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INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The relationship between human beings and plant is as old as the

origin of man on earth. Man has found products useful to him from all types of

plants. While, he has discovered a number of plants as a source of food,

fibers, dyes and drugs. Plants as a source of medicine have special

importance in countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Srilanka which

have well developed traditional system of medicine called Ayurveda, Siddha

and Unani, all of which derive more than 90% of medicaments from higher

plants.

Human communities with historical practices of using resources

acquire information of the ecosystem, process and local fauna and flora

properties called ecological knowledge, which may be traditional, local or

recently acquired. (Schultes, 1989; Kurien, 1998, Hipwell, 1998). Medicinal

plants are important resources linking people to the environment (Begossi et.

aI., 2000) and their use promotes the traditionalore related to them. Native

knowledge of medicinal plants is usually fairly noticeably within populations,

and most of the world relies on folk or traditional medicine (Alcom, 1995).

The medicinal plants are one of the important components of the

environment. The medicinal plants have become a part and parcel of the

human life and have been major sources of therapeutic agents from thousand

of years. Ayurved, Unani and Siddha system of medicine and their literatures

are proof of the use of medicinal plants in whole ancient world. The history of

medicine in India can be traced to the remote past in the Vedic period. The

Rig-veda perhaps the oldest respository of human knowledge, having been

written about 4500 - 1600 B.C. claims about 99 Medicinal plants, the

Yajurveda (82 plants) and in Samveda 100. Atharveda deals with 288

ingredients and were used cure deadly disease. As per the Vedas, the

Brahmans deals with 129 plants and Kalpsutras describe some about 519

Plants (Kaushik and Dhiman, 2000) .

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INTRODUCTION

Ayurveda (about 2500 B.C.) contains a more detailed account of many

drugs and their uses. The study of natural plants starts with Ayurveda, which

is the oldest surviving complex medical system in the world. Ayurveda is

Sanskrit word, derived from two roots: ayur, which means life, and Veda,

means knowledge (Raghubir singh et aI., 2002). This knowledge arranged

systematically with logic happened science. Over the course of time,

Ayurveda became the science of life. It has its root in ancient Vedic literature

and encompasses our entire life, the body, mind and the spirit. Ayurveda is

based on scientific principles of diagnosis and treatment. It differs from

conventional medicine in the basic principle of investigation and assigning

causes to processes rather than specific areas of physiology (Kulkarni et aI.,

2004).

Ayurveda is one of the most ancient systems of medicine existing

today and is more popular in India, and its neighboring countries. The World

Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 80% of the populations of

developing countries rely on herbal medicines, mostly plant drugs, for their

primary healthcare needs and the major part of traditional therapy involves the

use of plant extracts or their active principles (Dikshit et. aI., 2004). Also,

modern pharmacopoeia still contains at least 25% drugs derived form plants

and many others, which are synthetic analogues, built on prototype

compounds isolated from plants. Demand for medicinal plants is increasing in

both developed countries due to growing recognition of natural products.

In herbal medicine the word 'herbs' applies to any plant or plant part

used for its medicinal, flavoring or fragrant properties. Roots, stems, bark,

leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds can all be constituents of herbal medicines.

The science, which deals with drug plant, is known as pharmacognosy, while

the study of drugs action is known as pharmacology. The chemistry of that

plant is known as phytochemistry, while the chemicals present in the

medicinal plant is known as phytochemicals.

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INTRODUCTION

1.1.2 Phytochem istry

The branch of chemistry that focuses on the constituents of plants

(phyto comes from the Greek word for plants). Phytochemistry is in the strict

sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. These are chemicals derived

from plants. In a narrower sense the terms are often used to describe the

large number of secondary metabolic compounds found is plant. Many of

these are known to provide protection against insect attacks and plant

diseases. They also exhibit a number of protective functions for human

consumers.

The subject of phytochemistry, or plant chemistry, has developed in

recent years as a distinct discipline, somewhere in between natural product

organic chemistry and plant biochemistry and is closely related to both. It is

concemed with the enormous variety of organic SUbstances that are

elaborated and accumulated by plants and deals with the chemicals

structures of these sub-stances, their biosynthesis, tumover and metabolism,

their natural distribution and their biological function.

More than 900 different phytochemicals have been identified as

components of food, and many more phytochemicals continue to be

discovered today. Phytochemicals are not yet classified as nutrients or

substances necessary for sustaining life. They have been identified as

containing properties for aiding in disease prevention. Some phytochemicals

works as antioxidants, while others are enzyme inhibitors.

1.1.3 The importance of Phytochemistry

Chemical terms are found everywhere from supplement labels to news

items in the popular press to reference works for clinical practitioners. But

what is the significance of these chemicals. Knowledge of structure and

relationships helps us understand botanical medicine function in the human

body. Phytochemistry also teaches us how to prepare herbal medicines to get

the optimal concentrations of known active constituents how best to preserve

their activities. The knowledge of plant chemistry is most useful to utilizations

of new drugs. These drugs are used to develop the medicines. The westem

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INTRODUCTION

medicines have a high coast; while the medicine developed from plants have

low coast comparative to westem medicine. A middle class people cannot

afford high coast westem medicine. So the use of medicinal plants become

cost effective intem and affordable medical treatment can be made available

to society.

All human beings require a number of complex organic compounds as

added caloric requirement to meet the need for their muscular activities. A

plant cell contained different types of chemical constituents and it produces

two types of metabolities: Primary metabolities and secondary metabolities.

Primary metabolities involved directly in growth and metabolism. However,

secondary metabolities considered as end product of primary metabolism and

are in general not involved in metabolic activity. Scientist believes that there

are about 3,000 primary metabolities in the human body. Carbohydrates,

lipids, proteins, amino acids and nucleic acid are all primary metabolities.

However, alkaloids, flavanoids, Phenolics, steroids, lignins, tannins,

terpenoids etc. are considered as secondary metabolities.

Carbohydrates are the key intermediates in the metabolism of green

plants. The chief function of carbohydrates is to provide energy needed by our

body. Those not used immediately for this purpose are stored as glycogen or

converted to fat and stored, to be mobilized for energy supply when needed.

When they are present in excessive amount the diet become imbalance.

Proteins are the chief substances in the cells of the body and form the

important constituent of muscles and other tissues and vital fluid like blood.

The main function of protein is the building of new tissue and maintaining and

repair of those already built. Regulatory and protective substances such as

enzymes, hormones and antibodies are formed from protein, which was

supplied to human body by vegetables, cereals and fruits. i.e. plant parts.

Proteins in the diet supply about 10% of the total energy. Protein when taken

in excess of the body's need is converted to carbohydrates and fat and is

stored. Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. All the amino acids are

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INTRODUCTION

very useful in human health or also in some metabolic activity. Cystein is very

important Amino acids amongst all. It can be used as anti cancer.

Alkaloids are non - toxic products or toxic compounds. They serve as

nitrogen reserve food materials. They also act as growth regulators and a few

acts as growth stimulators. They have also various pharmacological actions

such as analgesic, narcotics, Vermifuge, anti tumor agents etc. Flavanoids

comprises a large group of polyphenolic compounds. Flavanoids are

important for human health because of their high pharmacological activities as

radical scavengers. Flavanoids induce protective enzymes systems, also

shows protective effect against cardiovascular diseases and other related

diseases.

About 4-6% of the body weight is made up of mineral elements.

Mineral elements from an important group of nutrient necessary for the growth

and upkeep of the body. The major minerals present in the body are calcium,

iron, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine and other found in

traces are copper, iodine, cobalt, zinc etc. When traces minerals are present

in excessive amount it will become heavy metals. Plant absorbs and

accumulates various minerals elements like chromium, copper, cobalt, zinc,

cadmium and nickel etc. when these plants and plants parts are consumed in

various form of ayurvedic drugs continuously, these heavy metals accumulate

in human body and produce several diseases. Hence it is very much

necessary to check the drugs thoroughly before they are being prescribed for

human consumption.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2.1 Aim of the Study

Medicinal plants are sources of important therapeutic aid for alleviating

human ailments with increasing realization of the health hazards and toxicity

associated with the indiscriminate use of synthetic drugs and antibiotics. The

knowledge of plant chemistry is used for identification of chemical compound,

which was used to developed drugs. In spite of fact that synthetic drugs and

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INTRODUCTION

antibiotic have improved the life expectancy of human all over the world,

plants still constitute as one of the major sources of raw material for drugs all

our the world.

Present day research has revealed that these compelling compounds

protect humans, by keeping degenerative diseases at lower levels or

preventing them completely when used on regular basis. The knowledge of

plant chemistry is most useful in the development of new drugs.

The purpose of the present investigation was to study the

phytochemical analysis of the selected medicinal plants and to know which

season is best for collecting these plants for medicinal purpose.

1.2.2 Objectives of the study

.:. To study the seasonal variation of protein, total sugar and reducing

sugar and total free amino acids content.

.:. To study the seasonal variation of percentage total alkaloids and

total flavanoids content.

.:. To study the seasonal variation of chlorophyll a and b in the leaves .

• :. To study the seasonal variation of the inorganic elements which are

harmful to human health present in the plant.

.:. Phytochemical screening of selected plant species. (Flavanoids,

Tannin, Saponin and terpenoids.)

1.3 STUDY SITES

Gujarat is situated on west coast of India lies between 20°_ l' and 24°­

T North latitudes and 68°- 4' and 74 °_4' East longitudes with the total area of

195,984 Km2. The Bhavnagar city is situated in peninsular Gujarat. It is the

state's fifth largest district. It measure 11,155 Km2 and accounts for 5.69

percent area of the state's total geographical area and lies between 21 °-18'

and 22°-18' North latitudes and 71 °-15' and 72°-18' East longitudes.

6

Gujarat State

Bhavnagar City

,

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INTRODUCTION

1.3.1 Soil

The soil in this area is the residual derived from basalt out crop. Five

main types of soil obtain in the city viz. medium black type, sandy coastal

alluvial type, murrram type, clay lime type and alluvial clay type. Out of them

three types are widely occurred viz. Half- decomposed rock, just beneath the

upper surface, locally called as 'morrum'; coarse soils are mix with clayey

soils in low-lying areas. Most of the plain area shows brown/blackish soil with

sandy texture. Due to presence of humus, the upper layer of these soils is

usually blackish brown in color. The lOW-lying area shows medium black soil,

which is clayey in nature having characteristic cracks in summer and sticky in

rainy seasons. The under lying rock found in this area is Basalt-Deccan trap.

1.3.2 Climate

Climate is the most important ecological factor, paints the general

picture of the vegetation. The climate of this area is semi-arid type with

marked seasons; winter, summer, and monsoon. The tropic of cancer passes

from just north of Saurashtra and here the winter is very cool and the summer

is very hot. The maximum temperature during summer is 40° C and minimum

temperature during winter is 14° C. rainfall is received mainly during the

period from June to September and July being the rainiest month. The

average rainfall is 563.3 mm. the area is under the influence of winds

generally from South-West to North-East direction. During summer and

monsoon the wind velocity observed higher while lower observed during the

post monsoon period. Relative humidity remained higher during monsoon and

lower during winter.

1.3.3 Vegetation

Bhavnagar is semi-arid region comprises xerophytic vegetation. The

forest cover of the city is poor, and the vegetation found within the city is

scattered. This city includes 422 plants species, of which 241 herbs, 69 trees,

67 shrubs and 45 twiners/climbers (Patel, 1982). Different plants are used in

different ways: like, food, fodder, dyes, wood, and medicinally etc. Oza (1991)

recorded 528 plant species from Bhavnagar region. Out of these plant species

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INTRODUCTION

104 plant species are widely used medicinally. Some of the medicinal plants

(104), which are found in Bhavnagar city are listed below:

Medicinal plants of Bhavnagar

F Medicinal Local Family Useful

Uses Plants Name Parts

" Abrus

Chanothi Papilionaceae F Increase vigour Precatorius L. and vitality

" Abutilon

Khapat Malvaceae F Aphrodisiac and indicum L. Demalcent

Astrigent, applied to boils

Acacia chundra and ulcers,

3 (Roxb.ex.Rott)

Khair Mimosaceae Kath Remedy in chest affections, To promote expectoration.

I- Acalypha indica Whole Bronchitis,

(L) Viaichikato Euphorbiaceae

Plant Asthma Pneumonia,

" Dropsy, piles,

Achyranthus Anghedi Amaranthaceae Whole plant

boils, cough, aspera (L) hydrophobia,

insect bites

" Adansonia

Rukhdo Bombaceae Fruits Diarrhoea,

digitata (L) dysentery.

r-:-Cough,

Adhatoda Arduso Acanthaceae Leaves Colds,

vasica (L) Nees. Bronchitis, Asthma

Anti-

" A'9" Whole

inflammatory, 8 marmelos Bili Rutaceae

Plant Ophthalmia, Correa Diarrhoea,

Cardiotonic . . _---- --_.

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INTRODUCTION

,,}oo,,", Weakness at Moto-Arduso Simaroubaceae Bark Child

excelsa Roxb. Birth, Asthma

r Aloe Purgative barbadensis Kunvarpato Liliaceae Leaves children (Mill) diseases.

~- Amaranthus Rajgira Amaranthaceae

Whole Purifying blood hybrid us (L) Plant Piles

F Amaranthus Tandaljo Amaranthaceae Leaves Tonic,

lividus (L)

F Andrographis Kariyata Acanthaceae Leaves Fever echioides (L)

F Andrographis Leaves paniculata Lilu kariatu Acanthaceae Stem Fever

(Burm.F)

F Anethum Suva Apiaceae Seeds

Bronchitis graveolens (L) Chest disease

F Anogeissus Root lafifolia (Roxb) Dhavdo Combretaceae Bark Liver complaints

wall

F Anona Sitaphal Anonaceae Is=- Tonic squamosa (L)

I I

r;~ Anthoephalus Inflammation of indicus (A. Kadam Rubiaceae Bark Eye Rich) Gargle

F Argemone Darudi Papaveraceae Whole

Intantile uzema mexican a L. Plant

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INTRODUCTION

F Asparagus Root racemosus Satavri Liliaceae Tonic (Wild)

F Azadirachta Stem indica Limdo Meliaceae

Bark Chronic fever

A. Jusss.

F Balanties r--:-aegyptiaca Ingario Balanitaceae Skin diseases (L) Del.

F Basella rubra Poi Basellaceae Leaves Urticaria

(L)

F Bauhinia Relieve burning

Asondaro Caesalpiniaceae Leaves sensation at the

racemosa time

Lam. Of urination

F Biophytum sensitivum Risamnu Oxalidaceae Leaves Fever

(L) Dc.

r- Blumea lacera Whole Bronchitis and

(Burm.l.) Dc. Kapurio Asteraceae

Plants burning sensation

F Boerhavia Eye wounds

diffusa (L) Satodi Nyctaginaceae Leaves Muscular pain

Purifying blood

F Bombax ceiba Shimlo Bombaceae Roots and Aphrodisiac, (L) Gum tonic

F Brassica juncea Rai Brassicaceae Seeds Painful parts of

(L) body.

F Butea Tonic, monosperma Khakhro Papilionaceae Seeds

(Lamk) Taub. Anthelminthic

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INTRODUCTION

F Cadaba indica I",OOb Leaves Anthelmintic,

(Lam) Capparaceae

Root Urinal obstructions

F Caesalpinia Kachka Caesalpiniaceae Seeds Rheumatism,

crista L. Diarrhoea

F Calotropis Root Dysentery,

gigantea (R. Moto Akado Asclepiadaceae Bark Paralysed parts,

Br.) Leprosy.

F Capparis Cardiac troubles, and

decidua Kerdo Capparaceae Fruits Improves

(Forsk) Edgew appetite.

F Roots Lung diseases,

Cardiospermum Kagdolio Sapindaceae Leaves Rheumatism

halicacabum (L) Seeds

and stiffness of the limbs.

[:- Carica Papaya Papaya Passifloraceae Papin Dyspepsia

(L) (Fruit) Ringworm.

F Constipation,

Cassia Loss of appetite, angustifolia Sonmakkai Caesalpiniaceae Leaves Liver and (vahl)sat. abdominal

troubles.

F Cassia fistula L. Garmalo Caesalpinaceae Fruits Purgative

,,: c,,,', "'"' Chimed Caesalpiniaceae C Chronic (Linn)

I Ophthalmia

I

1:-- Catharanthus Barmasi Apocynaceae Leaves Diabetes roseus (L)

F Cayratia Khat-khat

carnosa (Lam) Umbo Vitaceae Leaves Volksores

Gagnep.

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INTRODUCTION

F Ceiba White pentandra Shimalo

Bombaceae Root Diabetes (Gaertn)

I

F Celosia cristata Morshikha Amaranthaceae Flowers Menstual

L. discharges

F Celosia Lampdi Amaranthaceae Seeds Diarrhoea argentea (L)

F Centella Hair oil,

asiatica Bharmi Apiaceae Leaves Brain tonic

(L.) Urb.

F Cissamapelos Venivel Menispermaceae Root

Diarrhoea, pareira L. Dysentery.

F Cissus Hadsakal Vitaceae Whole Blood purifier,

quadrangularis plants anthelmintic

F Clerodendrum Vanjai Verbenaceae Leaves Fever inerme (L)

F Coccinia Tindora Cucurbitaceae

Root Diabetes grandis (L) Fruit

F Cocculus ~ Leaves Fever,

hirsutus (L) Menispermaceae Root Rheumatisim,

I Gonorrhoea. I

F Cressa cretica Palio Convolvulaceae

Whole Cough (L) Plant

F Derris indica Karanj Papilionaceae Seeds Eczema, Scabis. (Lam) Bennet.

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INTRODUCTION

r Digera muricata Kanjro Amaranthaceae Flowers Urinary

L. Mart. Seeds Discharges.

F Eclipta ~"."oo, Whole Bronchitis, prostrata Bhangaro Plants Asthma. (L.)

r Enicostema Diabetes,

hyssopifolium Mamejevo Gentianaceae Leaves Stomach pain,

(Willd) Cold and cough

F Euphorbia hirta Rati Dudhi Euphorbiaceae

Whole Asthma

L. Plant

F Evolvulus Kalishan Convolvulaceae

Whole Febrifuge

alsinoides L. Khavali Plant

F Ficus Vad Moraceae Leaves Eczema benghalensis L.

r Flacourtia Ripe

indica Lodri Flacourtiaceae Cooling tonic (Burm.f) Merr Fruit

F Gloriosa Vachnag Liliaceae

Root Scorpion bite, superba L. Paste Piles

F Stimulates the

Gymnema heart and

sylvestre Retz Madhunasini Asclepiadaceae Leaves increase urine,

Diabetes Glycosuria

F Helianthus Root Asthma,

annuus (Linn) Suryaphul Asteraceae Flowers Toothache and Seeds Bronchitis

r Premature

Hibiscus Jasood Malvaceae Whole ejaculation, and

rozasynensis L. Plant hair diseases, Hair tonic.

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INTRODUCTION

F Holarrhena Kadro

1-''"'" Amoebic,

antidysenterica Indrajav

Apocynaceae Seeds

Dysentery, (L.) Wall ex.G. Malaria

F Ipomoea pes-Maryadevel Convolvulaceae Leaves Rheumatism.

cap rae (L)

F Jatropha curcas Jamalgoata Euphorbiaceae F Cure hoils (L)

F Kalanchoe Pan ph uti Crassulaceae Leaves

Diarrhoea, pinnatum (L) Dysentery

F Kickxia Whole ramosissima Bhini G hilodi Scrophulariaceae Plant

Diabetes (Wall.) Janch.

F Lepidium Whole Tonic in

Asalio Brassicaceae Diarrhoea, sativum (L) Plant Aphrodisiac.

F Leptadenia Whole

Stimulent raticulata Nanidodi Asclepiadaceae

Plant Tonic,

(W&A) Ring worm

F Limonia Lungs stemites

acidissima (L) Kotha Rutaceae Fruits and sore throat, and good tonic

F- Maerua ~- Tonic, and oblongifolia Hemkand Capparidaceae Stimulent (Forsk)

I

F Martynia annua Epilepsy,

(L) Vinchhudo Myrtyniaceae Leaves Gargle for sore throat.

17~ Maytenus F Diabetes emarginata Viklo Celastraceae Jaundice (Willd) D. Hou.

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INTRODUCTION

,---Momordica Karela Cucurbitaceae

Root Rheumatism 75

charantia (L) Fruit and goat

"'-Vermifuge,

Moringa oleifera Whole Cholera,

Sargavo Moringaceae Diuretic, Lam Plant

Paralysis and anticancer

Murraya Diarrhoea,

77 koenigii (L)

Mitho-Limdo Rutaceae Leaves Vermifuge

Fever, Eczema,

78 Nyctanthes Parijatak Oleaceae Leaves Scabies, arbortristis (L) Ringworm,

Diabetes, Rheumatism

F Ocimum Leaves Fever, Skin

basilicum L Marvo Lamiaceae Oil of plant diseases, Cold

parts and Cough

F Fever, cold

Ocimum Tulsi Lamiaceae Leaves cough,and sanctum L. Stomach

Problem

F Oldenlandia Parpat Rubiaceae Leaves Jaundice

corymbosa (L) Liver Disease

~-- Oxystelma Fresh secamone Jal Dudhi Asclepiadaceae Roots Jaundice

(L) Karst

Tonic, Anti-spamodic and

83 Pedalium

Gokharu Pedaliaceae Whole Aphrodisiac,

murex (L) Plant Spermatorrhoea, Gonorrhoea, Dysuria.

F Pergularia Chamar Whole Ulcers, Urinary

daemia Dudhali Asclepiadaceae

Plant Discharges, (Forsk) Chiov Leucoderma.

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INTRODUCTION

F Gonorrhoea,

Plumeria Khad Apocynaceae Bark

Fever, Diarrhoea acutifolia (I) Champo and Rheumatic

joints

I~- Portulaca Cooling agent

quadrifida (L) Zini- luni Portulacaceae Leaves for burns, and

Ulcers.

F Raphanus Whole

Urinary

sativus (L) Mulo Brassicaceae

Plants complaints, and piles

r=- Sesamum Tal Pedaliaceae Seeds Nourishing tonic,

indicum (L) Piles.

I:: Solanum Whole Appetite,

melon gena (L) Ringan Solanaceae

Plant Aphrodisiac, Enriches blood.

F Sterculia urens Kadoyo Sterculiaceae Gumkadayo Relieve labour Roxb Pain

F Syzygium Jambu Myrtaceae Seeds

Diabetes cumini (L) Kidney stone

F Piles Tagetes patula

Galgoto Asteraceae Leaves Kidney (L) Earche

Ophthalmia

i" Tamrindus

Amli Caesalpiniaceae Bark In paralysis, Indica (L)

I Leaves inflamrnation

F Terminalia Badam Combretaceae Leaves Headaches

catappa (L) Skin diseases

r=-Terminalia

Ripe Strong purgative chebula Harde Combretaceae Retxz Fruits Blood purifier

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INTRODUCTION

F I I

Tinospora cordifolia Galo Menispermaceae Stem

Chronic fever, (Willd.) Miers ex weakness. HK.

F Trachyspermum Bronchitis

Ajamo Apiaceae Seeds Chest pain in ammi (L)

children

F Tribulus Fruits

Kidney stones, Gokhru Zygophyllaceae Whole terrestries l.

Plants impotency.

F Trachosanthes Root

Bronchitis cucumerina (L)

Jangli parval Cucurbitaceae Leaves cardiac tonic

Seeds

F T richodesma White exudates amplexicaule Udhafuli Boraginaceae Root In women Roth

F Trigonella Seeds Rheumatisim, foenum - Methi Fabaceae Leaves Chronic graecum l. Stem

F Vernonia Sahadevi Asteraceae Flowers Fevers cinerea (L)

F Vitex negundo Rheumatism,

l. Nagod Verbenaceae Leaves relieve painful, swelling

r:- Withania Fresh Brain tonic, somnifera (L) Ashvagandha Solanaceae

Dunal Root Impotency.

I I

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INTRODUCTION

1.4. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

1.4.1 Medicinal Plants

The relationship between human beings and plant is as old as the

origin of man on earth. Since, the incamation of the life on the earth, the

plants are in existence in the world and the man has been using the plants

and their products according to his needs. The knowledge of medicines began

with scattered references in the vedas, which are considered to be the earliest

literature on the earth. The Atharva veda is considered to be another

important veda, and it is believed that the Ayurveda, the science of life has

been derived from this veda. It describes about 280 medicinal plants. The

Yajurveda and Samveda are other vedas in which information about the

medicinal plants has been found scattered. Medicinal knowledge has been

found to be described here and there in the various Samhitas, Brahman

granths and the Nighanthus, which are believed to be derived from the vedas

later on.

The glossary of Indian medicinal plants has listed around 3000 species

as medicinal plants (Getahun et al., 2001). According to Getahun, 1974;

Abbink, 1993; Abebe and Ayehu, 1993; Pankhurst, 1998; Getahun et aI.,

2001; Addis et aI., 2001 ·2002 and Gatachew et aI., 2005 the Ethopian wild

community used the wild edible plants for house building and household

utensils, clothing, food, soap, medicine and for ritual purposes. Famsworth et

aI., (1977) stated that green plants, because of their vast diversities, contain a

variety of plant chemicals as metabolities, which makes vital contribution to

the list of medicines for human health.

The World Health Organization (1978) reported that 80% of the world's

population depends upon traditional medicines, herbal remedies and

medicinal plants. According to Biosphere Reserve Proceedings Symposium

(1986) in India about 90% of prescriptions contains medicinal plants products.

Lin, (1987) and Sharma, (1991) Stated that our country is known to have a

rich wealth of herbal medicines. Such traditional drugs in many cases have

been proved to possess active principles that have been developed in to new

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INTRODUCTION

drugs or drugs intermediaries. According to one an estimate 80,000 species

possess medicinal and aromatic values in the world (Famsworth, 1977).

Constable, (1990) stated that medicinal plants have been the subjects of

man's curiosity since time immemorial. Sharma, (1991) reported that 17%

plants of the total plants of India are used in the traditional medicine system.

According to Mendelsohnm and Balick, (1994) interest in phytomedicine has

exploded in the plant species are used as key ingredients, and many are still

being collected from the wild. According to Singh et aI., (1994) the people

ulilized a large number of forest trees for food, fiber, oil, timber, cordage,

mats, basketry, gums, fodder, fuel, wood, medicinal plants etc.

Alcorn, (1995) and Carvalho, (2004) stated that native

knowledge of medicinal plants is usually fairly noticeably within populations,

and most of the world relies on folk or traditional medicine. Mahato et aI.,

(1996) stated that the people are highly dependent on plants and their

products for their daily needs including food and medicine. According to

Chandel et aI., 1996; Vidhyarthy et aI., 2004; and Ahmed et aI., (2005) in

India, about 2,500 planl species belonging to more than 1,000 genera are

used by 159 different pharmaceutical companies. Plants play dominant role in

the introduction of new therapeutic agents, and also drugs from the higher

plants continue to occupy an important niche in modern medicine. Shrivastava

et aI., (1999) stated that in our country about 5000 species of plants have

known medicinal values and many are still to be identified. At present about

1100 plants are being used in different kinds of medicine systems therapy, out

of which only 300-500 plants are commercially used for the manufacture of

medicines. Vedavathi et aI., (1997) and Reddy (2003) stated that in India,

plenty of medicinal plants are available. Hence, India is called botanical

garden of the world. According to Singh, (1999a) and Singh (2004) forest

produce of medicinal usage has been treated as 'minor forest produce' in the

administered forest management in India, but it is vital for health and

economy to marginal people. Begossi et aI., (2000) and Carvalho (2004)

stated that medicinal plants are important resources linking people to

environment and their use promotes the traditional lore related to them.

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INTRODUCTION

According to Yadav et aI., (2001) traditional medicines refers to the

indigenous system of health care. Patil et aI., (2003) stated that the treatment

procedures in traditional system of health include the use of herbal medicines,

mind/body approaches such as meditation, physical therapies including

massage, acupuncture and exercise which includes physical as well as

spiritual well being. Chaturvedi et aI., (2000) stated that the tribals are

custodian of local indigenous Knowledge. They use maximum plant wealth

surrounding them in their day-to-day life without any scientific background and

passes the knowledge from generation to generation only through oral

folklore. Khan et aI., (2005) stated that herbal medicine offers conventional

treatments, providing safe, well-tolerated remedies for various diseases.

1.4.2 Phytochemistry

The study of Indian indigenous drug was first begun in the early part of

last century. The first contribution in this field was done Sir William Jones, in

"Botanical observations on medicinal plants" (1799). The first book giving

details regarding the drugs used in Bengal was published by 0' Shanghnessy

with the title "Bengal Dispensatory and pharmacopoeia" (1841). Indian

material medica was published from Calcutta during 18th century and

"Vegetables resources of India" by Forbes in 1839. The indigenous drugs of

India was published by Dey (1867 - 1869) and "The pharmacopeia of India"

was published by editor ship pf Warning (1868). Origin and history of

pharmacopeia vegetable drugs, chemistry and bibliography was prepared by

Lloyd (1921). Ghosh (1930) and Joshi (1947) started regular pharmacognostic

work in India. A medicinal plant of India and Pakistan by Dastur (1962) is

edited work for students. Current research in pharmacology in India by Das

and Dhawan (1962), Kapoor et aI., (1969,1971,1972,1975), Saxena (1975),

Satyavati et aI., 1976, Borthakur (1976), Shah (1977), Shah et aI., (1981),

Joshi (1982), Gupta and Rajendra (1982), Shah and Gopal (1986) and Bist et

aI., (1988).

To make the best and judicious use of available natural wealth, a

number of medicinal plants have been chemical investigated. [Quevauviller et

aI., 1969; Bhattacharya et aI., 1971; Hashizume 1973; Coltart, 1974;

20

INTRODUCTION

Momochkina et aI., 1976; Atal and Kapur 1977; Conte-Camerino and Bryant

1977; Sharova et aI., 1977; Singh et aI., 1977; Szantay et aI., 1977; Thomas­

Verdera et aI., 1977; Bell et aI., 1978, Sadykov et aI., 1978; Sahu 1983;

Ambasta et aI., 1986; Barton and Ollis 1986; khan and Perveen 1987;

Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1991; Vanhaelen-Fastre et aI., 1992 and Dayal

(1997)).

Phytochemical analysis is a valuable tool in the hands of taxonomist

[Jensen, Nielson (1981 )). Duke (1987) is also the modern worker on medicinal

plants. Recently, several investigators have well documented the use of

higher plants as source of drugs or their uses in medicines (Kamboj, 2000;

Philipson, 2001; Atul et aI., 2002; Gill et aI., 2004.).

1.4.3. Primary metabolites

In the last decade, a lots of work has been carried out in relation to the

biochemical studies of plants leaves (Schoch and Kramer, 1971; Hatch et aI.,

1971). Ketiku (1976) worked on four Nigerian cultivars of Allium cepa for the

proximate chemical composition. Crude protein ranged from 6.4% to 19.6%,

total sugars ranged from 13.2% t071.8% were found in Allium cepa.

Afria et aI., (1981) work on changes in keto acids, amino acids and

protein level in the leaves of C3 and C4 plant species of Euphorbia, observed

that protein was higher in Euphorbia hirta than E. pulcherrima. Euphorbia hirta

contained 76 mg/g proteins while E. pulcherima contained 58 mg/g proteins.

The total amount of amino acid was also higher in leaves of E. hirta than E.

pulcherrima. I.e. 9.77 mg/g and 5.27 mg/g respectively. Sixteen amino acid

could be detected in the leaves of E. pulcherrima namely, leucine,

phenyalanine, Valine, 'Y- amino- butyric acid, histidine, glutamine, a-alanine,

threonine, serine; glycine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, cysteic acid, tyrosine

and two unidentified amino acids (U 1 and U2). In E. hirta, fourteen amino acids

could be detected, which are also noticed in E. pulcherrima, except tyrosine,

threonine and two unidentified amino acids. (U1 and Ud.

21

INTRODUCTION

Singh et aI., (1984) worked on Sesbania sesban, observed that total

ash 6.90 mglg, calcium 0.94 mglg, phosphorus, 0.90 mglg were found in

Sesbania sesban leaves. Ezeala, (1985) estimated the carotenoids and

minerals in the leaves of Amaranthus viridis and Amaranthus caudatus. The

A. viridis contained 32.2% crude protein, 11.2%fiber, 3.68%fat and 18.7%ash,

while A. caudatus contained 27.2% crude protein, fiber 11.1 % fat 5.40%, and

ash 20.1 % respectively. Pandey et aI., (1985) worked on Artocarpus

lukoocha. He found that the crude protein varied from 121 to 131 mglg and

the crude fiber varied from 171 to 202 mglg in the leaves of A. lukoocha.

Marimuthu et aI., (1986) estimated the leaves, stems, flowers and latex

of AI/amanda cathartica, A. violacea, Plumeria alba and P. rubra for their total

soluble sugars, reducing sugars and free amino acids. He observed that the

total soluble protein was much higher and with larger difference in leaves of P.

alba than in the leaves of other species, the lowest being in P. rubra. The

protein present in the leaves of all these species varied from 3 to 14%. The

total soluble amino acids was highest in the leaves of A. violacea than in the

leaves of P. rubra and the amount of all species was varied from 0.5 to 2.2%.

The total soluble sugar was highest in the leaves of P. rubra i.e. 9%, while

lowest in the leaves of A. cathartica i.e. 2.4%. Reducing sugars was highest in

Plumeria rubra while lowest in A. cathartica. Plumeria rubra contained 20%

reducing sugars. While A. cathartica contained 0.5% reducing sugars. Tiwari

et aI., (1986) determined the leaves of Saussurea obvallata for its chemical

composition. The leaves contained about 14.00% protein, 10.4%Ash and

0.2% Total reducing sugars. Thirteen amino acids could be detected namely,

Aspartic acid, o· alanine, 13· alanine, Glycine, Histidine, Leucine, Serine,

Threonine and Tryptophan.

Sinha et aI., (1989a) assessed the Abrus Precatorius leaves of

Dhumka district. Six free amino acids were detected from the plants namely,

DL·2 amino·n·butyric acid, DL· aspartic acid, L· cysteine Hel, L·cysteine, DL·

nor·leucine and DL·threonine. Sinha et aI., (1989b) estimated the leaves of

three non· conventional trees viz., Acacia auriculaeformis, Leucaena

leucocephala and Sesbania grandiflora. They observed that the highest

22

INTRODUCTION

protein was present in Leucaena leucocephala with 17.46 mg/g fro wt followed

by S. Grandiflora with 14.44 mg/g and Acacia auriculaeformis with 10.40

mg/g. Gupta et aI., (1989) examined the nutrient and antinutritional factors in

conventional and non-conventional leafy vegetables. They stated that crude

protein and ash varied from 15.7 to 28.5% and 9.2 to 20.4% respectively.

Misra et aI., (1990) estimated the free amino acids in the leaves of

Pennisetum viz., P. americanum, P. purpureum, P. massaicum, P.

polystachyon and P. pedicelatum. According to them P. americanum, P.

purpureum, P massaicum, P. polystachyon and P. pedicelatum contained

about 20 mg/g, 7.5 mg/g, 13 mg/g, 17.5 mg/g and 15 mg/g total free amino

acids respectively. Mehta et aI., (1990) analyzed Salvinia molesta leaves.

They estimated normal and calcium deficient leaves. Biochemical estimation

was done on the leaves of the apical region. According to them normal leaves

of Salvinia molesta contained 0.78 mg/g chlorophyll-a, 0.72 mg/g chlorophyll­

b, 1.51 mg/g total chlorophyll, 0.18 mg/g carotenoids, total sugar 0.64%,

reducing sugars 0.44%, non-reducing sugars 0.20%, and starch 1.50%, while

in ca-deficiency leaves contained 0.69 mg/g chlorophyll-a, 0.59mg/g

chlorophyll-b, 1.29mg/g total chlorophyll, 0.10mg/g carotenoids, total sugars

0.43%, reducing sugar 0.29%, non-reducing sugar 0.14% and starch 1.80%.

According to them chlorophyll-a, b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, reducing,

non-reducing and total sugars decrease due to calcium deficiency in nutrient,

while starch was slightly increase in calcium deficient plants.

Mehta et aI., (1991) analyzed Salvinia molesta leaves. They estimated

normal and magnesium deficient leaves. They obser:ed that the normal

leaves contained 0.52 mg/g chlorophyll-a, 0.51 mg/g chlorophyll-b, 1.03mg/g

Total chlorophyll, 0.49% Total sugar, 0.21 % reducing sugars, 0.28% non­

reducing sugars and 4.0%startch, while the magnesium deficiency leaves

contained 0.49mg/g chlorophyll-a, 0.47mg/g chlorophyll-b, 0.96mg/g total

chlorophyll, 0.03% total sugars, 0.12% reducing sugars, 0.18% non-reducing

sugars and 3.5% starch. According to them chi-a, chl-b, total chlorophyll, total

sugars, non-reducing sugar, reducing sugar and starch decrease due to

magnesium deficiency in nutrients. Prakash and Pal (1991) worked on

23

INTRODUCTION

nutritional and antinutritional composition of vegetables and Amaranthus

leaves. According to them these plant species are rich in nutrients, but they

also contained some toxic and antinutritional constituents namely, oxalic acid,

Erucic acid and Nitrate. They reported that the Amaranthus viridis contained

1.1 00mg/1 OOg oxalic acid and 680 mg/100g nitrates.

Bharadwaj and Chauhan (1992) estimated the total proteins and free

protein in leaves of Capsicum annuum plants infested with Me/oidogyne

incognita. They analyzed healthy and infested plant leaves. They observed

that the protein content in control healthy leaves was 1.454 mg/g; while in

control-infested leaves it was 1.670 mg/g, which was lower than control

healthy leaves. Duhan et aI., (1992) estimated nutritional value of some plants

of India. They analyzed 13 plant species induding fruits, leaves and grains.

According to them Prosopis cineria and Capparis decidua possess good

amount of protein. i.e. 15% and 18% respectively.

Snehalata and Verma (1993) analyzed the chemical constituents of

Grevia optiva. They found that the leaves of Grevia optiva contained total ash

content ranged between 10.14 to 12.60%, while the crude protein was

fluctuated between 15.68 to 19.62%. They also stated that the Kaushal

(1978), Negi et aI., (1979) and Pal et aI., (1979) have also reported 12% ash

content in bhimal leaves and crude protein within this range has also been

reported by Joshi and Talapatra (1960), and Pachauri et aI., (1974).

Kamat and Singh (1994) determined the some biochemical

constituents of Leucas species. They analyzed leaves and inflorescence of

the four Leucas species for its phytochemical constituents such as total

carbohydrates, free sugars and free amino acids. They found that the total

carbohydrates in the leaves of Leucas stricta was 57.17 mg/100 mg which

was highest while the Leucas cephalotes leaves contained the low amount of

total carbohydrates. i.e. 40.30 mg/100mg. They also stated that the leaves of

Leucas cepha/otes contained the highest amount of free sugars. i.e. 6.88

mg/100mg and lowest amount of free sugars was 2.52 mg/100mg in Leucas

aspera. According to them, the leaves were main source of free amino acids.

24

INTRODUCTION

The highest free amino acids were 0.77 mg!100mg in Leucas aspera leaves

while lowest in Leucas cepha/otes. i.e. 0.30 mg!100mg. Nag et aI., (1994)

worked on some tree leaves for chemical analysis. They examined six tree

leaves namely, Paraserianthes fa/acataria, Caesa/pania coriaria, Jacaranda

mimosaefo/ia, Sterculia foetida, Tecoma stans and Thespesia popu/nea

contained 19.78%, 16.72%, 15.85%, 16.03%, 17.45% and 16.85% crude

proteins respectively. Ash values of Thespesia popu/nea occupied the highest

position (10.83%), which was followed by Paraserianthes fa/acataria. (7.48%)

Caesa/pania coriaria, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Sterculia foetida and Tecoma

stans possess 5.56%, 5.12%, 6.94% and 6.14% ash respectively. The Na and

K were highest in Thespesia sp. 0.37% and 0.44% respectively. From the

overall composition they concluded that the leaves were rich in protein,

sodium and potassium, which meet the nutritional requirement of the

ruminants. Tiwari et aI., (1994) estimated few planted tree species of Bhopal

for photosynthetic pigments. They worked on seasonal variation in

photosynthetic pigments of twenty-five tree species. They found that the

chlorophyll-a content ranged between 0.31 to 4.44 mg!g fresh weights in all

the three seasons. Chlorophyll b was recorded between 0.11 to 2.77 mg!g

fresh weights while total chlorophyll ranged between 0.44 to 5.92 mg!g fresh

weights in all the seasons.

Aletor et aI., (1995) estimated crude protein, crude fiber, ash, dry

matter, potassium and sodium content of several leafy vegetables found in

Nigeria. They found that the dry vegetable contained 19.3% crude protein,

15.3% crude fiber, 17.4% ash, 89.9% dry matter, 3.7% potassium and 3.8%

sodium, while fresh counterparts contained 4.2% crude protein, 3.2% crude

fiber, 7.3%ash, 17.6% dry matter, 4.4% potassium and 6.0% sodium. Gupta

et aI., (1995) assessed the total protein and true protein content of 15 forest

tree species leaves of Madhy Pradesh. In all fifteen species total protein

content varied from 3.94 to 23.19% while true protein content varied from 2.98

to 20.46%. According to them Moringa o/eifera contained total protein 23.19%

and true protein 20.04% respectively. In all fifteen species they observed

highest amount of total protein in Moringa o/eifera, i.e. 23.19% while lowest in

Syzygium cumini, i.e. 3.90%. True protein was highest in A/bizia /abbek, i.e.

25

r- -

! Gr INTRODUCTION

----,

20.46% while lowest in Syzygium cumini. i.e. ! P ti . ...

2.98%, LacteJL'et flt.~~ (19952_, worked on chemical evaluation of the nutritive value of the leaf of Telferia

occidentalis (fluted pumpkin). They found that the leaf contained 30.5% crude

protein, 3.0% crude lipid, 8.3% crude fiber and ash 8.4%. Again, Mohan and

Janardhanan (1995) estimated chemical composition of Bauhania tomentosa

seed protein and antinutritional factors. They found that the crude protein

content was 20.59%, crude lipid 10.87%, ash 3.52% and crude fiber 5.84%.

They also stated that Bauhania tomentosa might be helpful to good source of

low cost protein for possible utilization as food to meet the gap of protein

deficiency. Wesche- Ebeling et aI., (1995) worked on nutritional value of some

wild Amaranthus species. They analyzed four wild Amaranthus species

namely, A. retroflexus, A. viridis, A. palmeri and A. blitoides. They stated that

the A. viridis and A. blitoides were rich in starch; protein and moderate

amounts of alkaloids and tannin were present. They observed that the

Amaranthus plants could be best consumed as vegetables at the preflowering

stage. At this stage, the highest protein concentrations were found in leaves.

(22.8-27.8%) They also observed that during the bromatologic analysis of

different plant parts, it contained high levels of protein. i.e. (25.3-32.9%) and

soluble carbohydrates (40%).

Nordeide et aI., (1996) worked on nutrient composition and nutritional

importance of green leaves. The food samples of green leaves (Adansonia

digitata, Amaranthus viridis, Tamarindus indica, Allium cepa) were analyzed

for protein, amino acids and carotenoids. They observed that the leaves of A.

viridis were rich in beta carotene (3290- g/100g), contained 47 to 81% amino

acids. They also stated that green leaves were rich in protein (20%), energy

and minerals (calcium and iron.). Rural and urban areas used these leaves

frequently. Gopalan et aI., (1996) detennined the nutritional value of some

plant foods. They worked on Amaranthus leaves for its chemical constituents.

They reported that the protein content present in Amaranthus leaves of

26.2%. Palani et aI., (1996) estimated seasonal variation in nutritive value of

Gmelina arborea. They observed that the dry matter was highest during

monsoon season in November (35.06%) and lowest during post-winter in

March (33.66%). They recorded maximum crude protein during May (15.16%)

26

INTRODUCTION

and minimum during January i e. 12.45%. Ash was recorded highest in

September. (8.24%) They also observed that the highest amount of total

carbohydrates (48.75%) was recorded during January and lowest (37.88%)

during March. Ponnuvel et aI., (1996) studied the seasonal variation in

biochemical constituents of Quercus serrata (oak) leaf and observed that the

leaves contained highest crude protein 10.17% in March, highest

carbohydrates 26.5% in October and total ash was highest in June. (2.34%).

Ram and Mallaiah (1996) worked on legume leaves infected by species of

Pseudo cercospora. They analyzed two species: Pongamia pinnata and

Dalbergia sissoo. They observed, total chlorophyll content in healthy leaves

was 5.331 mg/g in Dalbergia sissoo and 7.27mg/g in Pongamia pinnata. The

healthy leaves of P. pinnata and D. sissoo contained 1.37mg/g and 5.00mg/g

total sugars respectively. They also analyzed total amino acids, which was

6. 13mg/g in P. pinnata and 4.70mg/g in D. Sissoo.

Mahesh kumar (1996) worked on phytochemical analysis of medicinal

plants. They analyzed seasonal variation in four medicinal plants for their

protein, sugars, amino acids and chlorophyll. They were analyzed: Maytenus

emarginata, Eclipta prostrata, Cissus quadrangularis and Enicostema

hysopifolium. The maximum amount of protein was recorded in Maytenus

emarginata stem (286.6 mg/g) during monsoon and minimum value in Cissus

quadrangularis stem (30.0 mg/g) during summer. They studied the total sugar

and reducing sugar from four plants. The result of total sugar showed that

during winter seasons all plants have maximum amount (Enicostema

hysopifolium stem- 121.08mg/g) minimum amount of total sugar during

monsoon. (Cissus quadrangu!aris root - 19.58 mg/g) In case of reducing

sugar highest amount was found in the Maytenus emarginata (50.8 mg/g)

during monsoon and minimum was found in Cissus quadrangularis root (10.3

mg/g) during summer. Amino acids ranged from 7.54 mg/g (Cissus

quadrangularis during monsoon) to 48.29 mg/g (Maytenus emarginata during

winter). The maximum amount of chlorophyll a was reported in Eclipta

prostrata (0.200 mg/g) during winter and minimum in Enicostema hysopifolium

(0.033 mg/g) during winter. In case of chlorophyll b same result was

observed. Total chlorophyll ranged from 0.354 mg/g (Enicostema hysopifolium

27

INTRODUCTION

during winter) to 0.045 mg!g (Eclipta prostrata during summer). They also

stated that the best season for plant collection is monsoon.

Isong and Idiong (1997) estimated the nutritional and toxic composition

of three varieties of Lesianthera africana in southern Nigeria. They analyzed

three varities of Lesianthera africana, namely, Etoi (bitter), Abasi (riverine)

and Etinan (flavorful). Etoi varieties possess the best nutritional value (highest

lipid, protein, calories, iron, calcium) but highest toxic components

(1.62rng!100g HCN; 17.6mg!100g oxalate; 1630rng 1100g glucosinolates),

which are far below toxic lirnits. Abasi variety was found to be highly fibrous

but low in rnicronutrient minerals. The Etinan variety was found to be

rnoderately nutritious. Guill et aI., (1997) worked on nutritional and toxic

factors in wild edible plants. They examined sixteen species of wild edible

plants. According to them these plant species are rich in nutrients, but they

also contained some toxic and antinutritional constituents namely Oxalic acid,

Erucic acid, and nitrate. If these constituents taken in excess amount, it will be

harmful to humans and animals. They are agreed with Prakash and Pal.

(1991) Amaranthus viridis contained 960mg!100g Oxalic acid and

597mg!100g nitrate. Pandey et aI., (1997) studied seasonal variation in

protein content in the leaves of Tectona grandis and Terminalia arjuna. They

reported that the protein content of Tectona grand is varied between 50-

200mg!g while in Terminalia arjuna, it was varied between 10-150mg!g.

Cook et aI., (1998) analyzed the nutrient content of two indigenous

plants of the western Sahel: Balanites aegyptiaca and Maerua crassifolia for

their protein content. M. crassifolia and B. aegyptiaca contained 39.4% and

7.10% protein respectively. According to them M. crassifolia was also rich in

calcium (17mg!g dry wt.). Freiberger et aI., (1998) worked on nutrient content

of the edible leaves of seven wild plants of Niger. They analyzed 7 edible

plants leaves for their amino acids and fatty acid contents. Viz; Ximenia

americana, Amaranthus viridis, Corchorus tridens, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Maerua

crassifolia, Moringa oleifera and Leptadenia hastata. Ximenia americana,

Amaranthus viridis, Corchorus tridens, Hibiscus Sabdarifa, Maerua crassifolia,

Moringa oleifera and Leptadenia hastata contained 7.87mg!g, 18.4mg!g,

28

INTRODUCTION

2.7mglg, 19.0mglg, 16.9mglg, 15.5mglg, 17.1mglg and 14.0mglg protein

respectively. Amongst all the species Corchorus tridens contained the highest

amount of total protein (19.0mglg), while the lowest amount of total protein in

Ximenia americana. i.e (7.87mglg). According to them the Moringa o/eifera,

Maerua Crassifolia and Leptadenia hastate contained the highest proportions

of the essential amino acids that was maintained a ranking of 94-97% of the

WHO standard. Sena et aI., (1998) estimated the nutritional components of

eight famine foods of Niger. The leaves of 7 edible plants were analyzed:

Ziziphus mauritiana, Cerathotheca sesamoides, Moringa o/eifera, Leptadenia

hastata, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Amaranthus viridis and Adansonia digitata for

amino acid content, fatty acid and selected minerals. These same analysis

were performed on the fruit of the Adansonia digitata. They observed that the

leaves of Amaranthus viridis, Moringa o/eifera, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Ziziphus

mauritiana, Leptadenia hastata, Cerathotheca sesamoides and Adansonia

digitata contained 240mglg, 229mglg, 228mglg, 73.7mglg, 191 mglg, 100mglg

and 112mglg protein respectively. They also stated that, the amino acid

composition, which was present in species compared favorably to that of a

world health organization (WHO) protein standard.

Escudero et aI., (1999) estimated nutrient and anti-nutrient composition

of Amaranthus muricatus. They reported that the Amaranthus muricatus

leaves contained 15.74 gmt 100gm protein, 62.76 gmt100gm total

carbohydrates and 13.77 gmt100 gm Ash. Goswami et aI., (1999) worked on

seasonal evaluation of nutritive content of two arid zone plants: Capparis

decidua and Zizypus mauritiana. They analyzed leaves only in Zizypus

mauritiana. The total carbohydrates in the leaves cf Zizypus mauritiana varied

between 71.80 to 74.85%. The total ash and crude protein fluctuated between

5.50 to 5.75% and 15.15 to 17.75% respectively. Isong et aI., (1999) studied

the nutritional content of three varities of Gnetum africanum. According to

them these varities were rich in Protein and Sugars. Shahidi et aI., (1999)

estimated Lathyrus maritimus (beach pea) plant parts. The plant parts were

analyzed for their chemical composition. They found that the leaves possess

10.7 - 28.0% crude proteins, 190 -709 mgl100gm soluble proteins, 0.1-12.2%

soluble sugars, 0.8-26.5% starch and 55.8-81.5% carbohydrates. They also

29

INTRODUCTION

stated that leaves were a good source of minerals such as K, P, Ca, Mg, Na,

Fe, AI and Zn.

Kadam (2000) estimated the leaves of three endangered medicinal

taxa of South Gujarat. They analyzed three plant species. Viz; Semecarpus

anacardium, Mallotus phillippensis and Petrocarpus marsupium. S.

anacardium contained chlorophyll-a varied between 2.35 to 3.42 mg/g and

chlorophyll-b varied between 1.56 to 2.36 mg/g fresh weights respectively.

They also reported that the chlorophyll-a fluctuated between 2.19 to 3.24

mg/g in Mallotus phillippensis and 1.85 to 3.10 mg/g in Petrocarpus

marsupium respectively. According to them Mallotus phillippensis and

Petrocarpus marsupium contained 1.42 to 2.26 mg/g chlorophyll-a and 1.38 to

2.17 chlorophyll-b.

Kadam (2001) estimated protein and amino acid in seeds of some

medicinally important tree species: Bixa orellana, Ceiba pentandra, Garuga

pinnata, Bauhinia purpurea, Bauhinia tomentosa, Cassia marginata,

Peltophorum pterocarpum, Phyllanthus emblica, Putranjiva roxburghii,

Securinega virosa, Strychnos nux-vomica, Myristica fragrans, Acacia

holosericea, Adananthera pavonina, Albizia labbek, Albizia procera,

Pithocellobium dulce, Erythrina suberosa, Erythrina variegata, Santalum

album, Sapindus emarginatus and Oreodoxa regia contained 16.1 mg/g,

184.2mg/g, 116.5mg/g, 158.0mg/g, 176.7mg/g, 13.0mg/g, 12.5mg/g,

120.5mg/g, 77.3mg/g, 13.1 mg/g, 35.5mg/g, 13.5mg/g, 52.0mg/g, 18.2mg/g,

194.0mg/g, 209.2mg/g, 119.2mg/g, 99.0mg/g, 205.5mg/g, 81.57mg/g,

13.0mg/g, 17.5mg/g, 48.8mg/g and 24.0mg/g protein respectively. They also

reported that the amino acid content fluctuated between 1.2 to 28.7 mg/g in all

24 species. Chemical composition of two plant species, i.e lIex latifolia and

Camellia sinensis were investigated by Liang et aI., (2001). Fifteen and

sixteen amino acids were detected in I. latifolia and C. sinensis respectively.

Major amino acids were histidine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid in I. latifolia

but theanine, glutamic acid and histidine in C. Sinensis. Ascorbic acid and

polyphenols in I. latifolia were 0.46 mg/g and 90.1 mg/g, less than one fourth

and one half of those in C. sinensis respectively. Singh et aI., (2001) worked

30

INTRODUCTION

on nutritional composition of selected green leafy vegetables, herbs and

carrots. They analyzed six green vegetables for its chemical constituents:

such as Spinach, Amaranth, Bengal, gram leaves, Cauliflower leaves, Mint

and Coriander. They recorded highest protein content in mint leaves 30.9%

and lowest in Carrots 9.8%. Protein contents of Coriander, Bengal gram,

Spinach and Amaranth leaves were 22.2%, 26.2%, 26.5%, 29.9% and 26.2%

respectively. They also stated that the protein content in present study was

lower than that reported by Yadav (1992) and Islam et aI., (1987) in spinach

leaves. i.e. 31.4 and 32.9 percent respectively. However, Luthra (1995) and

Gupta and Wagle (1988) reported lower values in spinach. i.e. 12.1 and

21.6%.

Aletor et aI., (2002) worked on common leaf vegetables for the

functional properties of their leaf protein. Leaves of four leafy vegetables were

analyzed: Vernonia arnygdalina (Bitter leaf), Solanum africana, Amaranthus

hybrids (Green tete) and Telfaria occidentalis. (Fluted pumpkins). On average

of four species, the leaf vegetables contained 33.3gm/100gm crude protein

(range, 31.7-34.6gm/100gm) and 8.4gm/100gm crude fiber (range, 7.4 -

9.8gm/100gm). Pandey and Dhami (2002) estimated chemical composition

and nutritive value of Oplismenus compositus. They reported that the

Oplismenus compos it us contained total sugars varied from 3.50 to 4.29%,

Reducing sugars varied from 2.73 to 1.87%, starch varied from 6.61 to 2.50%

and crude protein varied from 6.06 to 16.38%. They also found the sixteen

amino acid in the sample such as cysteine, lysine, histidine, arginine, serine,

aspartic acid, glycine, glutamic acid, threonine, a -alanine, methionine, valine,

tryptophan, phenylalanine, isoleucine and leucine. Parvathi and Kumar (2002)

studied chemical composition and utilization of the wild edible vegetable

Momardica tuberosa. (Athalakkai) in Tamilnadu. They found that fruit of

Momardica tuberosa contained carbohydrates 12.60 gm/100gm and

2.15gm/100gm protein. They also reported that it was also rich in minerals like

calcium, potassium, sodium and phosphorus and the amount was 72.00, 500,

40 and 0.46 gm/100gm respectively. Rai et aI., (2002) analyzed Anogeissus

pendula for their nutritive value. In Anogeissus pendula crude protein

31

INTRODUCTION

fluctuated between 8.63% to 10.15%, while total ash varied between 0.85% to

1.81%.

Handique (2003) worked on the leafy vegetables of north-east India for

its nutritional value. He examined five herbaceous plant species Viz;

Amaranthus viridis, Borhavia diffusa, Alternanthera sessilis, Polygonum

chinense and Ipomea aguatica. Crude protein varied from 29.45% to 18.18%,

carbohydrates 14.3 to 6.15% and total minerals in the form of ash fluctuated

between 16.87% to 11.8%, which is remarkable. Escudero et aI., (2003)

examined Taraxacum officinale for its carbohydrates and proteins. Leaves of

T. officina Ie contained 15.48gm/100gm protein, 14.55gm/100gm ash and

58.35gm/100gm carbohydrates. Katewa (2003) investigated some wild food

plants from Southern Rajasthan. They analyzed 178 plants. Out of them 30

are used as grains, 34 as leafy vegetables, 23 as root! tubers, 31 as other

vegetables, 3 as oil seeds, 6 as miscellaneous food, 10 as flavoring agent, 52

as fruits, 5 as gum and 4 as instant curding of milk. In leaf vegetables crude

protein ranged from 16.14 - 35.28 % and carbohydrates 16.73 - 61.47%

respectively. Arnaranthus caudatus, Amaranthus spinosus, and Amaranthus

viridis possess carbohydrates 16.73 %, 47.17% and 20.96% respectively.

Kulkarni et aI., (2003) worked on leafy vegetables of Western Maharashtra

with their nutritional potential. They examined seven leafy vegetables, Viz;

Ampelo Cissus tomentosa, Ariopsis peitata, Caralluma adscendens, Emilia

sonchifolia, Launea intybacea, Remusatia vivipara and Spondias pinnata.

Carbohydrates found in Ampelo Cissus tomentosa 64.2%, Ariopsis peltata

63.4%, Caralluma adscendens 59.5%, Emilia sonchifolia 42.2%, Launea

intybacea 53.8% Remusatia vivipara 48.1 % and Spondias pinnata 63.9%

respectively. The crude protein was highest in Emilia sonchifolia (29.6

gm/100gm) and lowest in Caralluma adscendens (10.49 gm/100gm). Lyimo et

aI., (2003) examined the nutrient composition of indigenous vegetables of

Tanzania. They analyzed proximate composition of thirty indigenous

vegetables. The protein content varied between 0.6 - 5% in all the species.

Amaranthus graecizans, Amaranthus hybridus, Hibiscus esculentus and

Amaranthus spinosus contained protein 4.8%, 4.8%, 1.7% and 4.6%, while

iron 3.0 mg/100gm, 2.9 mg/100gm, 3.6 mg/100gm and 3.8 mg/100gm

32

INTRODUCTION

respectively. They concluded that these vegetables are rich in protein,

vitamines, irons and other nutrients, so it can be used widely in daily diets in

area of low animal proteins. Pandit et aI., (2003a) worked on biochemical

make-up of a few leguminous seeds of reserve forest. They estimated seeds

of eleven leguminous trees for their protein, starch, reducing sugar, non­

reducing sugar and total sugars. The highest amount of protein was observed

in Gliricida sepium (50.80 mg/g) and lowest in Acacia nilotica (17.9 mg/g) , the

reducing sugar was highest in Albizia lebbeck (12.54 mg/g) lowest in

Leucaena leucocephala (0.36 mg/g) , the non-reducing sugar was highest in

Butea monosperma (60.34 mg/g) and lowest in Gliricida sepium. (10.48 mg/g)

The total sugar and starch was highest in Pithocellobium dulce i.e. 65.54 and

59.04 mg/g respectively and lowest in Gliricida sepium i.e. 11.24 and 10.11

mg/g respectively. They also concluded that these seeds were rich in

nutrients, so can be used as human food.

Chattopadhyay et aI., (2004) worked on Turmeric (Curcuma longa).

They reported that it contained 6.3% protein, 5.1 % fat and 69.4%

carbohydrates. Chemical and biochemical assesment of Ailanthus excelsa

(Ardu) was done by Gupta et aI., (2004). The leaves of Ailanthus excelsa

contained highest crude protein 22.42%, cellulose 13.44% and hemicellulose

7% respectively. They also stated that the leaves of Ailanthus excelsa were

found to posses adequate quantity of nutrients. Sundriyal et aI., (2004)

assessed the nutritional values of selected wild plants of Sikkim Himalaya.

They examined 27 plant species for its nutritional value. Out of them, 22 were

edible for their fruits and five were leaves/shoots. Among different plants

parts, highest nutrient concentration was recorded for leaves. For different

species, the total carbohydrates ranged from 32 - 88%, the reducing sugars

from 1.25 to 12.42%, total sugars from 2.10 - 25.09%, the lignin content from

9.05 - 39.51%, the hemicellulose between 25.63 - 55.71%, cellulose from

9.57 - 33.19% and crude fiber from 2.15 - 39.90%. They also suggested that

all plants species were nutritionally reached, hence, need to be grown for

commercial cultivation and adopted in the traditional Agroforestry system as

these species produce economic benefits for poor farmers.

33

INTRODUCTION

Indrayan et aI., (2005) determined the nutritive value and mineral

elements of some medicinally important plants. In this study, the medicinally

important seeds of Nelumbo nucifera, Eugenia jambolana, Embelia ribes and

leaves of Artocarpus heterophyllus were taken for investigation. N. nucifera, E

. ribes, E. jambolana, A. heterophyllus contained protein 10.60%, 2.42%,

8.20%, 5.70%, while carbohydrates 72.17%, 82.04%, 55.77%, 19.70%

respectively. Sharma et aI., (2005) assessed the effect of paper mill industry

effluent on chlorophyll content of some medicinal plants. They analyzed two

medicinal plants Calotropis procera and Solanum xanthocarpum from polluted

and non-polluted area the chlorophyll-a observed in CaJotropis procera was

higher (30.16 mg/g) than Solanum xanthocarpum (28.28 mg/g). In non­

polluted area Calotropis procera contained chlorophyll b 12.44 mg/g and total

chlorophyll 42.60 mg/g, while Solanum xanthocarpum contained chlorophyll b

18.44 mg/g and total chlorophyll 46.72 mg/g respectively.

Ayaz et al (2006) estimated nutrient content of Brassica oleraceae

leaves. It contained fructose which was predominant sugar (2011 mg/100g)

followed by glucose (1056 mg/100g) and sucrose (894 mg/100g). They also

found the most abundant amino acids was glutamic acid was present at 33.2

mg/g dry weight, Aspartic acid was present 27.6 mg/g dry weight and

accounted for 10.2% of the total amino acids of kale leaf.

1.4.4 Secondary metabolites

Isolation and detection of phytochemical secondary metabolities in the

past (Gulliver, 1866; Greshoff, 1909; Roy et aI., 1983). The medicinal value of

these plants lies in some chemical substances that produce a definite

physiological action on the human body. The most important of these

bioactive constituents of plants are alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and Phenolic

compounds (Hill, 1952).

Arambewela et aI., (1981) assessed the leaves of Hunteria zeylanica.

Fourteen indole alkaloids were isolated from the leaves: isocorymine,

vobasine, (+) eburnamenine, eburnamine, pleiocarpamine

34

INTRODUCTION

dihydrocorynantheol, yohimbol, epiyohimbol, tuboxenine and hydroxy-17-

decarbomethoxy-16-dihydroepiasmalicine.

Alta -ur- Rahman et aI., (1986) analyzed the leaves of Ervatamia

corona ria. A new indole alkaloid, Stapfinine, was isolated from the leaves.

Choudhary et aI., (1986) worked on phytochemical screening in some

members of Caesalpinaceae. All qualitative studies were done with fresh plant

material (leaves) in eleven species. Viz., Cassia siamea, C. roxburghii, C.

fistula, C. tora, C. sophera, C. occidentalis, Bauhinia variegata, Tamarindus

indica, Oelonix regia, Parkinosonia aculeata and Caesalpinia pulcherrima.

They observed that the Naphtoquinone and Syringin were absent, while

leucoanthocyanin were present in all the taxa. Saponin was recorded only in

C. sophera, P. aculeata and B. Variegata. They also stated that

phytochemical investigations are useful in determining the phylogeny among

different members of a group. Misra (1986) worked on Artemisia annua in

India. Aerial part of this plant contained 0.00400% stigmasterol alkaloids,

which was peptide alkaloid.

Munshi et aI., (1988) worked on estimation of saponin in five selected

plant species. The leaves of Acacia auriculae form is, Altemanthera

philoxeroides, Achyranthus aspera, Mollugo pentaphylla and M. spergulla

contained 2.01 %, 0.53%, 0.81 %, 14% and 1.03% saponin respectively.

Narayanan et aI., (1988) analyzed Dalbergia spinosa leaves. They observed

that two isoflavone galactosides present in D. spinosa. The leaves yielded,

isofiavones, two new isoflavone galactosides, prunetin 4'- 0 - beta - 0 -

galactosides and 7 - metyltectroigenin 4' - 0 - beta- 0- galactosides. Negi

and Fakhir (1988) worked on Phyllanthus simplex. From the whole plants of

Phyllanthus simplex, they isolated the two securinegia alkaloids, simplexine

and phyllanthine. Yang et aI., (1988) estimated the secondary metabolites of

Artemisia annua plant for secondary metabolites in England. The leaves

contained flavone '4-5-5'- trihydroxy-3-5-6-7- tetramethoxy flavanoid.

Thepenier et aI., (1988) assessed the leaves of Strychnos staudtii, observed

that the four alkaloids were found. They were 12-hydroxy -11-

35

INTRODUCTION

methoxyhenningsamine, 11-methoxyhenningsamine,12-hydroxy-11-

methoxydiaboline and 11-methoxydiaboline.

Chetty and Rao (1989) assessed the leaves of Terminalia pal/ida and

Terminalia chebula for its total phenol and total flavanoid content. Terminalia

pal/ida contained 1.23 I-Iglg total phenol and 2.31 I-Iglg total flavanoid

respectively, while Terminalia chebula possess 1.23 I-Iglg total phenol and

0.89 I-Iglg total flavanoid respectively. Shilin et aI., (1989) worked on Artemisia

annua in China. They observed that the leaf of this plant contained flavone 2'-

4'-5-trihydroxy-5'6-7-trimethoxy (0.0000121 %.) and flavone, 3'-5-7-8-

tetrahydroxy-3-4'- dimethoxy (0.000063%) respectively. Rasul and Nawaz

(1989) assessed the preliminary phytochemical screening. They analyzed four

medicinal plants Viz; 8auhinia variegata, Cassia fistula, Cassia tora and

Tamarindus indica. The alkaloids were absent in all plants, while flavanoids

were present in all the four species of the family Caesalpinaceae. Thepenier

et aI., (1990) worked on Strychnos pungens leaves for alkaloids estimation.

11 alkaloids were found in the leaves. They were o-acetylretuline, 11-

methoxydiaboline, 12-hydroxy, 11-methoxydiaboline, henningsamine, 11-

methoxyhenningsamine, 12-hydroxy, 11-methoxyhenningsamine, sitsirikine,

16(R) - isositsirikine and 16 (S)- isositsirikine.

Khan et aI., (1991) analyzed the Artemisia annua plant for secondary

metabolites in India. The Aerial part of this plant contained Tetratriacontane

alkaloids. Atta-ur- Rahman et aI., (1991) estimated Rhazya- stricta leaves.

Chemical investigations of leaves have resulted in the isolation of the new

indole alkaloids, 16 R- 19,20-E-isositsirkine acetate, leepacine and

dihydroeburnamenine along with six known alkaloids. Among these, (-) -16R,

21 R-o-methylburnamine, 2- ethyl-3 [2-(3-ethyl piperidino) ethylj-indole, (20S)

-19,20-dihydrocondylocarpine and N- acetylasperimidine have been isolated

for the first time.

Ikhiri et aI., (1992) worked on medicinal plants of Niger. 185 species

were screened for chemical composition. The following constituent was

observed in 185 species: flavanoids was present in 79 plant species, steroids

36

INTRODUCTION

in 78 plant species, tannins in 61 plant species, alkaloids in 41 plant species,

quinines in 34 plant species and cyanoglucosides in 4 plant species.

Fumiko and Tatsuo (1994a) assessed Leuconotis eugenifolius leaves.

Six indole alkaloids were isolated and five were identified as yohimbine, beta

- yohimbine, leuconolam, 21-0-methyl-leuconolam and rhazinaline N-b-oxide.

The new alkaloids, having a pentacyclic diazaspiro system, were determined

to be a diazaspiro leuconolam and named leuconoxine. Fumiko et aI., (1994b)

estimated the leaves of Alstonia macrophylla in Thailand for indole alkaloids.

The five known alkaloids, N (4)- oxides of cathafoline and 11-

methoxyakummicine, vincamajine 17-0-veratrate and vincamajine N (1) - tri­

o-methylgallate was isolated from the leaves. Kamat and Singh (1994) worked

on Leucas species for preliminary chemical examination. They analyzed the

leaves of Leucas aspera, Leucas lavandulifolia, L. stricta and L. cephalotes in

Darbhanga division of North Bihar. They reported that the alkaloids, and

triterpenoids / steroids were present in the leaves of all the species.

Pascale et aI., (1995) estimated Ervatamia polyneura leaves for two

bis-indole alkaloids. Two alkaloids with a bis-vincadifformine skeleton,

polyervinine and polyervine have been isolated from the leaves. Tiwari et aI.,

(1995) studied the seasonal variation of leaves in phenol content of a few

planted tree species of Bhopal. They analyzed twenty five species namely,

Melia azadarach, Aegle marmelos, Ailanthus excelsa, Mangifera indica, 8utea

monosperma, Oalbergia sissoo, 8auhinia variegata cassia fistula, cassia

siamea, Parkinsonia aculeata Saraca indica, Acacia auriculiformis, Eugenia

jambolana, Terminalia arjuna, Anthocephalus cadmba, Mimusops elengi,

Jacaranda mimosifolia, Spathodea companulata, Grevillea robusta, Emblica

officinalis, Putranjiva roxburghii, Ficus religiosa, Ficus benghalensis and

Casuarina equisetifo/ia. In rainy season, phenol was minimum in 8auhinia

variegata (2.35 mglg), while maximum in Cassia siamia (23.25mglg). In winter

season, it was minimum in Saraca indica (3.43mglg) and maximum in

Ailanthus excelsa (12.13mglg). In summer season, it was minimum in

Parkinsonia aculeata (2.83mglg) and maximum in Cassia siamia.

(17.42mglg). They also reported that the annual average phenol content was

37

INTRODUCTION

least in B. variegata (3.58mg/g), while maximum in C. siamia (16.61 mg/g).

Wu-Tian- Shung et aI., (1995) worked on Glycosmis citrifolia leaves for

flavanoids, amidosulfoxides and alkaloids from the leaves. Four flavonoids:

glychalcone-A, glychalcone-B, glyflavanone-A and glychalcone-B; two

amidosulfoxids: glycothiomin-A and glycothiomin-B; 2-quinolone alkaloids;

glycocitridine and nine known compounds were isolated.

Choudhary et aI., (1996) investigated some member of liliaceae for

phytochemical screening. The qualitative analysis were done in eleven taxa

viz; Aloe vera, Allium cepa, A. sativum, A. tuberosum, Asparagus racemosus,

Asphodelus tenuifolius, Chlorophytum comosum, Cordyline terminalis,

Howorthia limifolia, Hemerocallis fulva and Smilax prolifera. They observed

that the presence of alkaloids was recorded in A. racemosus, A. cepa, A.

tuberosum, A. Sativum, C. terminalis, H. fulva and S. prolifera, while in

remaining taxa it was absent. Flavanoids were recorded in H. fulva, H.

limifolia, C. terminalis, A. Cepa, A. Sativum and A. tuberosum. Doubtful

presence was observed in remaining 5 taxa, while majority of the taxa

possess the saponin. However its absence was noticed in C. comosum, C.

terminalis, S. prolifera and A. tenuifolius. Secondary metabolites from different

species of Plumbgo including P. Zeylanica, P. indica, P. auriculata, P.

pulchel/a and P. scandens have been extensively studied for their

antimicrobial activity (Chakraborty and Patil, 1997; Valsaraj et aI., 1997;

Ahmed et aI., 1998; and Ghosh et aI., 2000). Mahesh kumar (1996) worked

on phytochemical analysis of medicinal plants. They analyzed seasonal

variation in four medicinal plants for their alkaloids content. They were

analyzed: Maytenus emarginata, Eclipta prostrata, Cissus quadrangularis and

Enicostema hysopifolium. The total alkaloids of Maytenus emarginata, Eclipta

prostrata, Cissus quadrangularis and Enicostema hysopifolium were ranged

from 0.83 % to 2.63%, 0.083% to 2.7%, 1.05% to 4.32% and 1.4% to 2.30%

respectively. The highest amount of total alkaloids was recorded in Cissus

quadrangularis leaf (4.32%) during monsoon and minimum value in Maytenus

emarginata root. (0.83%). They also found that the Maytenus emarginata

contained 8 alkaloids namely, Emarginatine A, Emarginatine B, Emarginatine

C, Emarginatine D, Emarginatine E, Emarginatine F, Emarginatine G and

38

INTRODUCTION

Emarginatinine. Emarginatine A, B, E, and Emarginatinine were active against

KB cells. Emarginatine F have cytotoxic effects against 6 cancer cell lines

namely, KB, A- 549, HCT-8, P-388, RPMI-7951 and TE- 671.

Xu-Yun-Iong et aI., (1999) examined on Onychlum lucidum for

flavanoids. Ten flavanoids compounds were isolated from the aerial parts.

These compounds were identified as luteoloside, 3.7-dimethyl quercetin,

contigoside B, onychin lucidol (1 beta- methoxy 2 beta, 3 alpha, 4beta,

5alpha, 6beta-pentahydroxy cyclohexane), onychiol B, beta-sitosterol,

daucosterol, oleanolic acid and sucrose.

Ali et aI., (2001) examined aerial parts of Tridax procumbens. A new

flavanoid (procumbenetin), isolated from the aerial parts has been

characterized as 3,6- dimethoxy- 5,7,2', 3', 4'- pentahydroxy flavone. 7-0-

beta-O- glucopyranoside. Bhakuni et aI., (2001) worked on Artemisia annua.

The phytochemical isolated from different parts of the plants, which showed

the different percentage present in different plant parts in different countries.

Liang et aI., (2001) determined the chemical composition of /lex latifolia and

Camellia sinensis for its flavanoid contents. The leaves of I. latifolia and C.

Sinensis contained total flavanoids 4781mglkg and 580mglkg respectively.

They also reported that the three flavanoids were detected in both the

species. i.e. rutin, mericetin and quercetin. Shukla et aI., (2001) worked on

chemistry, biology and uses of Adansonia digitata. They found that the whole

plant possess steroids, terpenoids, flavanoids, amino acids, lipids,

carbohydrates and vitamins. Zhang, -Pei, -Cheng and Xu, -Sui, -Xu (2001)

worked on the leaves of Crataesus pinnatifida. Four flavonoid

ketohexosefuranosides, pinnatifinoside A, pinnatifinoside B, pinnatifinoside C

and pinnatifinoside 0 were isolated.

Charrouf et aI., (2002) estimated Argania spinosa for its secondary

metabolites. The total flavanoid content of the leaves, stems and thoms of A.

spinosa was found to be 70% of extractible material. The two major flavanols

were already known compounds: myricetin and quercetin. While four

flavanoid glycosides were identified as myricetin -3-0-galactoside, hyperoside

39

INTRODUCTION

(quercetrin -3-0-galactoside), myricitrin (myricetin -3-0- rhamnoside) and

quercitrin (quercetin-3-0 rhamnoside) (Tahrouch et aI., 2000; Elkabouss et

aI., 2001). Christov et aI., (2002) examined the aerial part of Senecio

aquaticus. They analyzed alkaloids. Erucifoline, g- angeloyhastanecine and

five other pyrrolizidine alkaloids were identified: Jacobine; Seneciphylline;

Spartioidine; Jacozine; and Senecionine.

Gonzalez- Laredo et aI., (2003) worked on flavanoid and Cyanogenic

contents of Chaya (spinach) tree. They reported that the four flavanoids were

isolated from the leaves of Chaya namely,

(1) Dihydromyricetin (2) (3-8)- diapigenin (3) kaempferol-3-0-glucosode (4)

kaempferol-3-0- rutinoside contained 100mg/g, 1.3mg/g, 2.5mg/g and

6.5mg/g respectively. Karla et aI., (2003) assessed the Indigofera microcarpa.

(Fabaceae) for their phytochemical screening. The phytochemical screening

showed the presence of phenols, tannins, flavanones, steroids, terpenoids,

saponins and quatemary compounds. Dayal, Rameshwar (2004) studied the

phytochemistry of some useful forest plants. He estimated Vitex negundo

leaves. He found 66 compounds out of which 35 consisting of the leaves oils

(Total oil content in leaves was 74.96%). Viridiflorol (19.55%) was found to

chief constituents of the oil. Besides oil, twelve pure compounds namely,

Viridiflorol; squalene; 13 - sitosterol; 5- hydroxy-3, 6, 7,3', 4'-penta -methoxy

flavone; 5-hydroxy-3, 7,3', 4'-tetramethoxy flavone; 5,3'-dihydroxy-7, 8, 4' -

trimethoxy flavonone; p- hydroxy-benzoic acid; 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid;

lutcolin 7-glucoside, isoorientin; agnuside and 2' -p-hydroxy benzoyl -

mussaenosidic acid were isolated (Singh et al 2003). Rao et aI., (2004)

worked on Andrographis paniculata. They found flavanoids and

andographolides from Andrographis paniculata. Two flavonoids identified as

5,7,2,3'-tetramethoxy flavone, were obtained from the whole plants.

Dhanabal et aI., (2005) estimated Passiflora species for its

Pharmacognostical and phytochemical evaluation. They analyzed two species

namely, P. edulis and P. mol/isima. P. edulis and P. mollisima contained

12.7% and 10.13% total ash respectively. The qualitative investigation test

performed in both the species revealed the presence of alkaloids was

40

INTRODUCTION

confirmed by TLC, which showed four spots each. Edeoga et aI., (2005)

analyzed the phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal plants.

The medicinal plants investigated were Gleome nutidosperma, Emilia

coccinea, Euphorbia hetrophylla, Physalis angulata, Richardia bransitensis,

Scopania dulcis, Sida acuta, Spigelia anthelmia, Stachytarpheta cayennensis

and Tridax procumbens. Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, steroid, terpenoids,

flavanoids, pholobatanin and cardiac glycosides were present in all the plants.

Tannins and cardiac glycosides were absent in S. cayennensis and T.

procumbens, respectively. Only S. dulcis, E hetrophylla, P. angulata and E.

coccinea showed the presence of terpenoids. G. nutidosperma, E. coccinea,

E. hetrophylla, P. bransilensis , R. bransilensis, S. dulcis, S. acuta, S.

anthelmia, S. cayennensis and T. procumbens yielded crude alkaloids 0.34%,

0.92%, 0.86%, 0.40%, 0.45%, 0.81%, 1.04%, 0.84%, 0.68%, and 0.58%

respectively, while crude flavanoid were 0.34%,0.96%,0.74%,0.15%,0.56%,

0.88%, 0.98%, 0.00%, 0.77% and 0.61% respectively. G. rutidosperma

contained the highest percentage of tannins (15.25%) while S. acuta

contained the lowest tannins. (6.08%) The phenols ranged from 0.04% to

0.81 % in all the plants. Lima et aI., (2005) investigated Spathelia excelsa

leaves for alkaloids content. They found that the leaves yielded six alkaloids.

(1). 2-(12-oxo-tridecanyl)-3-methoxy-4-quinolone, (2). 2-(10-hydroxy-

10methyldodecanyl)-3-methoxy-4-quinolone, (3) 2-(11-hydroxy-

11 methyldodecanyl)-3-methoxy-4-quinolone, (4) 2-(12-hydroxytridecanyl)-3-

methoxy-4-quinolone, (5). 7-hydro-2- (3-hydroxy-3methylbutyl) -4-quinolone

and (6). 6- hydroxy -2- (3-hYdroxy-3-methylbutyl) -4-quinolone.

Macabeo et aI., (2005) worked on Alstonia scholaris leaves. They

investigated indole alkaloids from the leaves of Philippine Alstonia scholaris.

The first seco-uleine alkaloids, manilamine and N-4 - methyl angustilobine

were isolated from the leaves together with the known indole alkaloids 19,20

(E)- Vallesamine, angustilobine B N- 4- oxide, 20(8) - tubotaiwine and 6,7, -

seco-angustilobine B. Okwu (2005) estimated phytochemicals, vitamins and

mineral contents of two Nigerian medicinal plants. (Garcinia kola and

Aframomum melegueta) The result revealed the presence of bioactive

constituents comprising: flavanoids (1.98-5.76 mg/100g), phenols (0.09-0.11

41

INTRODUCTION

mg/100g), saponins (1.24-11.48 mg/100g), tannins (0.26-0.38 mg/100g).

According to neem foundation (2006) the neem leaves contained quereetin

flavanoid. Edeoga et aI., (2006) assessed the chemical composition of Hyptis

suaveolens and Ocimum gratissimum from Nigeria. All the plants contained

high percentage of crude alkaloids and flavanoids ranging from 10.44 to

14.32% and 9.28 to 12.54% respectively. The tannin was present in 0.

gratissimum hybrids A, hybrids B, hybrids C, and H. suaveolens i.e. 0.598%.

0.451%, 0.726%, and 0.520%, while phenol was 0.026%, 0.040%, 0.049%,

and 0.050% respectively.

1.4.5 Inorganic elements

Presence of large number of heavy metals in ecosystem was reported

by several workers like Chu and Wong (1987), Gebhardt et al (1988) and

Mittal et aI., (1989). The use of medicinal plants in therapeutics or as dietery

supplements goes back beyond recorded history, but has increased

substantially in the last decades (Woods, 1999; Khan et aI., 2001; WHO,

2002). Poisonings associated with the presence of toxic Asia, Europe and the

United states (Dunbabin et aI., 1994; Olujohungbe et aI., 1994; Markowitz et

aI., 1994; Kakosy et aI., 1996).

Tiwari (1986) estimated the chemical composition of Saussurea

obvallata. They observed that the leaves contained iron comparably in good

quantity (0.042%). Sinha and Saran (1989) examined elemental constituent of

fresh leaves of Panicum spp. They analyzed Panicum miliaceum, P.

sumatrense, and P. maximum, P. repens, and P. coloratum. P. miliaceum

contained 111 ppm Fe, 3.0 ppm Cu and 6.1 ppm Zn. P. maximum, P. repens,

and P. colora tum possess iron 141 ppm, 114 ppm and 109 ppm respectively,

while copper was 3.2 ppm, 1.5 ppm, and 1.5 ppm respectively. In P.

coloratum zinc was 6.1 ppm, while in P. repens it was 4.5 ppm. However, In

P. maximum zinc was 13.7 ppm.

Jelani et aI., (1993) analyzed the inorganic elements in medicinal

plants of Lamiaceae. They examined ten medicinal plants, namely

Anisomeles indica, A. malabarica, Leonotis nepetaefolia, Leucas cephalotes,

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INTRODUCTION

Leucas stricta, Leucas zeylanica, Mentha viridis, Salvia coccinea, Salvina

officinalis and Salvia splendens. Anisomeles indica, A. malabarica, Leonotis

nepetaefolia, Leucas cephalotes, Leucas stricta, Leucas zeylanica, Mentha

viridis, Salvia coccinea, Salvina officina lis and Salvia splendens contained

copper 0.7225 ppm, 6.5250 ppm, 0.4728 ppm, 3.4081 ppm, 3.4810 ppm,

1.2560 ppm, 1.4770 ppm, 0.9488 ppm, 0.1195 ppm, and 0.6053 ppm

respectively, while zinc was present in A. indica 1.313 ppm, A. malabarica

1.3939 ppm, L. nepetaefolia 0.8380 ppm, L. cephalotes 1.1370 ppm, L. stricta

1.8780 ppm, L. zeylanica 4.5380 ppm, Mentha viridis 1.7974 ppm, S.

coccinea 0.6099 ppm, and S. splendens 0.6222 ppm.

Nag et aI., (1994) worked on proximate composition and polyphenols

content of some trees leaves. They analyzed six tree leaves. Paraserianthes

falacataria, Caesalpania coria ria, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Sterculia foetida,

Tecoma stans and Thespesia populnea contained iron 0.63%, 0.15%, 0.12%,

0.16%, 0.09% and 0.12% respectively. Noorddin (1994) estimated trace

metals in Dioscorea spp. Viz., Dioscorea piscatorium, Dioscorea wallichiani,

Dioscorea hispida and Dioscorea alata. They analyzed sixteen elements. Out

of them, Zn was found to have the highest concentration ranging from 16 to

52 ppm. Kishore et aI., (1995) Studied the seasonal changes in micronutrients

in Ulmus villosa. The Zinc was maximum 65.0 ppm in November, while

minimum was 20 ppm. The highest amount of copper was 25.1 ppm, while the

highest amount of iron was 450.0 ppm.

Mahesh kumar (1996) worked on phytochemical analysis of medicinal

plants. They analyzed seasonal variation in four medicinal plants for their

heavy metals. (Fe, Cu, Zn) They were analyzed: Maytenus emarginata,

Eclipta prostrata, Cissus quadrangularis and Enicostema hysopifolium. The

maximum amount of iron was recorded in Enicostema hysopifolium

(13.42mglg) during summer and minimum value in Maytenus emarginata

(3.95 mglg) during summer. Among the plants highest amount of copper was

observed in Eclipta prostrata (0.38 mglg) during summer and lowest amount

was observed in Maytenus emarginata (0.024 mglg) during winter seasons.

However, zinc was recorded maximum in Maytenus emarginata (0.52 mglg)

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INTRODUCTION

during summer and lowest amount was recorded in Enicostema hysopifolium

(0.18 mg!g) during winter.

Pandit et aI., (1997) estimated the seasonal variation of lead content in

Dangs forest. They were selected three species (Tectona grandis, Terminalia

tomentosa and Dalbergia latifolia) in different three sites: Pimpri,

Chinchinagaon and Kalibel. In Pimpri sites: - The highest amount of lead was

observed in Terminalia tomentosa leaves (3.45 Ilg!g) during monsoon, while it

was lowest in Dalbergia latifolia leaves (0.151 lJg!g) during monsoon. In

Chinchinagaon sites: - The highest amount of lead showed in Dalbergia

latifolia leaves. (1.56 lJg!g) during monsoon, while lowest amount in Tectona

grandis leaves. (0.32 lJg!g) during winter. In Kalibel sites: - The highest

amount of lead was found in Tectona grandis leaves (3.69 lJg!g) during

monsoon. However, lowest amount was found in Terminalia tomentosa (0.50

Ilg!g) during winter.

Nagaraja (1998) worked on mineral composition of Cassia fistula

leaves infected with Sarcainella cassial. They analyzed infected and healthy

leaves of C. fistula. The healthy leaves contained 200 mg!100gm iron, 2.80

mg!100gm zinc and 1.20 mg!100gm copper, while the infected leaves

contained 160 mg/100gm iron, 2.60 mg!100gm zinc and 0.40 mg!100gm

copper respectively. They stated that the mineral contents were found highest

healthy leaves than infected leaves.

Sena et aI., (1998) studied the nutritional components of some Nigerian

medicinal plants. The leaves of the seven plants foods were analyzed:

Ziziphus mauritiana, Cerathotheca sesamoides, Moringa oleifera, Leptadenia

hastata, Hibiscus sabdarifa, Amaranthus viridis and Adansonia digitata for its

iron, copper and zinc. The highest amount of iron was found in Cerathotheca

sesamoides (1240 lJg!g), while lowest amount iron was found in Ziziphus

mauritiana (43.1 lJg!g). All eight-plant foods contained amount of copper that

fell within the 5 to 15 Ilg!g dry weights range. Amaranthus viridis, Moringa

oleifera and Hibiscus sabdarifa contained copper 4771lg!g, 7.9 Ilg!g and 1191

Ilg!g respectively. The highest amount of zinc was observed in Hibiscus

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INTRODUCTION

sabdarifa (72.9 l1g/g) followed by Amaranthus viridis (63.2 lJg/g). Two other

plants Cerathotheca sesamoides and Moringa oleifera leaves possess 28.3

l1g/g and 22.7 I1g/g respectively. While remaining plants, Ziziphus mauritiana,

and Adansonia digitata leaves contained 15.0 l1g/g and 17.5 lJg/g

respectively.

Escudero et aI., (1999) estimated that nutrients and antinutrients

composition of Amaranthus muricatus. The leaves contained iron 1.40

mg/100gm, while zinc 0.21 mg/100gm respectively. Bahemuka et aI., (1999)

estimated heavy metals in green vegetables in Tanzania. Four heavy metals

were determined in some green vegetables cultivated along the Sinza and

Msimbazi rivers. The results showed the following ranges: 0.01 - 0.06

mg/100gm, 2.25 - 1.60 mg/100gm, 0.90 -0.66 mg/100gm and 1.48 to 4.93

mg/100gm for cadmium, copper, lead and zinc respectively. Sharma et al

(2001) assessed the heavy metals in the vegetables growing around

Sanganer town, Jaipur.

Kulkarni et aI., (2003) worked on leafy vegetables of Western

Maharashtra with their nutritional potential. They examined seven leafy

vegetables, Viz; Ampelo Cissus tomentosa, Ariopsis peltata, Caralfuma

adscendens, Emilia sonchifolia, Launea intybacea, Remusatia vivipara and

Spondias pinnata. The iron content in these vegetables was 14.6 - 87.8 mg

%. The highest amount of iron was found in Launea intybacea (87.8 mg %),

while lowest in Spondias pinnata (14.6 mg %). Ampelo Cissus tomentosa,

Ariopsis peltata, Caralfuma adscendens, Emilia sonchifolia, Launea

intybacea, Remusatia vivipara and Spondias pinnata possess copper 0.5 mg

%, 3.8 mg %, 2.1 mg %, 1.3 mg %, 2.0 mg %, 1.5 mg % and 0.8 mg %, while

zinc content 2.7 mg %, 5.2 mg %, 4.0 mg %, 11.1 mg %, 7.8 mg %, 9.0 mg %

and 8.0 mg %, respectively.

Shailajan et al (2004) estimated the heavy metals in medicinal plants,

Asteracantha longifolia. They analyzed these plants in different regions

namely, Thane, Patalgana, Mahad, Delhi and Dehradun. In thane, plant

possess copper 56.8 ppm and 138.3 ppm zinc, while in Patalgana the plant

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INTRODUCTION

contained copper 74 ppm and 8.1 ppm zinc respectively. In Mahad, Delhi and

Dehradun contained 77 ppm, 39.65 ppm and 59.1 ppm copper, while 79.2

ppm, 131 ppm and 123.5 ppm zinc respectively.

Ajasa et aI., (2004) assessed the heavy metals in herbal plants of

Nigaria. They analyzed ten species. Viz., Anacardium occidentale,

Azadirachta indica, Butyrospermum peradoxum, Mangifera indica, Morinaga

lucida, Ocimum canum, Solanum erianthum, Solanum torvum, Zingiber

officinale and Hyptis suaveolens. The highest levels of Zn (35.1 ppm), Cu

(24.4 ppm) was found in Hyptis suaveolens. However Ocimum canum had the

highest amount of Fe (241 ppm).

Indrayan et aI., (2005) determined the mineral elements for some

medicinally values plants from Utlaranchal. They analyzed the leaves of

Artocarpus heterophyllus. It possesses Cu 0.0021 %, Zn 0.0110 % and Fe

0.0560 % respectively. Okwu (2005) worked on phytochemicals, vitamins and

mineral contents of two Nigerian medicinal plants. They were analyzed two

medicinal plants (Garcinia kola and Aframomum melegueta) for their minerals

constituents. Garcinia kola and Aframomum melegueta contained iron 17.75

mgl100gm and 1.80 mgl100gm respectively. Zinc was present Garcinia kola

and Aframomum melegueta 2.30 mg/100g and 0.02 mgl100gm respectively.

However 0.78 mgl100 gm and 0.63 mgl1 00 gm copper was present.

Leterme et aI., (2006) estimated mineral content of tropical fruits,

leaves and tubers. They analysed 101 samples for the proximate composition.

The foods were generally high in K (36-1.782 mgl100g) content and low in

sodium (45 mgl100g). The tree foliages had the highest content in most of the

elements especially Ca (286-1242 mgl100g) and iron (0.7-8.4 mgl100g).

46