l . T h l s c o u l d have been' a
, 'consequence %of a lower c a p a c i t y of t h e c r u d e and w a s t e 011s ,to pe-t p a s s a ye
through them of i n t e r g a l l y r e f l g c t e d l i g h t w l t h l n t h e c y l i n d e r s and t h e r e f o r e P . .
t h e s e c u r v e s " f l a t t e n e d o u t " e o o n e r .
There w a s a l s o a relatively consistent p a t t e r n I n a d j u s t e d mean
. , - grey l e v e l s f o r a f • ’ = r e n t ' f l l t e r t y p e s . Forr ewrnp le , t h e 18h f i l t e r u s u a l l y
had t h e l o w e s t of o v e r a l * l g r e y l e v e l s , w h l f e t h e 65Dnm and "no f l l t e r n
f l l t e r s d e m n s t r a t e d r k l a t i v e l y h i g h e r a d j u s t e d mean g r e y l ,evels. T h l s was a
f w x t l o n of e x p o s u r e l e v e l s ( v o l t a g e ) w i t h l n t h e camera; t h e s e l e v e l s were a
f m c t l o n of t h e t r a n s m s s l o n c h a r a c t e r l s t l c s of e a c h f l l t e r a n d t h e s p e c t r a l
6" s e n g l t l v i t y o f t h e c a n e r a a s w e l l as f - s t o p and l l g h t l e v e l .
A s e r i e s o f . statistical a n a l y s e s were a l s o c a r r l e d o u t on t h e & t a
l n T a b l e 7 u s i n g SHkZAM (Whlte, 1984) s o f t w a r e on a T C a l l a n U n l s t a r
mic rocompute r . The f l r s t a n a l y s i s was a combined f l l t e r m u l t l p l e r eyes s l o n
f o r e a c h h y d r o c a r b o n t y p e i n which o i l t h i c k n e s s w a s . s e t as t L e i n d e p e n d e n t
variable and each grey l e v e l set a s t h e depericknt v a r i a b l e . R e s u l t i n g 1
r e g r e s s i o n s l o p e , T - r a t i o and ~2 v a l u e s f o r b o t h l i n e a r and l o y a r i t h m l c
6erles are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 8. T h e s e values c l e a r l y s b w e d t h e
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r e l u t i o n s h i p o f a d j u s t e d mean grey l e v e l to h y d r o c a r b n t h i c k n e s s to be A -
l o g a r i t h m i c r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a r . L o g a r i t h m i c r e g r e s s i o n slopes i m p l i e d a
distinct t r e n d of i n c r e a s i n g a l b e d o or g r e y l e v e l w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t h i c k n & s ,
suppo-ing -- t h e .study h y p o t h e s i s t h a t v i & o imagery can detect d i f f e r e n c e s ' in
s p i l l t h i c k n e s s . T - r a t i o s f o r t h e 'logarithmic r e g r e s s i o n s were a l s o - \
c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r , i n d i c a t i n g a g r e a t e r ?egree o f s i g n i f l & n c e t b n for t h e
.* l r n e a r , while R~ v a l u e s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t the l o g a r i t h m x r e g r e s s i o n s had a
h t t e r o v e r a l l f i t t h a n t h e l i n e a r e s t i u n t i o x x i . L o g a r i t h m i c r e g r e s s i o n t s l o p e s f o r t h e l l g h t e r h y d r o c a r b o n s , 10W30 o i l , d r e s e l o i l and gasoline, w e r e
steeper t h a n f o r c r u d e o r w a s t e 011, c o n f l r m l n g a s l m l l a r observation n o t e d - 9-
e a r l r e r I n r e l a t l o n to figures 16 - 20. The coef f l c l e n t s of t h e l o g a r l t h m x
r e g r e s s i 6 n s a1 1 e x h l b l t e d a h r g h statistical s l $ l f l c a n c e . S t a n d a r d e r r o r s - -z.
and f-statistics f rom t h e SKkZAM o u t p u t a l s o were exarmned; I n a l l c a s e s t h e
f - s t a t ~ s t i c s indicated s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e e q u t l o n s as a whole.
The second a n a l y s i s a p p l i e d t o T a b l e 7 & L U was a l o g a r i t h u u c
m u l t l p l e r e g r e s s i o n of a d j u s t e d mean g r e y l e v e l a F l n s t hydrocarbon t h r c k n e s s
by hydrocarbon t y p e and f l l t e r t y p e ( T a b l e 9 ) . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e a d j u s t e d
of a particular f l l t e r was s e t a s t h e d e ~ n c k n t v a r l a b l e and '
- - 11 t h l c k n e s s a s t h e lndepef iden t G s r i a b l e . I n t e r m s of
v a l u e s , T a b l e 9 c o n f l r m s t h e e a f l l e r 7 j
& s c r m r n a t l o n of hydrocarbon t h l c k n e s s by w l d e o lmagery was q c a t e r f o r
l i g h t e r h y d r o c a r b o n s t h a n f o r t h e more opaque c r u d e and w a s t e o i l s . F l l t e r s
m t h the m o s t m e a n i n g f u l and consistent v a l u e s f o r r e c p e s s l o n s l o p e , T - r a t l o
and R~ w e r e "no f i l t e r " , 88k, 550nm, 4 5 0 m and 301A/46 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h l s
was particularly so f o r &?=,el o i l and g a s o l i n e . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h o u g h
t h a t , t n e l e n s u s e d w i t h t h e 1 8 A g l a s s f l l t e r r e s u l t e d i n u n d e r e x p o s u r e s and
t h a t a g e l a t i n f i l t e r o r lene w i t h a l a r g e r aperature would have p r w i d e d
better r e s u l t s as would have gain oontrpox ad jus tmen t s d a i n the vi*o canrera
r i t s e l f .
*
I n sumrmry, a n a l y s i s of t h e f lnaL c o n t r o l l e d test d a t a showed t h a t
v ideo imagery with s e l e c t e d f i l t r a t i o n c o u l d p o v i d e o r B r of m a ~ i t u d e ? .
comparisons 6f h y d r o c a r w n t h i c k n e s s e s up t o 1000 microns (1 mm) based on -* c
', f ef l e c t a n c e measurements. Thicknesses g e a t e r t h a n 1000 microns s b w e d n o J ,
d s s c e r n a b l e r n c i e a s e r n r e f l e c t a h c e va lues . The a b l l l t y of v l d e o systems t o
&sc r l rmna te r e l a t rve o l l t h l c h e s s e s appeared to be g e a t e r f o r t r a n s 1 ucent
hydrocarbons such a s lm30 011, d l e s e l 011 and g a s o l l n e r n c o n t r a s t t o
o r w a s t e 011s. For t h e s e . l r @ t e r hydrocarbons, f l l t e r s whlch appeared
p rov lde t h e g r e s t e s t r e f l e c t a n c e dsf f e r e n c e s , a s de f lned by r e q r e s s l o n 6
' T - r a t i o and R ~ , were "no f ~ l t e r " , 8Bk, 550nm, 450nm and 301A/46.
#
crude
t o
s l o p e ,
(he of t h e problems encountered in t h e c o n t r o l l e d test s i t u a t i o n
was npooling" of t h e hydrocarbons on t h e su r face of t h e cyl inders . A f i e l d
t r i a l was t h e r e f o r e planned to provide a l a rge su r face a rea t o reduce t h i s
d i f f i c u l t y . The f i e l d t r i a l a l s o o f fe red an oppor tunt i ty t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
e f f e c t s of c e r t a i n environmental parameters a s well as t o test t h e remote
sensing equipment under opera t ional condit ions.
5.1 H e t b o d of D a t a Collection
The study a r e a i d e n t i f i e d f o r f i e l d t e s t i n g of t h e r e s u l t s acquired
from t h e con t ro l l ed tests was i n Burrard I n l e t (Figure 2 1 ) . This a r e a was
s e l e c t e d because of i t s usual ly calm, c l e a r waters, i t s proximity t o an
a i r p o r t and cleanup equipment depot, and i t s concentra t ion of potent i a1 o i l .
s p i l l sources including f r e i g h t e r anchorages, four r e f i n e r i e s , t h r e e chemical
p l a n t s and some chemical t r a n s f e r te rminals . Environmental Protec t ion
Service (EPS) records (Canada, 1986d) indica ted t h a t seven medium-sized o i l
s p i l l s occurred i n Burrard I n l e t i n 1985, approx imte ly one every two m n t h s .
With t h i s frequency it was o r i g i n a l l y an t i c ipa ted t h a t a convenient s p i l l of
opportunity would be l i k e l y f o r undertaking a f i e l d t r i a l . Environmental
Emergencies Branch of EPS agreed t o provide n o t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e event of any
medium-sized s p i l l i n Burrard I n l e t and, a s we l l , s eve ra l a i r c r a f t s p i l l
searches were made. Between October 1986 and e a r l y arch 1987, only one
s p i l l of s u f f i c i e n t s i z e occurred i n t h e area. Unfortunately, t h e remote
sensing a i r c r a f t t o be used i n t h e study was under r e p a i r a t t h e time.
* . W i t h o u t a sp i l l of o p p o r t u n i t y , it became n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n -'
-
f ' - > C --
p e r m i s s i o n to create a f i e l d t r i a l s p i l l s p e c i f i c d l l y for t h e s t u d y .
A p p l i c a t i o & v a s made to t h e w e d n A p p r o v a l P r o c e s s (ODAP) f o r this b-
purpose (Append ix 4 ) . A g e n c i e s such as t h e C a n a d i a n C o a s t G u a r d , D e p a r t m e n t -
,o f F i s h e r i e s a n d O c e a n s , c a n 2 d i a n W i l d l i f e Service a n d P o r t of Vancouve r were
n o t i f i e d . C b n c e r n w a s w p r e s s e d b y same o f t h e e n v i r o n n m n t a l agencies, b u t f
a p p r o v a l e v e n t u a l l y was g r a n t e d b a s e d o n t h e e x t e n s i v e r n v o l v e m e n t o f B u r r p r d
C l e a n L i m l t e d , a s p i l l c l e a n u p c o n t r a c t o r whlch a s sumed r e s p o n s l b l l t y f o r
s p i l l c o n t r o l a n d c l e a n u p .
The v l d e o p a c k a g e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e f l e l d t r i a l , c o n s l s t e d of a f o u r
camera a r r a y v i t h e a c h camera h a v r n g i t s own Ehm v l d e o cassette r e c o r d e r a n d
, ' s e l e c t e d opt ical f l l t e r , a waveform m o n r t o r a n d a m o n o c h r m e m o n l t o r , ( F i g u r e ,
6 2 2 ) . A s w i t c h c o n t r o l was ;r;z:.jded f o r camera s e l e c t i o n f o r & s p l a y o n t h e '
monochrome monito; . The c a m e r a s c o n s l s t e d o f t h r e e Sony CCLJ mo*&hromes and -l 8 2 ' J
a n R f A k i e w l c o n b l a c k arid A l t e . The v l d e o c a m e r a s v e r e s e n s i t r v e I n t , h e
r a n g e s shown i n F l g u r e 9. The h y d r o c a r b n c h o s e n was d lese l b e c a u s e i t had -. i d e m n s t s a t e d good t h l c k n p s r e f l e c t a n c e rn t h e f m a 1 c o n t r o l l e d tes t - a n d wds
\
a p p r o v a b l e u n d e r ODAP. The f r l t e r s s e l e c t e d were I t i A , SOOnm, 600nm a n d , 88k
( A p p e n h x 3 ) . I n s p l t e of some of t h e d i f f i c u l t l e s e x p e r i e n c e d w l t h t h e 18.4
- f i l t e r i n t h e f l n a l c o n t r o l l e d t e s t , ~t was n o n e t h e l e s s c h o s e n b e d a u s e of ~ t s . . a - I
w e l l d o c , u m n t e d h i g h o l l t o w a t e r a n t r a s t . The r e m l n l n g t h r e e filters e a c h
r e p r e s e c t e d a band selectlor? v?~l=t. h a 3 ' p r o v e n prom:s ing r n t h e final
c 6 n t r o l l e d test. . - ai
I n a d d l t l o n t o t h e v l d e o e q u l p n e n t , two Nlkon 35 mm p h o t o g r a p h l c 2
cameras w l t h 2 4 nm. t j lkkor lenses vCre u t i l l z e d l n t h e f i e l d t r i a l . me of &
t h e c a m e r a s was l m d e d v l t h Kodak 2 4 4 3 k e r o c h r o m e I n f r a r e d f i l m and f l t t e d
j .
w i t h a tiikon 056 IWfat ten 2 2 ) f i l t e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e b lue and -blue-green E I " . . C
e p e c t r a l r e g i e n e . ' The u t h ~ r ~ c a m e r a caontainh k d a k 5037 Ektackcrme Tungsten : . + 1 5
s - .
. f i lm and u d d a n 858 f i l t e r . The two cameris c m i n e d & p r o v i d e f u l l -
a- photographic spec t rum Waging . he s p e c t r a l s e n s i t ivl t y 'of - t h e ' two- f i l m .
2 - . types i s shown i n F i g u r e 23.) 4 " - . a
-\
/ &
, . L C
The a i r c r a f t used rnl fie1.d trid d a t a &o l l e&ion . w a s h Cessna. 185 - . d 5'
wirh'9 inch and 16 l n c h pho'tography p o k t s , a 1000 m i l e rqqge and 30~000 f e e t * \
0 L
a l t i t u d e c a p a b l l ~ t y . Tn l s a i r c r a f t 1s r e l a t l v e l k i n p x ~ n s i v 6 t o prpduce and . , c
o p e r a t e , y e t h a s practical per formance characteristics f o r o p e r a t i o n a L u s e .
, . * d W f e r e n c e measurements of s p 1 l l thickness f o r cor re1 ,a t lon w l t h - * , ,b: t L .
0
v ideo and pho tog rap lpc imagery o b t a m e d from t h e a l r c r a f t were c o l lect 'ed t i
. . th rough s u r f a c e s a ~ p l - h g from a b o a t u6ing.a ~ o s s - ~ e l o r e ~ s a m ~ l 6 ; ( F t g u r e 24!.
1
Tnk s a p l e r t o be d+opp&d o n t o a s p s l l s u r f a c e so r h a f i t s * ,
a a b o t t o d edge c o c l d t r ap . and +sorb- fhaf a r e q of t h e s p l l wit? a s p 5 c i a l l y
4 ' L
n 1
dgslgned absorbent pad. A f t e r each f i e l d Trial sample was ~ b t a ~ L n e d t t h e .. a
absortn2ntwas removed and p l a c e d l n t o a numbered, t lme-referenced sampllng . , r P
] a r which w a s > s e a l e d f o r l a t e r labo;atory analysis. 9 . ?
' - Ch 10 3anuary 1987, a p r e l l m l n a r y s o r t i e was xrade ove r Burrard - "
- - 1$1et,to check t h e v l d e o ' systea under rGl-eipe . c p n & t i + n s . R11 c a n p n e n t s ,
riqke,d s i i ccpss fu l lq except t h a t ifhe sensitivity of t h e $ens .on t h e liewvicon a
\
casiera was n 6 t h igh enough f o r ;he r e l a Q t i v e l y h i g h o p a u t y o i t h e 18A f i l t e r . - . \ - \ *
mi's was l a t e r r e c e i f l e d P r i o ~ t o t h e q c t u a l f ~ e l d t r i a l ' t h r w g h use o f ' r , .
&f f e r g n t l e n s w t h ( a n a $ d i t l o n a l f - s top . P
bb * \ I
. - -. Th5 f l e l d ' t r l a l to& p l a c e on 18 March, l-987 i n Bur ra rd I ? 5 ' '
a ( ~ i ~ u r e 2 1 ) ar a p p r o j e d un&; ODAP. R Begies sf 'conse;u$lve pas b . i
- 1 CGSaan3. 500 f o % e l e v a % l o z s were ca3e between I 1 18 hours and 1 2 0 0 hours
- t* - r"
1 - , - t - - a
-, c
FIGURE. 2% S P E C T ~ A L ~ E N S I T I V I T Y O f FILMS USED IN FIELD TRIAL
0
C D
0 ' 1 I
4 -B ' 0 " - -
* 1
= 3
e
U O D A K 2443 AE- CHROME' INFRARE'O FICM '
FIGURE 25. AERIAL VIEW OF FIELD TRIAL, BURRARD INLET, 18 MARCH 1987
P a c i f i c Stsndard Time. Sur face sampling was c a r r i e d ou t s inmltaneously wi th
t h e ovgrhead passage of t h e a i r c r a f t ; uatch synchroniza t ion between t h e f i e l d
, sampler and camera o p e r a t o r made it l a t e r p o s s i b l e to patch t h e l abora to ry
r e s u l t s from t h e s u r f a c e samples with t h e video and photographic imagery. A
t o t a l of 18 p a s s e s were made of which four were l a t e r dropped from a n a l y s i s "
because two were on ly f o r 6quipment adjustment, one had no s u r f a c e samples
and one d id not inc lude t h e 6ampling.boat i n t h e v ideo imagery. The camera
m t h t h e i n f r a r e d f i l m malf unctmned nea r t h e s t a r t of opera t ions and , -
1
theriefore prevented c d l l e c t i o n of color ' I R photographs. This r e s u l t e d i n
l ack of photographic co r robora t ion of video rR r e s u l t s .
Enviroqmental conditions during t h e f i e l d t r i a l were optimum i n
terms o,•’ l l m i t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d in Table 6. The s e a was
t c a l e and c l e a r , while t h e sp i l l s i t e was s u f f i c i e n t l y o f f s b r e f o r marme
vegetation n o t t o be a ' f a c t o r . The sun was a t a n e a r v e r t i c a l angle and
t h e r e was a c o n s i s t e n t , m d e r a t e l y t h i c k cloud cover a t 2 , 0 0 0 f e e t which
minimized t h e sun g l a r e problem. These c o n d i t i o n s p l u s t h e f u l l func t ion ing
of t h e v ideo equipment onboard t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e s u r f a c e sampler on t h e .t
, boa t p r w i d e d 14 f l i g h t l i n e s of u s e f u l *&ta . ~ & t from t h e l o s s of one
a d d i t i o n a l f l l g h t l i n e wi th t h e colo; photographic camera, e x c e l l e n t c o l o r *
I I ~. p h o ~ o g r a p h s were acqu i red f o r a l l o ther f l i g h t l i n e s .
f
na ta Compilation
5.2.1 Surface !%mples . Surf ace samples c o l l e c t e d dur ing t h e f i e l d r ' 1 -"
t r i a 1 were q u a n t i t a t i v e l y analyzed i n ' the West Vancouwr - A n a l y t i c a l e 't
Laboratory of Environment Canada. Deta i led procedures f o r t h e quantification
of t h e diese; o i l c o l l e c t e d i n each &orbent-pad a r e p resen ted in A p e n d i x 5. L
A P e r k i n - ~ l n e r -?lode1 8 8 2 I n f r a r e d Spectrophotometer provlded t h e a f i a l y t l c a l
' results, The va lue o b t a i n e d f o r each sample frarn t h e chemica l a n a l y s i s was -
expressed i n mg- The methog f o r t r a n s l a t i n g w e i # t t o t h i c k n s s s &r e a c h 4
sample was + f o l l o v s :
Thickness (TI = Volume of D iese l Sample (V) Area' a f Ross-Belore Sample Pad (A)
Kndwing Weight (W) = Densi ty (D) x Volume (V) . Then V = WID
and T = !W/D)/A
5
+ - Now W i s known i n mg f o r each sample, by l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s ,
- D i s how; by l a b o r a t o r y q u a l i t y ' c o n t r o l f o r t h e d i e s e l o i l I
I . used i n t h e f i e l d t r i a l 10.8625 gm/cc), , A i s : d e r i v e d by A = wr2 = 3.142 x 7.72 = 186.3 cm2, So T can be c a l c u l a t e d i n cm o r F m .
7 *
Weight and conve r t ed t h i c k n e s s val 'ues f o r e a c h f l i g h t l i n e sample
i l a r e p re sen ted i n Table 10. Thickness v a l u e s a r e . inc luded i n r e f l e c t a n c e / . r
- t h l c kness c o r r e l a t i o n s a e s c r i b e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
C
.%
. , * C - I
a .* 5.2.2 For m a n i n g f u l d a t a compi l a t ion of f i e l d t r ia l
imagery, it was l k s t n e c e s s a r y t o i d e n t i f y * ich f l i g h t l i n e s s b w e d pu r face ,
sampling a c t u a l l y o c c m r i n g , i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o c o r r e l a t e imagery
3 * * . measurements wi th s u i f a c e t h i c k n e s s e s . For t h e 14 v i d e o f l i g h t >lines f i t t i n g
1 - d . t h i s ca t egory , th-e imagery was a g a i n reviewed with' c o u n t e r r e a d i n g s o; t h e
v ideo c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r n o t e d where t h e sampling b a t appeared n e a r t h e ,
/'
c e n t e r o r n a d i r of t h e l e n s . Each of thethcounter r e a d l n g s was used a s = ;
r image d i g i t i z a t i o n on t h e VAX11/750 I I S image a n a l y s i s system
form moni tor and t i m e base c o r r e c t o r . 1
For t h e c o l o r photography, images *ich showed s u r f a c e sampling ,, '
I i
r e s e l e c t e d f o r VAX 1 l/75O IIS d i g i t i z a t l o n . D i q i t i z a t i o n
"r
TABLE l o . SAMPLE WEIGHTS DETERMINED BY c a m m a ANALYSIS AND
FLIGHT LINE
NUMBER
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 1 1 12 13 14
SAMPLE WEIGHT (mg)
U S 0 19
31800
/ 6 2 9 6 5 2 0 -55
9 13 17 -
9 ' 44 4 2
was carried out by s e c u r i n g each s e l e c t e d c o l o r 35 mm f rame on a l i g h t , t a b l e
and imaging i t v i t h a v i & o camera rqlulated by a waveform .onitor: Each
frame was s e q u e n t i a l l y imaged v i t h R a t r a n 25 (red) , 58 ( g r e e n ) a d 47 ( b l u e ) . \
f i l t e r s I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a 301A f i l t e r ( f o r e l i m i n a t i o n of n e a r i n f r a r e d
ene rgy ) s o as t o c r e a t e a d i g i t i z e d c o l o r composi te image.
The f i r s t examinat ion of t h e 14 d i g i t i z e d v ideo images ( F i g u r e 26)
was used t o de te rmine t a r g e t r e f l e c t i v i t y a c f o s s a t r a n s e c t . Th i s p r o f i l i n g
- %-'
--mid graphing conf i rmed s p l l l t h i c k n e s s vb r i a \ ions s o t h a t a seconq r o u t i n e
( p o i n t s ) was used t o de te rmine a d j u s t e d mean grey l e v e l s ( b r i g h t n e s s l e v e l s )
I n a manner i d e n t i c a l to t b a t u sed for t h e f i n d c o n t r o l l e d test. Table 11
show% a d j u s t e d mean grey l e v e l s by f i l t e r t y p e and d i e s e l . o i 1 t h i c k n e s s ( a s
de r ived i n t h e .preceding s e c t i o n ) on a f l i g h t Line b a s i s a s w e l l a s a l t i t u d e - .'
and t ime of sampling.
With r e s p e c t t o t h e b g i t i z e d r e d , g reen and b lue bands acqu i r ed
f r o m t h e 35 mm c o l o r photography, t h e a d j u s t e d mean grey l e v e l f o r e a c h band -
of t h e s e l e c t e d image f o r each f l i g h t l i n e was determined us ing t h e p i n t s
and a r e shown i n Table 1 2 a l o n g w i t h measured d i e s e l o i l t h i c k n e s s e s . It
* 3
s h o g l d be n o t e d ' t h a t c e r t a i n f l i g h t l i n e s a r e m i s s i n g • ’ r a ~ Table 1 2 as \
e x p l a i n e d i n more d e t a i l i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .
5- 3 Data Analysis and. Interpretation
Table 11 d a t a were p r e s e n t e d i n two graphs ( F i g u r e s 27 'and 28 - I .
B F i g u r e -27 p o r t r a y e d a canp$ i&fed p l o t of a d j u s t e d ' m a n g e y l e v e l w r s u s L
* 9 d i e s e l o i l t h i c k n e s s - i n t h e lower . hydrocarbon t h i c k n e s y ( l e s s t h a n 2 5 pm) . Highex t h i d k n w s e s up to 1979 microns sugges t ed an i n c r e a s e i n a d j u s t e d m a n
F
grey 1e;el. o r * r e f l e c t i v i t y , v i t h a n incre 'ase i n hydrocarbon t h i c k n e s s . The
FIGURE 26. EXAMPLE OF A PROFILED AND GRAPHED IMAGE - FIELD TRfA.8 BURRARD INLET, 18 M?iRCH 1987
' .
X-axis: Number of p i x e l s along se lected red p r o f i l e Y-axis : Ref lec t iv i ty or grey l e v e l where
0 = f u l l darkness and 256 = f u l l brightness
YA
BL
E
11.
ME
ASU
RE
D
DIE
SE
L
OIL
TH
ICK
NE
SS
ES
A
ND
A
DJU
STE
O
MEA
N
GREY LEVELS
BY
F
ILT
ER
TYPE
IN
FIE
LD
T
RIA
L
\
*
ME
ASU
RE
D
DIE
SEL
O
IL T
HIC
KN
ES
S
(urn
)
1 1 1 1 t 1 ,1
2 3 3
3
4
3Q1
1979
.
AD
JUST
ED
18A
16
42
2 1 2 0
8
17
14
3 1 14
13
43
19
36
4 4
SAM
PL
ING
T
IME
(P
ST
)
1130
1141
1148
1144
1146
1127
1137
1133
1156
1151
1139
1135
1125
1128
--
.
FL
XG
HT
SINE
4
9
12
10
11
2 7 I? 13 8 6
1 3
EL
EV
AT
ION
( F
EE
T)
1000
500
' 500
500
500
1500
1000
1000
1500
1000
500
1000
1500
1500
FIL
TE
R
TY
PE
8
8A
2
2 4
12
14
4 8
8
2 2 3 3
2 1 8
17
24
MEA
N
GR
FX
500m
3
29 8
15 6
15 9
19 9 6
2 2
15
2 8
29
LE
VE
L BY
6 0 Onm
2
3 4
10
a
18 6
18 8
27 4
5 2 3 9
30
"
28
TA
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E:
12
. M
EA
SUR
ED
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IES
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TH
ICK
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ES
A
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FRO
M
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35
M
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CO
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R, P
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TO
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A P
HY
No
te:
Fli
gh
t li
ne
s 5
, 8
and39 e
xc
lud
ed
bec
au
se
of
an
an
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us
sur
fac
e
sam
pli
ng
; fu
at
lin
e
4
ex
clu
de
d b
ec
au
se of
cam
era
ma
lfu
nc
tio
n.
1 '
i
9
r
FL
IP!?
L
INE
.
i
12
1
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11
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19
8
16
3
23
0
BL
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/GR
EE
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13
3
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2 1
2
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GR
EE
N/B
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E
2 1
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5
17
8
21
1
11
%
. -2
29
1
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3
- 2
08
1
66
1
9 1
1
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1
76
1
59
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09
1
75
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09
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24
1
32
4 2
14
,
18
0
17
5
12
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15
1
32
1
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7
37
6
2 5
0
9 6
25
5
12
4
3
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79
1
96
1
80
2
26
10
2
2 3
7 1
3 3
2 3
3
BL
UG
/RE
D
12
1
I 1
25
1
45
RE
D/B
LU
E
20
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20
1
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RE
D/G
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22
0
18
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.
GR
EE
N/R
ED
$8
3
2 3
2
15
1
anomalies i n t h e lower th ickness range could poss ib ly be explained by
examination of Table 11 which s b w e d t h a t adjus ted m a n grey l eve l s f o r
f l i g h t l i n e s 5, 8 and 9 f o r a l l f i l t e r types were comparatively high.
Re-examination of t h e d i g i t i z e d images fo r t h e s e f li*t lines indica ted t h a t
sampling u n c e r t a i n t i e s were l i k e l y t h e cause. That is, e i t h e r exact sampling
p o i n t s dur ing su r face sampling w e r e d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y o r t h e sampling
boat was i n an a r e a i n which th ickness v a r i a t i o n s were c lose together .
Owing t o t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s , Table 1 1 f i g u r e s were r e -p lo t t ed
without f l i g h t l i n e s 5, 8 and 9 (Figure 28). The p l o t i n t h i s f i g u r e showed
a considerably improved c o r r e l a t i o n between adjus ted m a n grey l e v e l and
hydrocarbon th ickness through t h e range of hydrocarbon th ickness values
considered. In o the r words, t h e s e s e l e c t e d f i e l d data confirmed t h e e a r l i e r
f i n a l con t ro l l ed t e s t r e s u l t s yhich indica ted higher r e f l e c t i v i t y values with
higher s p i l l th ickness .
Again using t h e da ta i n Table 11, s t a t i s t i c a l analyses were
c a r r i e d out . The f i r s t a n a l y s i s was a combined f i l t e r mul t ip le r eg ress ion
f o r t h e d i e s e l o i l i n which t h e th ickness of t h e d i e s e l was set a s t h e
independent va r i ab le and each grey l e v e l s e t a s t h e dependent va r i ab le .
Result ing reg ress ion s lope , T-rat io and ~2 values f o r both l i n e a r and
logarithmic s e r i e s were derived and a r e presented i n Table 13. These values
ind ica ted t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of adjus ted mean grey l e v e l t o hydrocarbon
th ickness was s t a t i s t i c a l l y b e t t e r represented i n logari thmic r a t h e r than
l i n e a r fashion, and t h a t excluding f l i g h t l i n e s 51 8 and 9 considerably
enhanced t h e r e s u l t s . Logarithmic regress ion s lopes for both data sets
suggested t h a t grey l e v e l increased with th ickness a s per t h e study
hypothesis. T-rat ios f o r t h e logari thmic reg ress ions ind ica ted a high degree
of s ign i f i cance and R~ values (without f l i g h t l i n e s 5, 8 and 9 ) had t h e
TAB
LE
13
. R
ESU
LT
S O
F L
INE
AR
A
ND
L
OG
AR
ITH
MIC
C
OM
BIN
ED
RE
GR
ESS
ION
S O
F F
IEL
D
TR
IAL
DA
TA
No
tes :
Th
e in
de
pe
nd
en
t v
ari
ab
les
ar
e h
yd
roc
arb
on
th
ick
ne
ss
(C
Un ) ,
thre
e d
umm
y v
ari
ab
les
an
d a
co
mta
nt t
th
e d
ep
en
de
nt
va
ria
ble
is a
dju
ste
d m
ean
gre
y
lev
el.
Lo
ga
rith
mic
re
gre
ss
ion
re
fe
rs
to
th
e l
ine
ar
de
pe
nd
en
t v
ari
ab
le
(ad
jus
ted
mea
n g
rey
le
ve
l)
reg
res
se
d a
ga
ins
t th
e n
atu
ral
log
ari
thm
of
thic
kn
es
s.
m
Re
gre
ssio
n
slo
pe
is t
he
es
tim
ate
d c
oe
ffic
ien
t fo
r t
hic
kn
es
s.
L
TYPE
O
F A
NA
LY
SIS
LIN
EA
R
LO
GA
RIT
~IC
T-r
ati
o
=
(re
gre
ss
ion
slo
pe
)/(s
tan
da
rd e
rr
or
)
TY
PE
OF
OU
TPU
T (F
OR
ALL
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b e s t o v e r a l l f i t . Standard e r r o r s and f - s t a t i s t i c s from t h e SHAZAM output
ind ica ted s ign i f i cance of t h e equations a s a whole ( d t h o u t Lines 5, 8 and 9 ).
Table 14 d i sp lays t h e r e s u l t s of l i n e a r and logari thmic mul t ip le
regress ions of adjus ted mean grey l e v e l s a w i n s t d i e s e l o i l t h i cknesses f o r
t h e four f i l t e r types f o r two d a t a s e t s - a l l f l i g h t l i n e s , and a l l f l i g h t s
l i n e s except 5, 8 and 9. I n each case t h e adjus ted mean grey l e v e l of a
p a r t i c u l a r f i l t e r was set a s t h e dependent va r i ab le and o i l th ickness a s t h e
independent va r i ab le . Again t h e outputs showed t h a t t h e logari thmic
regress ions were more meaningful than t h e l i n e a r . In terms of r eg ress ion
s lope , T-rat io and R2 values, inc reases i n hydrocarbon th ickness appeared t o
c o r r e l a t e with r e f l e c t a n c e values f o r all f i l t e r types. omit t ing f l i # t l i n e s
5, 8 and 9 improved t h e c o r r e l a t i o n outputs . F i l t e r s providing t h e most
meaningful s t a t i s t i c a l values f o r regress ion s lope , T-rat io and R2 were 18A
and 500nm. This was only i n p a r t i a l agceement with t h e f i n a l c o n t r o l l e d t e s t .
i n which t h e 18A d id no t produce s t rong s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s , al though t h e
l i t e r a t u r e c l e a r l y supported t h e usefulness of 18A f i l t e r s in enhancing o i l
and water c o n t r a s t (Vizy, 1974). However, t h e reasons f o r t h i s were
recognized dur ing t h e c o n t r o l l e d test; c o r r e c t i v e camera and lens a d j u s t m n t s
were made p r i o r t o t h e f i e l d t r i a l which l e d t o t h e improved resu l t s . .
with r e s p e c t t o t h e 35 mm co lo r photography, s t a t i s t i c a l analyses
were undertaken on Table 12 data . Linear and logari thmic mul t ip le regress ions
were ca lcu la ted f o r band r a t i o s aga ins t th icknesses f o r t h e f l i g h t l i n e s s b w n
i n t h a t t a b l e . Result ing reg ress ion s lopes , T-rat ios and R~ values appear
i n Table 15. The band r a t i o with t h e bes t s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s was t h e
red-blue which was i n agreement wi th Aukland and Trexler (United S t a t e s , 1970)
and Catoe and Or th l i eb ( 1971).
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- - --
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acl-Justed man grey lwels for d i f f e r e n t filte-irs [T@le 16). These c h t a - -
were n m l t i p l y r e q e s s e d a g a i n s t dieseq o i l thicknesses both U n e a r l y a n d
l o g a r l t h x i c a l l y ( T a b l e 17 1 . The r e g r e s s i o n slope T - r a t i o ark Et2 values
' /
suggest& t h e importan& of the 1 8 A f i l - r r e l a t i v e to t h e o t h e r s . , -
I n summary, f l e l d trlal d a t a a n a l y s i s , b o t h , g r a p h i c a l l y and - -
s t a t r s t r c a l l y , s b u e d . t h a t v l d e o imagery w i t h s e l e c t e d fll t i o n could P". ~ d e n f l f y r e l a t r v e s p r l l t h r c k n e s s e s i n t h e o r d e r of two t o t h r e e o r d e r s of
I
~ a ~ i c u d e based or; r e f ;ectar,de m a s u r e m n t s under s p e c l f i c e n v u o r u k n t d l -ha' -
c o n d ~ t r o n s ' . Because of w m e uncertainty o v e r s a m p l l n g accuxacy, th ln &ck
r e s a l t s f o r t h e ~ ? r e l d tria2 were c o n f u s r n g . However, d e l e t i o n of suspect " <
' fl1gY.t l i n e s l e d t o ana:ytrcal , r e s u l t s vfirch s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t 18k0hnd
/ ' 53fix-i: f l l t e r s were u s e k l r n l d e n t l f y i n g r e l a t i v e d i e s e l t h l c h e s s e s under
l r ~ ~ t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l con& t r o n s . Ad& t l o n a l a n a l y s e s of band and f l l t e r
- r a t l o r f & h e r canflrme~ t h r s r e s u l t , The field t r l a l r e s u l t s were for
e x p r l c e c t a : p u r p o s e s or-iy; dcveiopnient of an o p e r a t r o n a l s y s t e n wouf d
r'ec-.;lre a d a t r o n a : f l e l d trials u n d e r different c o n & t l o n s . ,
' F l e l d tr;L data - r e p r e s e n t e d s e y e r a l photoqaph:c' bands a n d , i n
<-.at sezse , were m ~ i t l s p e c t f a l . mwever , no s p e c l a : c o r r h n a t r o n s of f r l t e r s -
sbwzrsg p t e n t r a l f o r t h i c 3 h e s s d r s z r m l n a t i o n such a s t h e 18h t o g e t h e r w l t h
t h e 5C1Z.x~ e r e t e s t e d . Ir. a e d i t i o r . , t n e s t a t i s t ' i c a l tests e w n m e d o n l y a
' ' 51;lglo s e l a t , m n s e i ~ &see: : a p a r t r c g l a r f i l t e r and o i l t h i c k n e s s . ,
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r e f l e c t a n c c d i f f e r e n c e s u s i n g a m u l t l q e c t r a l Video r-te s e n s i n g s y s t e m .
I - -- 4 7------- - - - -
It i s i m p r t a n t td n o t e t h a t e s t - imat ion , 'was r e l a t i v e ; no a t t m p t var made to P
ascribe s p e c i f i c th*knesses to specific g r e y leuels o n a p r e d i c t i v e basis.
i I n s t e a d , t h e imager; vas a n a l y z e d f o r g r e y l e v e l s i n r e h t b n t o known
, h y d r o c a r b n t h i c k n e s s e s . R e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s d e t e r u n a t i o n a p p e a r e d tb h e
p c s d b l e u p to 1000 ui lc rons . Beyond t h a t t h e r e was PO CLscerriable i n c r e a s e
i n r e f l e c t a n c e v a l u e s . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s of t h e two i n d e p e n d e n t tests
( c o n t r o l l e d a n d f r e l d ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t f o r b a t h the r e f l e c t a n c e ' to t h i c h e s s
relationship ap&ared to be l o g a r i t h m i c .
I n t h e find' c o n t r o l l e d t es t , 011 t y p e seemed t o be a f a c t o r m t h e
a b l l i t y t o r e s o l v e &f f e r e n c e s I n hydrocarbon t h i c k n e s s . D r e s e l slmwed g o d
r e f l e c t \ a n c e / t h ~ c k n e s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; t h l s was Gonf i rmed by t h e f l e l d tri a1 . F u r t h e r s t u a e s would be needed to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e q u k e r r e n t s f o r I
h y d r o c a r b o n t y p e i d e n t l f r c a t k o n and f u l l m u l t i s p e - c t r a l e v a l u a t r o
example, f l l t e r s r e p r s S e R t 1 n g & f f e r e n t bands c o u l d be combmed 4
- t h e canera s e t u p o r 9 g r t a l l y on t h e coaeputer t o p r o v l d e
\ i n a g i n g . I n ad&$ r o n , m u l t i v a r i a t e a n - a l y s l s c o d d be rwi ori' t h e r d u l t i n g
\ 8
da:a t o i d e n t i f y o p t i n a l ' ca r i c lna t ion& f o r i d e n t i f y l n $ s p r l 1 4 L
With r e s p e c t to t h e f r l t e r s {sed d t h t h e v i d e o cameras , o q l y t h o s e
\ 1- t h e b l u e - g r e e n barid I5001-m were e f f e c t i v e b d e r b o t h h h k ' f i n a l
0
A C . - con4dof i e d test and f l ~ l d t r l ' a l c o n d i t i o n s . However, t h e 18h f l l t e r - t h e best r e s u l t s ~ n t h e f l e A & trla2 a f t e r p r o p e r espsure l e v e l s were 1 I
I
a c h i e v e d . The f m a l + c o n t r o l l e d t e b t in iagery of t h e 1 8 R was p o r because of
L
uzderexposlpe: F i l t e r r e s u l t s fraa t h e v l d e o imagery a c c o r d e d w i t h ~ u n d a y
a l . 1 l9i ' l ) and U n l t e d States ( l g i ' l b ) & l C h ; e p r t e d t h a t q o d t h r n s l i c k d - d e t e c t i o n w a s provided by u s i n g W and b l u e band p h t o g r a p k y , a n d t h ~ c k e r
_.
s l i c k d e t a c t i ~ n . the bsnd. It r lao c & u r i e & ~ ~ _ X ~ a n f u & & . ~ U b 8 2 ~ ) ~ - L -
. C. r .
i n terns of t h e W aad b l u e - g r e e n , b u t d i s a i y e e d i n the use of t h e red band A
for t h i c k e r s l i c k s . Hovever , a n a l y s e s of d i g i t i z e d p h o t o g r a p h i c imagery
s u g g e s t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of the red and b l & b i n d s i n i m a g i n g spill * .
t h r c k n e s s , as per Yuanfu e t a l . ( 1982 ) . This was c o n f i r m e d i n t h e c o n t r o l l ? d
test f o r t h i c k n e 2 s e s g r e a t e r t h a n 100 mrcrons for t h e l r a t 011s a n d . g a s o h n e
(f igures 18-20 1. ..
I n s u m r y , t h e concl%asrons drawn from- t h e e x p e r i m e n t s u n d e r t a k e n
. - I n t h i s s t u d y are a s follous :
'
i-
1. H y d r o c a r b n ' s p i l l t h r c k n e s s can be r e l a t l v e i y e s t r m e e d r n t h e
- o r d e r of .two t o three o r f k r s of magni tude by m a s ~ x r n g L i g h r . ..
I.
r e f l e c t a n c e ,&f- fe rences - u s m q m u l t i s p e c t r a i v l d e o r e m o t e
sensing.
- 2. R e f l e c t a n c e m g a s u r e n e n t s f o r c a n p a r l n g o i l t h i c k n e s s e s ai-e o n l y
1 '
ef f e c t i v e ;n s p l l l t h l c k r i e s s e s l e s s tkar . 1000 microns'. . . -
3 . Blue-green an3 u i t r a v i o l e t band v l d e o f l l t r a t r o r i rs best f o r
2 ' s b w i n g r e l a c l v e hyctrqcarbon t h i c k n e s s rn s l i c k s less , t h a n -a
4. Some of t h e e x p e r i m n t s Buggested t h a t t h e red band may be
u s e f u 1 uner Imi t e d , c o n & t i o n s s u c h ,as o n l y t r a n s l u c e n t
h y d r o c a r b d n s g r e a t e r t h a n 100 rmcrons . 1 --
3
5. T r a r L s l u 6 & n t hy&ocarbons s u c h as 10W3G 011, & e s e l 011 a n d d
g a s a i i n e a i i p b e t t e r t h r c k n e s s d e t e r m n a t i o n t h a c d o opaque '
- h y d r o c a r b o n s such a s c r u d e o r was te o i l s . r - E x p e r i n e r . t s by o t h e r s have f o c c s e d on t h e p t e n t l a l for r e m o t e
se?slr,g t e c h n r q u e s to l d e n t l f y absolute hydrocarbon s p r l f th lc imesses . T h i s
i study d e a l t w i t h the__ques t ion of whether d e t e r m i n a t i o n of r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s
- - -- - - - - -- - -- - -- - va$ possible and m n c l r i d e d - t h a t A t was. Thi s is i m p r t a q t wi th respect to
*
f o c u s i n g o i l s p i l l cleanup e f f o r t s r knowing t h a t t h i c k r e g i o n s of s p i l l s -4
c o n t a i n - more t h a n 90 percent of t o t a l o i l in less t h a n te+5qpercent of t h e '
' 0
spi l l a r e a ( H o l l i n g e r r 7974) . The experimenta1 v i d e o system developed f o r
t h e f i e l a t r i a l t h e r e f o r e c o u l d be of p r a c t i c a l u s e i n a s s i s t i n g c l e a n u p .#
e f f o r t s under similar environmental c o a t i o n s . (S However, a f u l l y A 8
operational s y s t e @ v o u l d r e q u i r e m r e t e s t i n g with r e s p e c t to s u n l i g h t - - -
s k y l i g h t r v e a t h e r and s e a s t a t e , turbidity, n e a r ' s h o r e l i n e v e g e t a t i o n - ,
Fu tu re t e s t i n g c o u l d a l s o i n c l u d e use of a l a r g e r a p e r a t u r e l e n s
c
v l t h an 1 8 A f i l t e r under c o n t r o l l e d c o n & t i o n s , and m r e extensi,ve s u r f a c e B
- sam2llng i n f i e l d t r i a l s , to provrde a l a ~ g e r d a t a s e t . Of c o u r s e , $uch A
t r l a l s a r e l b g ~ s t ~ c + l ~ canplex and may be very costly. They must be
d e s i F e i f o r very e f f s c i e n t d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . F l i g h t e l e v a t i o n s a t 5 0 0 f e e t
are recamended because t h e r e & l t l n g l a r g e r iu fagery p e m t s m r e F e c l s e tl
~ d e n t i f l c a t i o n of spi l l samplrng l o c a t i o n s . A l t i t u d e appeared t o have. no
beaz;ng on th8 a b i l i t y t o d e t ~ m e t h < c h e s s th rwgh- r -e l l e c t a n c e
dif f e r e n c c s . However , a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s were made a t r e l a t i v e l y low a l t i t u d e . ;
a tmcsphersc e f f e c t s c o u l d k e impor t an t a t g r e a t e r h e i & t s . /
I n s p i t e of some of the u n c e r t a i n t i e q : -. 4 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
m i t i s p e c t r a l v i d w . r&mte s e n s i n g system used i n t h e f l e l d t r r a l , data .
a n a l y s l s c l e a r l y d e m n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e system was c a p a b l e of e s t i m a t i n g
re la t ive hydrocarbon spill t h r c h e s s e s to two or t h e e o r d e r s of m a ~ i t u d e o n
t h e basis of l i g h t r e f l e c t a n c e d i f f e r e n c e s under c e r t a i n environmental .
imqgery and subsequent s t a t i s t i c a l analyses . F'urther computer ?. - t rea tmqnts 6f 6.c
-- -- -
t h e da ta vouq l i k e l y prtrduce improved resol% ion t h o u g h s u p r v i s e d
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedures and r e l a t e d m u l t i v a r i a t e techniques ; r e s u l k i n g L=
c l a s s i f i e d images can be pseudo-colored and d isplayed with sp l i t imaging- for \ .
i l i u s t r a t i r q t h e i d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n hydrocarbon t h i c k n e s s (F igure 29 ) . Appl ica t ion of such techniques--ta t h e hydrocarbon . s p i l l t h i cknesb method '
developed i n t h i s stfudy should prove of c o n s i d e r a h e b e n e f i t i n improving o i l .I
s p i l l c leanup opera t ions .
FIGURE 29. EXAMPLE OF A PSEUDO-COLORED S P L I T IMAGE - FIELD TRIAL, BURRARD I N U T , 18 MARCH 1987
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Worsfold, -chard D . { John A. N l a n and Bruce E. 'Fret-. 1975. ' The Use of T e l e v i s i o n for ~ e & e Sens inga . Remote Sensing 'of Envrr6nment 4 : -
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5-35.
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P o l l u t i o n by Airborne Remote Sensing Techniques" . prate edings of the 16th I n t e r n a t l o ~ a l S F p s r m o n Remote S e n s l n g of Envlronnent. E , n ~ l r ~ n m e n t a > kesearcii I n s t r t u t e of Hlchrgan , U n l v e r s l t y of Mlchlgan ,
~ ' l l n n Arbpr, mch., I: 234-248. * + ~ v l c k ; H. B. , R. A. X e v i l l e an3 R.A. O ' K e i l . 7981. *A E e c m m n d e d Sensor f o r
t h e Detection and Trackrng of-011 SpQls" . Proceehngs of the S y ~ p s i u n ? on Appf l c a t i o n of Iterate Sens lng Data on t h e C o n t r n e n t a l Shelf, Voss, Korxay , Hay 19-23 , 1981. Europear. Space Agency, P a r r s , Prance : 77-68.
To t h e e y e , t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a n o i l s l i c k i s e x t r e m e l y variable",epennding o n i l l u m i n a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , o i l t y p e and t h i c k n e s s , r e l a t i v e C l o c a t i o n s of t h e s l i c k and t h e o b s e r v e r , e n v i r o m n t a l , c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g a t t h e t i m e , a n d the physicalaand m e n t a l s t a t e o f t h e o b s e r v e r . Even under r d e a l c o n & t r o n s , She w a t e r t o om1 c d n t r a s t is s u b t l e r n t h e v i s i b l e p o r t i o n o f - t h e s p e c t r u m , s t r a l n l n g a n y o n e ' s v l s u a l a c u l t y .
It is owlng t o t h e s e l l u t a t i o n s of t h e human e y e w i t h r n t h e
v r s b l e s p e c t r u m as w e l l as r t s t o t a l i n a b l k t y below and above t h e v i s i b l e ,
'L-' t h a t a v a r l e t y o f o i l s p i l l s e n s o r s y s t e m s have been d e v e l o p e d . They a r e
kseussed z n t h i s a p p e n d l x r e l a t t v e t o t h e p o r t i o n s of t h e s p e c t r u m d t h m
wfilch they o p e r r a t e . Hore d e t a i l e d s w r i e s of remote s e n s i n g equipment a r e
\ -
p r mi-ded b y Canada ( l984k) and, L ~ l l e s a n r l a n d K i e f e r ( 1974 ) . %
F
V i s i b l e , Near Visible and Infrared Sensors t
Photographic Sensors. T h e r e i s a wide r a n g e o f p h o t o g r a p h i c cameras
a v a i l a b l e f o r o i l s p i l l r e m o t e s e n s i n g from 35 mm r a f l e x t o large forrnat w i t h
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o w t o h i g h c o s t - Magazine c a p a c i t y , c y c l e r a c e , l e n s o p t i c s ,
r e s o l u t i o n a n d s h u t t e r speed c a n v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e
many c o l o r and b l a c k a n d w h i t e f l l m t y p e s which d i f f e r i n speed, r e s o l u t i o n
and wavelength s e ~ s l t i v i t y . T n e r e ara also numerous f i l t e r s a v a i l a b l e which
can f u r t h e r i s o l a t e p o r t i o n s o f t h e e l e c t r o m a g . n e t i c s p e c t r u m .
Photographic cameras o f f e r high r e s o l u t i o n and can provide
s tereoscopic coverage and mul t i spec t ra l imaging. General a v a i l a b i l i t y of
many lenses , f i l m s and f i l t e r types is a l s o an advantage. ' However,
photographic systems are n o t real- t ime and some systems are very c o s t l y .
Radiometers. A radiometer is a pass ive non-imaging device which measures
t h e absolute value of t h e energy emitted and/or r e f l e c t e d from an o b j e c t .
Typical a i rborne radiometers provide p o i n t measurements along an a i r c r a f t ' s
f l i g h t path. Incaning rad ia t ion is transduced i n t o an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t
which i s then recorded. Radiometer s e n s i t i v i t y can range from t h e
u l t r a v i o l e t to t h e f a r i n f r a r e d depending on t h e type of sensing e l e ~ n t
incorporated i n t h e instrument. (Radiometers which d e t e c t between 0 .3 and
1 m a r e known a s photometers). In addi t ion , energy i n s p e c i f i c s p e c t r a l
bands can be detec ted through use of f i l t e r s o r a d i f f r a c t i o n gra t ing .
Line ScaMers. While radiometers generate a one-dimensional p r o f i l e along
a f l i g h t l i n e , scanners c r e a t e a two-dimensional r e c o r d f o r a s w t h beneath
t h e a i r c r a f t . In e f f e c t , a l i n e scanner i s a radiometer which sweeps f r a n
s i d e t o s i d e a s t h e a i r c r a f t moves above t h e ground c r e a t i n g a series of
cross-prof i les . Scanner system components include a c o l l e c t i o n system
c o n s i s t i n g of a mirror which o s c i l l a t e s on a s h a f t o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l to t h e
f l i g h t l i n e and a s o l i d s t a t e de tec to r or de tec tor a r ray where received
energy i s converted i n t o e l e c t r i c a l impulses and recorded on an
electromagnetic tape. Scanners sense t h e photographic and thermal por t ions
of t h e electromagnetic spectrum, although some a r e a l s o capable of sens ing
t h e microwave band. In t h e cake of mul t i spec t ra l scanners, incoming energy
-- - - - - -- - -- -- - . . -
I
is split in- smaller ban- by a p r i s m o r d i f f r a c t i o n mat-+ It h - - -
p o s s i b l e t o develop a ccmpsite, color picture by d e s i g n s i n g h d i f f e r e n t 2 I
mncrgy band (i . a * , c o l o r ) to e a c h &me1 and s u p e ~ j r n p & n g &annex images . . I
r o t h e r typemo'f s c a n n e i is the p u s h b r o a n a s c a n n e r i n which, r a t h e r " a
t h a n a n b s c i l & t i n g mirror, t e r r a i n r a d i a n c e i s r e c o r d e d through r e s a t e d
s a m p l i n g by a solid s t a t e s e n s o r a r r a y . M r c r a f t f o r w a r d p p t f o n a g a i n - 3
' p r o v i d e s the s c a n d i r e c t i o n . P u s h b r o p s c a n n e r s & g e r a l l y h a v e a h i g b r
r e s o l u t i p n t h a n a t a n d a r d m u l t i s p e c t r a l s c a n n e r s k c a h s e of t h e p r e c i s e B
g e a n e t r y of t h e i r s e n s o r a r r a y , g r e a t e r s i g n a l power f r o m t h e l a r g e area of
t h e i r f o c a l p l a n e and minimum m e c h a n i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s l x c a u s e t h e y l a c k a
mwing k r r o r ' .
1
V i h Syst410. Vldeo o r ' t e l e v l s l o n ~ y s t e m s c o n s l s t Of a n o p t ~ c s package
*.ich c o l l e c t s lncoinlng r a h a t l o n a n d f o c u s e s it o n a n =age tube or e o h d
s t a t e d e t e c t o r . S o l i d s t a t e d e t e c t o r s u t i l i z e p h o t o d e t e c t o r a r r a y s and
s i l i c o n c h i p s . Different i n t e q a t e d circuit t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e available
i n c l u d i n g t h e c h a r g e c o u p l e d e v i c e (CCDf , t h e c h a r g e i n j e c t i o n d e v i c e (CID)
a n d metal o n s l l i c o n (30s) [Heisne-, 1986). Vldeo o u t p u t can be a c h i e v e d by ,
a c a t h o d e ray tube e h o v i n g a real-time i u a g e , r e c o r d e d o n a v i d e o t a p e or t F b
k. digitized i n a freeze-fraw im*. B m h c o l @ ~ $ a n d b l a c k a n d white systems
-A
a r e a-;al lable; higher r e s o l u t i o n is a t t a i n a b l e a c k and v h i t e , ~t i s w
P
m p r t a n t that t h e mxitor and r e c o r d e r are caupat with t h e camra owing
t'o t h e "ueakest l i n k " ~ 1 e . P i s m,Ie s t a t e s t h a t the r e s o l . u t i o n , SfK r a t i o ,
and C;sml",ion of t h e entire s y s t e n v i l l n e v e r exceed t&k= of t h e e a k e s t -% +=
c m F c e n t , & e t h e r c a n e r a , recorder o r w n i t o r ( W h i t e , 1983).
Resolution and s e n s i t i v i t y of video systems can vary as a funct ion
of e l e c t r o n beam diameter ac ross t h e cathode ray tube ecreen, imperfect
e lec t ro-opt ics and detection-induced noise , b u t they have t h e advantage of
opera t ing i n real-time a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s t . Spec t ra l s e n s i t i v i t y can
range from u l t r a v i o l e t t o thermal b u t most cameras are l imi ted to t h e
photographic spectrum. Se lec t ive f i l t r a t i o n is r e a d i l y achievable using a
v a r i e t y of o p t i c a l f i l t e r s .
Video cameras commonly c r e a t e an image which is geometrical ly
d i s t o r t e d by 1 - 2 percent depending on camera apera ture and t iming
re la t ionsh ips . One key component of video cameras i s t h e l ens ; f o c a l length
and apera ture diameter determine f i e l d of view and a m u n t of ava i l ab le l i g h t ,
two important f a c t o r s f o r adequate remote sens ing of o i l s p i l l s .
One important v a r i a b l e a m n g s t video cameras is t h e a b i l i t y to
produce images under low l i g h t condit ions a s i s t h e case with low l i g h t l e v e l
t e l e v i s i o n (LLLTV) . I n t h e s e systems image-forming e lec t rons are
e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y acce le ra ted before being focused on a f luorescen t
phosphorus screen. Usually capable of opera t ing i n t h e same electromamet i c
range a s conventional TV's, they have t h e added advantage of being usable
under s t a r l i g h t , moonlight, dawn o r dusk oondit ions, bu t a r e expensive
r e l a t i v e t o s tandard videos.
Forward-Looking Infrared ( IrLIR) Devices. FLIRs a r e b a s i c a l l y l i n e
scanners which opera te in t h e thermal i n f r a r e d por t ion of t h e spectrum. The
main components of a FLIR a r e a scanner, a de tec to r a r ray and e l e c t r o n i c
components including output devices. One canmn scanning technique i s
'4 - con t iguqus ecanning which is a combinat ion of h igh speed h o r i z o n t a l @canning
- - - - - - - - - - - -
w i t h o s c i l l a t i n g v e r t i c a l @cans. De tec to r a r r a y s r e q u i r k mupsrcool ing to
77. I. ; usually th rough t h e use of l i q u i d n i t r o g e n . The met CQILPY)~ d i s p l a y
unkt is that of a s t a n d a r d t e l e v i s i o n m n i t o r with t h e o p t i o n of videotape o r
8 i n g l e ' f r a . u ~ r e c o r d e r s . While capab le of r ecogn iz ing s m a l l t a r g e t s o v e r
ranges of s e v e r a l m i l e s , FLI% are cor respondingley c o n s t r a i n e d by a l i m i t e d
fyeld of view. I
d .
? l m r o u e ~ . Fluorescence r a d i a t i o n i s c r e a t e d when a molecule abso rbs
a photon a n d subsequently e t s another photon v i t h less e n e r g y bat Tea ter-
wavelength. M o s t f l u o r o s e n s o r s o p e r a t e i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t p o r t i o n of t h e '
spec t rum through d e t e c t i o n of n a t q r a l f l m r e s c e n c e o r art i f i c d l l y s t i m u l a t d d f l u o r e s c e n c e , dependrng on t h e senso r system. With f luorescence- induce d systems, p u l s e d or con t inuous wave l a s e r s ( l i g h t a m p l i f i c a t i o n by s t i m u l a t e d
e c i t t e d r a d i a t i o n ) c r e a t e t h e f l u o r e s c e n c e . F luo rescence i s u s u a l l y recorded
on a magnet ic t a p e via a t e l e s c o p i c r e c e i v e r .
Ac t ive Gated T e l e v i s i o n (-1- &nsorr. One of t h e g e n e r a t i o n of new /
1
combined seneor systems, t h e a c t i v e g a t e d t e l e v i s i o n combines a low l i g h t
l e v e l t e l e v i s i o n v i t h a l a s e r . I n i t s p a s s i v e mode , t h e system f u n c t i o n s as
k an LLLTV capable -of n i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y ; i n t h e a c t i v e m&, a p u l s e l a s e r is
7- t r a n s u t t e d t o t h e t a r g e t . The ca-tensifier i n t h e I+LUV is t h e n g a t e w on 'to act a s a r e c e i v e r ' . %is approach p rov ides h igh t a r w t r e a d a b i l i t y
under l i m i t e d l i g h f c o n d ~ t i o n s w i t h a reduced , f i e l d of view. t
v
F fjnr --me Prauhaufer - d d c &*as iR ~~ - - v
spectrum are caused by e a l e c t e d absorption of l i g h t by in t h e upper
atmosphere w i t h the s t r o n g e s t l i n e s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t and
i n f r a r e d bands of t h e spec t rum d u r i n g daylight hours. The Fraunhaufer Line
d i s 2 r i m i n a t o r records luminescence through canpa r i son of sky and t a r g e t ,
r ad i ance 'on a s e l e c t e d . -
t h e system c o n s i s t s of
hraunhaufer l i n e in t h e soh$
one t e l e s c o p e look ing skyward
spec t rum- 7Uechanica l ly
and ' a n o t h e r towazds t h e
q d i u t d , a chopper wheel a l t e r n a t i n g between them, f i l t e r s , a photo--
m u l t i p l i e r i a l i g h t c o l l e c t o r and e l e ' c t r o n i c c m p o n e n t s i n c l u d i n g a - -
mini-canputer which c a l c u l a t e s luminescence and r e f l e c t a n c e v a l u e s .
Passive Wcrwaye e s t e r s . P a s s i v e mrcrowave sys tems o p e r a t e ~n a f a s h r o n
s i m i l a r t o t he rma l radiometers and scanne r s and $her e f o r e are -capable of
* e i t h e r f l i g h t p a t h p r o f l l e s or wlder s can l i n e s along t h e l e n g t h of a f l i g h t
path. The main &if f e r e n c e between p a s s l v e mlcrovave a e n m r s and radrorne t e r s 3
i s t h a t t h e former u t i l i z e a n t e n n a s r a t h e r ' t han photon d e t e c t i o n e l emen t s .
Energy c o l l e c t e d v i a a n an tenna i s ampl r f i ed and canpa red tq an r n t e r n a l 0
c a l i b r a t i o n t empera tu re r e f e r e n c e s i g n a l . T h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two is '9
e l e c t r o n i c a l l y d e t e c t e d and r eco rded i n such o u t p u t r e c o r d e r s a s a a 7
synchronized f l l m r e c o r d e r . -
Pass ive microwaveJsensors r eco rd energy i n the microwave portion of B
the e l e c t r a n a q n e t i c spec t rum from a' v a r r e t y of e m i s s u n eourccs . These may
Inc lude n o t on ly t a r g e t t empera tu re and l n s t a n t radiation, b u t a l s o e m i t t e d ,
- - - - - - - -
r e f l e c t e d or transmitted e n e r g i e s frcan o t h e r sources e u c h as t h e s k y or
- -
atmosphere. W i n g to t h e v a r i e t y of murces, p a e s i v e mfcroi iave-energy y i e l d s
a n o i s y r iwa l which can h d i f f &it to i n t e r p r e t . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
cr i t ical w i t h r e s p e c t t o o i l s p i l l d e t e c t i o n f o r which microwave s y s t e m s
a t t e m p t to d i s c f i m i n a t e between open w a t e r waves a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r calmed' by
o i l . il I
. ,
S i d e - h k i n g Nrbotne Radar ( 6 1 'Systems. ' Radar s t a n d s f o r r a d i o
d e t e c t i o n a n d r a n g i n g . It i s b a s i c a l l y a n a c t i v e p i a o w a v e sys tem which u s e s A
r a d l o waves t o d e t e c t o b j e c t 6 a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e i r r a n g e t h r o u g h t r a n s m i s s i o n -
of a h o r t b u r s t s o f microwave e n e r g y a n d r e c o r d i n g t h e i r r e t u r n o r b a c k s c a t t e r 8
r e f l e c t i o n s . M*'
One p a r t i c u l a r ' t y p e of r a d a r , s i d e - l o o k i n g a i r b o r n e r a d a r o r SLAR,
u s e s a n a n t e n n a u n f k r a n p a i r c r a f t t o p r o p a g a t e micr&ave e n e r g y to a target . . f
A s y n c p r o n i z e r s w i t c h v a r i e s t h e a n t e n n a between t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g
mode. Received. e n e r g y ie p r o c e s s e d t o p roduce a n a m p l t u & / t i m e v r & o sl w a l
I which i s r e c o r d e d on a f i l m r e c o r d e r . Each image l i n e on t h e f i l m i s a t o t a l . r e p r e s e n t a t j o n of t h e s i g n a l s t r e n g t h *om a s i n g l e r a d a r p u l s e . A s t r i p
h
i r r a g e . 1 ~ c r e a t e d i n t h e f i l m r e c o r d e r t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of s u c h p u l s e s .
Synthetic llpe s SLAR s y s t e m s are known' i
as r e a l a p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s h e c a u s e t h e y depend on t h e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l l e n g t h .
of t h e i r a n t e n n a , s y n t h e t i c a p e r a t u r e r a d a r or S k R s y s t e m s depend o n modif iedp
data r e c o r d i n g a n d p r o c e s s i n g t e c h k i q u e s to s y n t h e s i z e t h e ef f e c r of a l o n g
a n t e n n a . SAR's r e c o r d b o t h t h e a m p l i t u d e and f r e q u e n c y o f t a r g e t r e t u r n s as
compared to only amplitude for SLARs. Frequency information from a target i s
compared t o a control frequency reference signal generated internal ly with
the resu l t ing pattern recorded photogra@ically o r on mawetic tape. These
signal f i lms must be interpreted i n turn by a laser opt ical processor. SAR
is very ccmplex and requires dependable performance from i t s many system
components.
/ % -~ APPENDIX 2 : PREFZR-a FIW. XSG FILTER TYPES FOF. F~EMoTE
S E S S I H G Of G I L SPILLS a
PREFERRED F I U l AND FILTER TYPES FOR REMOTE SENSING OF OIL SPILLS
FILM
2402
2403
2424
SO-397
DESCRIPTION
Kodak Plus-X Aerographic (Black and White) Panchromatic wi th extended r e d s e n s i t i v i t y
Kodak T r i - X Aerographic (Black and White) Panchromatic wi th extended r ed s e n s i t i v i t y
Kodak I n f r a r e d Aerographic (Black and White) I n f r a r e d , v i s i b l e and u l t r a v i o l e t (weak between 500-600 nm)
Kodak Ektagraphic EF Aerographic (Color r e v e r s a l ) S e n s i t i v e m u l t i l a y e r balanced
FILTER I WAVELENGTH (urn
380 - 1100 310 - 400 and 700 - 800 300 - 520 and 600 - 1100 300 - 500 and 680 - 1100 520 - 590 and 740 - 1100
hFP.E?;LiX 3. TF&.?YS.YZT?k%CE F X i G E S OF FILTERS USEL Ih CGKIICLLED ,- TESTS k ? L FiELC T F . X
TRANSMITTANCE RANGES OF FILTERS USED IN CONTW3LLED TESTS AND FIELD TRlAL -
FILTER 1 T ~ S X I T T A N C E RAfiGE (b!) I -
310 - 400 dhd 70'0 - 8 0 0 430 - 480 and 750 - 1 1 O G 830 - 1 1 0 0 - C
7 2 0 - 1 1 0 6 400 - 520 6?0 - 690 375 - 4 2 5 425 - 475 475 - 525 325 - 575 575 - 6 2 5 625 - 675
A P P E K D I X 4 . D O C U K E W A T I O N FROH OCEAN DUMPING APPRDVAL PROCESS
APPLICATIOK
.
fir
L r
FROM DE
Gos.emment. Gowemement - of Canada $u Canada : MEMORANDUM
iron mental P royec t i on %.,nservat i o n and ;Protect ion
/ 4
B. A. Heskjn 7 Regional D i r e c t o r , P a c i f i c & ~ u h n " . -
A t t e n t i o n : H. Ne lsoq - Ocean Dumping _1
Bob Sherrrood 9 . 1 0
Senior Phys ica l S c i e n t i s t R e f e r r a l and Impact Anal-ysis
- P a c i f i c & ' futon Region ' t
SUBJECT' wn O i l S p i l l Remote ~ e n s i n i Experiment
NOTE DE SERVICE *
DUR ALE - N / REFERENCE I
At tached i s an appl i c a t i o n f o r approval under t h e &ean Dumping Cont ro l Program f o r an o i l s p i l l remote sensing experiment on March 18, 1987 i n
- Su r ra rd I n l e t . The i n t e n t o f t h e experiment i s t o t e s t an ar ray* o f v ideo &
h e r a s and f i l ' t e r s on board a Cessna 185 f o r t h i c k n e s s d e t e c t i o n o f a d i e s e l s p i l l o f knbwn q u a n t i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e exper iment w i l l p rov ide
' a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r Eu r ra rd Clean t o improve i t s s p i l l response c a p a b i l i
A l l p recaut ions w i l l be taken t o ensure t h a t no escape o f p roduct , n o r any , form o f envi ronmental degradat ion occurs. EP personnel w i l l be present d u r i n g a l l re leases o f t h e d i e s e l f u e l and can c a l l a h a l t t o t he work a t any t ime. Only sea co i t i o n s i n which t h e fuel can be r e a l i s t i c a l l y expected t o be recover % ,w i l l be worked. O i l containment b a r r i e r s , a skimmer and sorbents w i 11 be u t il i z e d i n c leanup fo1 1 owing t h e - a i , r c r a f t o v e r f l i g h t s . A smal l runabout ' w i t h outboard w i l l be used t o keep b i r d s away f rgm t h e area p r i o r t o at%d d u r i n g cleanup.
I recognize t h e ex t remely t i g h t timefr-ame i n which approval i s be.ing , sought and thank you f o r your e f f o r t s i n t h i s regard.
Should a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n be r e q u i r e d , p lease c o n t a c t me a t 666-5925.
Bob Sherwod
&. ,rCATlON FOR A PERMIT TO DUMP AND/OR TO LOAD SUBSTANCES FOR W I N G AT SEA DEMANDE WAUTORISATION D'IMMERSION w M CHARGEMENT DE SUBSTANCES i IMMERGER
PART A BASIC INFORMATION PARTIE A R E N S E I ~ N E M E N T S ~ ~ N ~ R A U X
1 NAME OF APPLICANT I Nom Ou n U l r a n t T E L . W / W Q t & .
DIGSCL OTHER t(#Ify) & t n ( o r k l n r )
TOTAL WTV TO BE OUMPED S SWRCE OF SULZTANCE NAME OF FIRM i l l WPl*.bl*J Qluntltd t o U e 1 l m n u r r r
I ADDRESS I 2 WPE OF BUSINESS I Ty# a'.ntm9r*.
C / O E N J ~ ~ ? , w G W + &&.w K R P I C C L I J ~ be- P I W ~ ~ L k Y / s dcc;? \ /Ad~o. '~b& ec v 3 t r 4 2
I I I PART B CARRIER INFORMATION PARTIE I RENSEIGNEMENTS SJR LE TRANWORTEUR
R-rY*t A4b =-fw
4 & ~ t r im, L % P E . F ~ ~ ~ (TO f . 7 A -ore ~ S G S'ISTWAJ 5 . q ~ ~ PJ sf? ,; .& i n f'- hu77 6 OESCRIBE ACTIVITY FROM WHICH SUESTANCE ORIOINATLI
Dkr l re I'aclhltd m s u o w b h MI* fomutlon 08 (L UDrl.IK. 7 WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO DUMP SUBSTANCE AT SEA!
COVrauol m-II dc.ul l ra a ' l m m * r ~ r la ubstanco an m r t
8 NAME OF CARRIER COMPANV Wom O. la cwngmnh d. t r a w o r t
&A ,=& P- b 9 NAME OF CARRIER OWNER
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10 NAME OF CARRIER'S AGENT i U w p l W l c J Nom ae I ' w n t du tranwortaur (8'U Y U.ul
8 I I
12 TYPE OF CARRIER /TYPE DE TRANSPORTEUR
TITLEIS) I TlhmlS)
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PWS~LILL Sr * Y l 6 I
3 NAMEIS) OF INDIVIDUAUS) RtLPDNSIBLE FOR LOADING A N 0 DUMPING ON BEHALF OF APPLICANT N a m 18 m n o n m chaw& au Chammnt at W I ' l e m ou nom au r w u d r ~ n t
ADDRESS / Mntn sw, y e 1034 TEL. No I No 08 161.
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I
NAME OF MASTER. PILOT. OR OTHER INDIVIDUAL I N COMMANC Nom au capltalm, pilot* ou autre cornmanant dm bard
NAME OR NUMBER (If any) Nom w n u d r o ir'U y 4 k u )
OVERALL LLNOTH Longueur nawtout
- -.. ..r r n - r u m m u rr WR L L A l O W
1s PORT OF DEPARTURE 1. PROPOSED LOADING DATE(S) ISMETUOD OF LOADING AND STOWAGE PROCOSED An u *pu t wrmoa m m k ae ~ ~ ~ r p w n t mi d * n b n w , 1
I I 17 WHERE 16 DOES NOT U R V STATE REQUIRED DURATION OF PERMIT TOTAL Q U A N T I W CREQUENCV M D RATE OF DUMPING
Y 16 IU s'ePDII0w DI. 1Mlauw DY~C n ~ u l n w l'autorkauon Owntnd cotan FrWuna #I cwru .r om6railons
METHOD OF DISPOSAL I M E m O D E D~LIMINATION
FORM OF PACKAGING OR CONTAINERIZATION I ~ D ) WLLO OF CARRIER DURING IIC) DISCUARGE RATE
I I I PAW D DWP UTE INCORYATIOII PARTIE D RENSEIQYEMENTS W R LE LIEU D l Y Y E R 0 O N 20 GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF DUMPSITE 1 DEPTH OF SEA A T PROPOSE0 DUMPSITE
C o o m o n n k e6wramlaur au 11.11 a l m m n l o n ~ o l o n a u r r la m r au I h u almnwrsIon 2 f wi.)gG C,
22 REASON FOR SELECTION OF PROPOSED SITE I Ramnr du m o l x du I b u m o w &
I 1
NOTE: In carnlnp out any wcerury tests lne a N l y a Vloula follow aocumntea ProcWures ma De DreDarM t o r u r l b a- procadwas In 0.~11.
NOTE: Pour .ffutun la eruls ndcaukw. I 'nWSte Oolt wbn la IndmoMs I m l a d a et ma DIM I la dkrwe m -11.
(a) OEPTU OF DISCUARGE U d o w u a s M h n otdfli%de .bow m r u f l u e 1.1 DESCRIBE CARRIER TRACK WHILE OUMPING W wdk.bk) DIcrln Ie w e t du transmrtaur au cows r ~ ' m m m r u o n I
23 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES IPROPRI~TCS PHYSIOUES
I
I I 1 24 CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES I PROPRlETES CHlMlOUES ET BlOCHlMlOUES
la) ARE SUBSTANCES NAMED I N SCHEDULES I A N 0 II OF W E ACT PRESENT? I F VES. IN WHAT CONCENTRATIONS Y a441 d n w w t a n c n mmtlonndrs w x annexes I e t I1 6# la Lo1 1% OUI, aans awllss concentrations
I I I I
ODOUR Oaeur
L'-Lc
VISCOSITV v l ~ s l t d
2 - L c c C S
1.1 LlOUlDS
L i i u i d n
COLOUR Coumur
IN WATER
COLOUR bulwf LI C lr x-~,
OOOUR Odeur
COLOUR Couleur lClSOLIDS
I N WATER
SPECIFIC GRAVITV -Id1 1dClfI0W
0 . 6 1 - 0 .4 8
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND Denume c h l m h u a'oxy+e
@ )
CHEMICAL STAB1 LITY
8ubilid rhimiqw
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND SETTLING RATE I N SEAWATER Grosuur d.1 par tku ln et t w a ae Jalmentrt lon aanr I'w 0. nwr
OXIDATION REDUCTION POTENTIAL Pobn tb l d'oxydorlQuctlon
VAPOUR PRESSURE Tanslon 0. vemur
4.5
OOOUR Oaeur
hi A REACTlVlTV WlTU SEAWATEP . Rbctlvltd a v u 12.11 u m a
MISCIBILIW W l W SEAWATER M l u I ~ l I I t d avec I'UU O. la m r
LC% 7- . 5 , f f~
V . w r & C - C - m Q W ~ U J
CHANGE ON EXPOSURE TO ATMOSPHERE AND SUNLIGUT Cnang8rmm au contact ae l'atmospn&re et r la lumldm a u nolelt
I
TAINTING,COLWR CWANOE AND O W E R UNOESIRABLL CONTAMINANT LCFECTS ON SEAFOOD Colorwon, C h m F U I t c coutwr et .utm .(MI 0. c m w n m t l o n W I Y r O l a w L (NIU C mr
P?%le.Llyhf O F 4 4 ( . d t ' ~ & O F S k S S l b e L~~~
INHALATION / InhYatbn
W o n thm a w l l u n t 1s a c n ~ o n t l o n . m l r r tho t1Ih or c ~ m c l t y and IoImDhono numwr of the w r w n slsnlnm MIS awlkmtlon. SI Im mudrant a t une roclh6, aonnu n t l t n ou e ionctlon ot Ie n u d r o do tlldpnone du r lwaulro aa la onmame.
%"o.n- P 1 r Y s , L + c j ; , L 4 1 ~ : ............................... 7. .........-...... k . L ....................................................... DATE SIGNATURE OF APPLICANT / Slgnaturo du r.qu(rant TITLE / Tltro
.......... ...................................... I L L . NO. I NO H 141.
APPROVALS
- -- - -I#- * -- I
Rprectm I'mronnement
c6~s-t- and Protectinn h
3rd F loor , Kap l l ano 100, Park Royal Yest Vancouver, b .~ . V7T U2 ,
March 17, 1987
Mr. Bob Shemood Environment Canada Conservatiop and P r o t e c t i o n b
3 r d F loor , Kapi lano 100 '
Park Royal, Yest Vancouver, B.C. -. V 7 T 1A2
Dear Mr. Sherwood:
W Re: Ocean Dumping c o n t r o l Program, F i l e No. 4543-2-02173 Simon Fraser Un ive rs i t y , Burnaby, B.C. -
Your proposal has been reviewed pursudnt t o - subsect ion 33.1(1) o f the F i s h e r i e s Act. Attached are the cond i t i ons cover ing your a p p l i c a t i o n t o conduc t lobd ing acd ocean dumpfng. Your a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d i n p a r t i c u l a r t o C o n d t i o n s 3, 5, 8 and 9.
a
Y l t h re ference t o Cond i t ion 3, the prescr ibed a c t i v i t y w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d to t h e date requested by the Proponent, i e : March 18, 1.987. Any a c t i v i t i e s ou t s i de o f t h i s date w i l l be sub jec t .to f u r t he r review. U i t h reference to cond i t i ons 9.2, 9.3,- and 9.4, you are requested t o ensure t h a t extreme cau t i on and d i l l i g e n t e i s exerc ised t o ensure no adverse impact on the environment.
Please be advised t h a t i t i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the Proponent to ensure t h a t a l l con t rac to rs invo lved i n the loading/dumping a c t i v i t y are made
'
aware o f any r e s t r i c t i ons and/or condi t ions.
It i s understood t h a t the Proponent has obtained a11 necessary permi ts / approvals, etc., from other r egu la to r y agencies i n respect .o f the p r o j e c t ( s ) descr ibed herefn.
$ 0
I f you have any questions, please con tac t M r . H. Ye1 son a t 666-2947 o r Mr.- 0. Brq thers a t 666-2990.
Yours t r u l y ,
l He!-kin, P. Eng.
Di rec to r P a c i f i c and Yukon
--
DEPARTMENT W THE ENVIROWEWT OCEAN DUHPING CONTROL PR06RAH . A - -- --
pp
COHDITIOWS FOR OCEAN DISPOSAL -FILE~WDTK~FZ-W~~~-~- pppp
1. PROPOWEM -
S$wn Fraser Uni vers i ty - I I
To dump and/or loud substances fo r 'dumping a t sea for expert.enta1 I
purposesi Diesel o i l will be s p i l l e d to test remote sensing equfplaent *
l
and oi 1 contai mCnt and m o v e r y capabil I t f e s . I
3. TERM- . . I
Valid from March 18, 1987 t o Cbrch 17, 1988. Loading and Qumping will be r e s t r i c t e d to perfods which will not'impose a th rea t t o biological resources; These periods y f l l be speci f ied by t h i s off ice .
4. LOADING SITE IS)
Vancouver Harbour; 49*17.4ztw, m * 0 3 . 5 a 1 u
Bur-rard I n l e t ; 49'17.75 ' N , 122'56. SO'U
A s t a d e p t h of not l e s s than ZO'wtres.
" Diesel o i l wil l ~ ' ~ o u r e d from 10 gallon . d
\ I TOTAL QUAKilTY TO BE DlMPED
Mot to exceed 50 imper,iat gat tons. d
Diesel o i l .
9. WHITORING REQIIIREWEHTS ANC TIRING RESTRICTIONS
9.1 The Proponent should notify t h i s o f f ~ c e a minimumof f i v e working '
deys pr ior to loading and 6 ~ j i n g . The notf f i ca t ion should rnclude t h e following information: 1
I i ) load s i t e and dump s i t e - i 1 nature and quant?ty of the material to be dumped i ) proposed da te (5 ) ~e ~ h i c 4 the l o a d ~ n g and dumping wf l l take place.
..... 2
DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT OCEAN DUMPING CONTROL PROGRAM FILE NO.: 4543-2-02173
9.2 The Proponent sha l l ensure ninimal Impact to the marine environnent and 1 i v i n g resources a t the experiment s l te. The e x p e r l w n t sha l l be conducted a t a t i n e then wind and wave act ion al low the necessary cont ro l o f quiprnent to ensure adequate recovery o f o i l .
9.3 Equipment on-site to ensure containment and recovery o f s p i l l e d o i l sha l l Include: o i l containment barr iers; a skinmer; and sorbents. The o i l contalnnent ba r r i e rs be deployed p r i o r t o any release o f o i l .
9.4 No dumping o f o i l sha l l take place u n t i l an Ocean Dumping Inspector I s present on-site and has approved comnencement o f the experiment.
9.5 The Proponent should repor t to the Director, Environmental Protection, Pac i f i c Region, w i th in 30 days o f expiry o f the Approval, the nature and quant i ty of mater ia l disposed o f pursuant t o the Approval and the date(s1 on rrhich the a c t i v i t y occurred.
~ri . HESKIN, P. E ~ G Director
Environmental Protect ion Conservation and Protect ion
P a c i f i c Region March 17, 1987
PEPOSIT O I L I N T O BURRARD INLET FOR SCIENTIFIC P ~ O S E S m m t s -/Dour
Bob Sherwood S e n i o r P h y s i c a l S c i e n t i s t Enviromentgal P r o t e c t i o n Conse rva t ion L: P r o t e c t i o n P a c i f i c and Yukon Region L
PURSUANT TO SECTION 4 ' 1 and 3 5 ' 2 ' OF TKE MIGRATORY BIRDS CONVENTION ACT A V D REGULATIONS, THIS P E W J T AUTHORIZES THE DEPOSIT OF UP TO 50 GALLONS OF DIESEL FUEL IN'TO BURRARD IKLET NEAR GATES PARK FOR THE PURPOSES OF TESTING REMOTE S E N S I N G EQUIPMENT AND CLEANUP CAPABILITIES. '9"-
Conserva t ion and p r o t e c t i o n
r Hal Nelson I
Ocean Ihmping P a c i f i c 6 Yukon Region
' s e n i o r P h y s i c a l S c i e n t i s t R e f e r r a l and Impact Ana lys i s M P a c i f i c 6 Yukon Region
I
StZURlTY - UASSIF IUTW - DE SECURITE --l 71.-
SUBJECT WET - Ocean Dumping C o n t r o l Program - Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y
The t e s t e p i l l s propose3 f o r Warch 18 , "1987 i n Rurrard I n l e t were e u c c e s s f u l l y ' executed a s planned. Video and photographic remote s e n s i n g da-ta of t h e s p i l l s
v e r e c o l l e c t e d and a r e now be ing anafyzed . 1
Environmental c o n d i t i o n s were optimal-vave h e i g h t s minimal , v i n d s l i g h t and c loud cover 10/10 a t 2000'. B u r r a r a Clean c o n t r o l l e d and c leaned up the o i l v e r y e f f i c i e n t l y a n d - w e n took t k e o p p ~ r t u n i t y ~ t o mop up some a d j a c e n t u n r e l a t e d s l i c k s .
/' I m u l d l i k e t o thank you, Duane Bro the r s and a l l t h o s e involved i n ' the Ocean Duaping approval p roces s f o r your c y s i d e r a t e and expedi t i o u s review and comments.
I
Bob Sherwood' .
APPENCIX 5. PROCEDURES FOR QUAKTIFICATlOt ; OF I j l E S E L O I L COLLECTE.5 IK EACH SORBEXT PAL LibhlNL FlEL'J T H l k i .
-&
C u t u p & = b e n t pads to f i t 100 ml c e n t r i f u g e the- .,
Add g l a s s *ads tC, f i t 100 p.l c e n t r i f u g e tub;. Add cu t -up p a d &'I00 m l c e n t r i f u g 6 , t u b k . . , Add 2 'ml - c o n c e n t r a t e d s u l f u r i c a c i d .
I
Cover w i t h &screw c a p and c e n t r i f u g e a t 350 0 .WM f o r i 0 i i n u t e s .; Remove pad. . a
E x t r a c % l i q u i d o n bo t tom o f . c e n t r i f u g e i n t o 100 rnl voluhetr'ic f l a s k and . slush t u b e w i t h f r e o n 113. -
P u t p a d .back i n t o c e n t r i f u i e t u b e . Add -10 m l f r e o n 1 1 3-on t o p o f pad . %peat $teps 5 - 9. A t t h i s p o i n t p a d h a s a l l orgalnics removed.and I n r \ t h e v o l u m e t r i c f l a sk . ' . .. Volumi-ze 100 m l v o l u m e t r i c f l a s k . , - , Check t h e f r e o n 1 1 3 as i n d i c a t e d in t h e s t a n d a h P r o c e d u r e s se t o u t on n e x t page . ~ c l d i f ~ a 250 nl sample i n a 500 ml s e p a r a t o r y f u n n e l 4 t o less t h a n p~ 2 w l t h c o n c e n t r a t e d s u l f u r i c a c i d , u s u a l l y 250 u l 1s a d e q u a t e . E x t r a c t w i t h 3 0 m l of f r e o n 113, l e t t i n g t h e sample s i t f i v e m i n u t e s between e x t r a c t i o n s . , D r a i n each f r e o n ex t rac t i n t o a 50 ml v o l u m e t r i c f l a s k by filtering ,
t h r o u g h a s m a l l f u n n e l w i t h a GF/C paper a n d f l v e gm anhydrous so&um s u ' l f a t e . *
Rinse f u n n e l and sodium s u l f a t e w i t h f r e o n 113 and make s o l u t l o n t o e x a c t l y 50 m l . Measure t h e a b s o r b a n c e a t 4000 and 2935 cm-1 on a P e r b n - E l m e r Model 8 8 2 I n f r a r e d S p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r , u s i n g a p p o p r i a t e d i l u t i o n s o n samples t o f a l l w i t h i n t h e r p n g e o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n l i n e a r i t y . Us+ng 2 0 ml of t h e d e c a n t e d s o l u t i o n from t h e O i l and G r e a s e Q m n t i t a t l o n 6
( s t e p s 14 - 171, a d d three gm s i l i c a g e l and s h a k e f o r 30 r m n u t e s . C e n t r i f u g e a t 2000 RPM f o r t e n r m n u t e s , t h e n c a r e f u l l y d e c a n t i n t o f i v e cm cylindrical c e l l . Measure t h e a b s o r b a n c e a t 4 0 0 F a n d 2935 cm-1 on a ~ e r k l n - ~ l m e r Model 8 8 2 S p e c t r o p h o t o r r e t e r to o b t a l n H y d r o c a r b n w a n t i t a t i o n v a l u e s .
STANDARDS PRDC EDURES
Make a "Standard O i l " w i t h e x a c t l y 15 m l hexadecane, 15 m l im-octane , and 10 m l chlorobenzene. Determine t h e & n s i t y by *lei*t, normally around 0.823 Wml. Prepare a s tock s o l u t i o n us ing 2500 mg "Standard O i l " made up t o e x a c t l y 50 m l wi th f r eon 113 (50,000 mg/l) . Prepare a n in t e rmed ia t e s tock s o l u t i o n by d i l u t i n g 1 ml of t h e a b w e t o 100 m l (500 mg/l). Prepare s t anda rd s o l u t i o n s of 100, 75, 50, 25, and 10 mg/l by appropr i a t e d i l u t i o n s and a f r eon 113 b lank . Measure t h e absorbance a t 4000 and 2935 cm-1 a g a i n s t a i r on a n I n f r a r e d Spectrophotometer . Typ ica l f i v e cm cell va lues o k a i n e d are a s f o l l o s :
Concent ra t ion . ( i n f r eon, m g / l ) Absorbance (2935-4000 an-1 )
Slope = O.l/839 O f f s e t = 7.4443 Cor re l a t ion = 0 -99999
P l o t t h e s t anda rd curve and perform r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s on t h e I n f r a r e d Spectxophotometer . The l i n e a r c o e f f i c i e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n should be a t l e a s t 0.99995. Unless t h e r e is a change i n t h e absorbance of t h e f r e o n 113, t h e n r e c a l i b r a t i o n w i l l be neces sa ry only p e r i o d i c a l 1 y. Each b o t t l e of s o l v e n t should be checked as a sample a g a i n s t t h e s t anda rd curve. I f any b o t t l e g ives a r e a d i n g equ iva l en t t o mr e t h a n +/-0.1 mg/l i n t h e *eon, t h e n t h e s tandard curve must be redone. More t h a n 1 mg/l i n d i c a t e s probable contaminat ion and t h e f reon should not be used.
CALCULATIONS
1. P l o t va lues obta ined from "Standard O i l n v s concen t r a t ions of sample. 2. Determine t h e f reon concen t r a t ion of t h e unknowns. 3. For O i l and Grease Concent ra t ions
( f r eon concen t r a t ion x 50 ml)/(sample volume i n m l ) = mg/l 4. For Hydrocarbon Concentrat ion
C a l c u l a t e as above. I n t h i s ca se , t h e r e s u l t i n g va lue r e p r e s e n t s t h e q u a n t i t y of diesel o i l i n a sorbent pad i n mg.
