2004 Summer Issue in QXP5

The magazine of the Spor t Medic ine Counci l of Alber ta

Summer 2004

pulsepulse

Joel Weaver, MD, CCFP,CASMPresident, SMCA

On behalf of the Sport MedicineCouncil of Alberta (SMCA), I wel-come you to this issue of the Pulsemagazine. I am currently in theprocess of handing over the post ofPresident to our incumbent KoraleeSamaroden; and will do so with theknowledge that the SMCA is certainto enjoy more of the progress andgrowth that it has seen over the pastfew years. I have enjoyed this pastyear working with our vibrant andefficient executive, staff, and boardmembers of the SMCA, and will con-tinue to be involved as PastPresident for this next year.

As a non-profit government organi-zation, the SMCA continues to workwithin our financial means to provideservices and programs aimed atsport safety promotion and injury pre-vention. Many Albertans takeadvantage of what the SMCA has tooffer every year, and we hope toincrease the number ofboth members and non-members that do so inthe coming years. In aneffort to expand our initia-tives, we have recentlybegun to explore addi-tional sources of revenuesuch that existing pro-grams and services canbe updated on an as-needed basis, and suchthat new and excitingideas can be pursued.

We continue to foster the relation-ships which have developed amongstthe SMCA and our provider groups –the Alberta Society of SportsMedicine, Sport PhysiotherapyAlberta, the Alberta Athletic TherapyAssociation, the Sport ScienceAssociation of Alberta, and the SportNutrition Specialists of Alberta. Ourexcellence and integrity is, in manyrespects, a reflection of the member-ship – many of whom form the afore-mentioned provider groups, andmany of whom serve, or haveserved, as SMCA board members orvolunteers.

I would like to take this opportunityto officially welcome our newPresident, Koralee Samaroden andour new summer student MunmeetParmar as a CommunicationsCoordinator for the SMCA.

Finally, I wish the members of theSMCA a safe summer of sport in2004 and encourage you to contactour staff with any questions at (780)415-0812 or surf our website forinformation at www.sportmedicinecoun-cilofalberta.ca

pulsepulse

SMCA Pulse Summer 20042

Summer 2004 Vol. 17 No. 1

SMCABoard of Directors

PresidentDr. Joel Weaver MD, CCRP, CASM

Past PresidentWill McMillan, BPE, CAT (c)

Vice PresidentKoralee Samaroden, BPE, PFLC

TreasurerDarren Turchansky, CA

SecretaryJennifer Hanon

ASSM Rep.Dr. Joel Weaver MD, CCFP, CASM

SPC Rep.Susan Massitti, BScPT, BPE

AATA Rep.Dwayne Laing, BPE, CAT (c)

SSAA Rep.Gordon Bell, Ph.D.

SNS Rep.Jane Dawson - Edwards, RD

Member at LargeRay Kardas, BPE

SMCA staffExecutive Director

Ryan Petersen, BPE

Special Projects CoordinatorJana McCubbin, BSc Kin.

AccountsJanice Peters, BCom (Hons)

Programs, Services and Fundraising CoordinatorMichael Pugh, BPE

Communications CoordinatorMunmeet Parmar, BSc

Pulse is published three times a year by Sport MedicineCouncil of Alberta. Our address is

11759 - Groat Rd.Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

T5M 3K6Phone: (780) 415 - 0812

Fax (780) 422 - 3093Website:

www.sportmedicinecouncilofalberta.caEmail:

[email protected] copyright 2004 by SMCA. Articles may not be

reprinted without permission. The opinions are those of therespective authors ane not necessarily those of the SMCA.

ISSN: 1181-9812Publication agreement no. 40038086

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Send subscription request and changes via email to:[email protected]

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of AlbertaCommunity Development and the Alberta Sport, Recreation,Parks and Wildlilfe Foundation towards our editorial costs.

MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT

Cover PhotographProvided by:

Darren DeFord

Summer 2004 SMCA Pulse 3

PAST PRESIDENT BIDS

FFAREWELLAREWELL.....

Will McMillan,BPE, CAT(c)Past President, SMCA

I have been honored to be an active part ofthe SMCA for the past 5 years and I have seenmuch change occur in that time.

The SMCA is starting to focus and show direc-tion to the future and we have the hard work ofour members, the staff of the SMCA, and theExecutive Director Ryan Petersen to thank forthat.

I have also been able to see the representa-tion of the province in the SMCA expand from aprimarily central focus to having people fromLethbridge all the way up to Fort McMurray and

Grand Prairie be involved. This can only makethe SMCA as a whole stronger.

The SMCA is working to strengthen its work inthe grass roots area with the upgrading ofteaching materials, the coordination in deliver-ing of courses and materials, and involvementin programs such as the Safety on Snow pro-gram. Our work in these areas will build thefoundation of more things to come. I look for-ward to seeing the growth of the SMCA andhelping to make the SMCA strong in the future.

U p cU p c o m i n g E v e n t so m i n g E v e n t sAthletic First Aid Courses:

September 18, 2004 8:30 - 4:30 Edmonton SMCA

Taping and Strapping Courses:September 25, 2004 8:30 - 4:30 Edmonton SMCA

Sport Nutrition Courses:October 2, 2004 10:00 - 2:30 Edmonton SMCA

2005 World Masters games:July 22 -31, 2005 Edmonton

If you would like your event listed in Pulse, please contact the SMCA office:

Phone: (780) 415-0812, Fax: (780) 422-3093

Email: [email protected]

11759 - Groat RoadEdmonton, Alberta, CanadaT5M 3K6

Website: www.sportmedicinecouncilofalberta.ca

IntroductionDespite the well-documented benefits of physical activ-

ity (PA) involvement, only 30-40 % of older individuals(age >40yrs) engage in regular PA. Included in thisactive population are those older adults participating inMasters sports. Examples of Masters athletic programsinclude: swimming, running, track & field, cycling, andOlympic weightlifting. Different types of activities havebeen shown to improve various aspects of physical fit-ness. Of primary interest is aerobic capacity and power,maximum heart rate, strength,body composition and flexiblywhich have all been shown todecline considerably amongaged individuals, particularlyamong aging women.

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was

to determine if there are differ-ences in static measures ofphysiological health/fitness between pre-menopausalfemale Masters athletes participating in two differentsporting activities: 1) cycling and 2) running.

DesignDescriptive, Cross-sectional

SettingHuman Performance Laboratory, Faculty of

Kinesiology, University of Calgary, AB.

SubjectsSixteen female subjects (SS) were recruited from the

city of Calgary and surrounding area through advertise-ment in local newspapers and postings in both public andprivate training centers and athletic stores. Eight partici-pants (4 (C) cyclists, 4 (R) runners) met the inclusion cri-terion determined through prescreening procedureswhich included: ACSM Risk Stratification, negative PAR-Q, resting heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP).Participants completed a Sport History and ExerciseIntensity and Frequency questionnaire which identifiedthe subject’s normal training regime: volume (mileageper week), intensity (target HR range), duration (time pertraining session), and frequency (number of training ses-sions per week). A menstrual history questionnaire was

administered regarding present and previous menstrualstatus, including age at menarche to determine whetheror not an individual’s present menstrual status is differentfrom her normal biological menstrual state.

Intervention/Main Outcome MeasuresAnthropometric and musculoskeletal testing include:

height, weight, body mass index, waist girth, sum of 5skinfolds, grip strength, push ups, sit and reach, partialcurl ups, vertical jump, back extension (180º), 8-RM leg

extension (120lb), 35 lbbench press (endurance).VO2max was assessed on acycle ergometer or treadmillusing the TrueMax 2400Metabolic MeasurementSystem. A discontinuous pro-tocol was used to allow alonger warm up for the SSand the identification of

Anaerobic/Ventilatory Threshold (AnT). A five-minute restoccurred which was followed by the testing protocol.Cyclist began cycling at approximately 2W/kg bodyweight, increasing by 30W every two minutes until AnT,after which the resistance increased 15-20W eachminute until volitional fatigue. Runners began at a com-fortable speed, increasing by 0.5mph every two minutesuntil AnT. Then the speed was dropped by 0.5mph, main-tained, with a grade increase of 2% each minute untilvolitional fatigue. All SS were able to go higher than theirsuggested max heart rates during their VO2max. test(220-age).

Main ResultsTwo of the SS were unable to complete the testing due

to injuries incurred over the summer. The cyclists (n=3)were of similar age, (C43.67±3.39 vs R43.00±3.61 yr),height (65.33±1.73 vs R65.20 ±2.43 cm), BMI(C21.07±1.50 vs R21.73± 1.91) and sum of five skinfolds(40.88±7.14 vs 39.13 ±10.85 mm) as the runners (n=3)who weighed slightly more (R59.27±3.62 vsC57.82±3.85 kg). Cyclists scored higher values on all themusculoskeletal assessments (see Table 1) and aerobicpower variables (C2.97±0.16 vs R2.58± 0.47 l/min) and(C14.37±1.34 vs R12.58± 1.56 METS). All SS were men-struating at the time of the study and none were taking

4 SMCA Pulse Summer 2004

A Comparison Of Static PhysiologyAmong Pre-Menopausal Masters Athletes

And Their Sedentary Counterparts

P.K. Doyle-Baker and Stacy HuttonFaculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

...interest in aerobic capacity andpower, maximum heart rate, strengh,

body composition and flexibility which have all been shown to decline consid-

erably among ... aging women”


oral contraceptives. The age of menarche in the C was slightly older than in the R (C12.7±0.6 vs R11.8 ±1.0 yr.) andsubsequently the R reported more menstrual cycles over their lifetime (R425.0±46.9 vs C397.6±38.5). One SS fromeach group had been amenorrheic for at least a year under the age of 30. C reported weighing less than (92%) oftheir current weight and R reported weighing more (1.04%) then their current weight at that time. One SS in eachgroup was on prescribed meds (synthroid).

SummaryRecruiment (N=16) produced a 50%

enrollment rate in the study (n=8). Therefore, it was not practical to con-duct an analysis on the effects of fitness outcome variables with respect to age, sport, menstrual status, or health status on the training response. However, the trend in the results indi-cate that age has little or no influence on changes in related aerobic capacity and power, maximum heart rate, mus-cular strength and endurance, body composition and flexibility. It is our hope that we can continue to recruit

Note: C=cyclist; R=runner; Grip strength= GSt, Back ext =Bext; SS both elite and moderately active Leg Ext 8-RM lbs= L Ext, 35 lb Bench Press = BP, Partial Curl ups=PCup so that we can identify the dose

response associated with variationConclusion in age and health status in females.

Continuing improvement in the performance of female master athletes and increasing levels of participation in gen-eral have generated the need to know more research is needed in this area, as data referring to male master ath-letes cannot legitimately be applied to females becaus of the difference in physiological and hormonal profiles.

Source of Funding: Sport Science Assiciation of Alberta (SSAA) through the a grant from the Alberta Sport,Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information contact: Dr. PK. Doyle-Baker at University of Calgary, phone: 403-220-703,e-mail: [email protected]

Table 1: Musculoskeletal AssessmentGSt Pups Flex PC-up VJ VJ B Ext L Ext BP

N=6 kg # cm # cm watts (º) 8-RM repM 68.00 39.83 37.08 21.40 29.67 2368.5 180.00 123.33 53.00SD 9.76 6.37 11.63 8.05 6.42 469.50 0.00 22.29 28.95C1 77 34 30 25 31.5 2738 180 120 53C2 71 46 50.5 25 28 2290 180 145 56C3 66 49 40 25 39.5 2893 180 140 53M 71.33 43.00 40.17 25.00 33.00 2640.3 180.00 135.00 54.00SD 5.51 7.94 10.25 0.00 5.89 313.14 0.00 13.23 1.7R1 79 40 26.5 25 30 2538 180 140 100R2 62 35 50.5 N/A 29.5 2168 180 90 47R3 53 35 25 7 19.5 1584 180 105 9M 64.67 36.67 34.00 16.00 26.33 2096.67 180.00 111.67 52.00SD 13.20 2.89 14.31 12.73 5.92 480.98 0.00 25.66 45.71

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Sportfactor Inc. is Alberta’s leading supplier of all your Sports Medicine needs for the past 15 years. We satisfy the needs of professional or amateur teams. Quick deliveries are our specialty . Order today and have your

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Mental Imagery Use and Precompetition Self-efficacy: A Test of Mediation in Predicting

Golf PerformanceIlsa E. Wong, M.Sc & Steven R. Bray Ph.D.Department of Kinesiology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada

IntroductionIntroduction

Many of the world's top athletes including MarkMcGuire, Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods and Chris

Evert have attributed some of their success to the use ofmental imagery. However, despite the anecdotal populari-ty and a wealth of research devoted to examining imageryuse in general, only a few studies have investigatedimagery use in the situational context of pre-competition(e.g., Gould et al., 1992) and no research has examinedpre-competition imagery use in relation to subsequent per-formance (Budney et al., 1994). This fact is surprising,particularly given the importance that both athletes andsport psychologists alike place on pre-competition prepa-ration and the integration of imagery use during the pre-competition period (Bull et al., 1996). Recently, Hall et al.(1998) provided a framework that may be useful for exam-ining imagery use in the specific context of precompetition.

Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) refers to an individual'sbeliefs in his or her capabilities to perform behaviors thatwill bring about specific outcomes. Self-efficacy repre-sents a potentially important cognition related to imageryuse (Martin et al., 1999). According to Bandura, beliefsabout personal efficacy influence the types of imaginedfutures that individuals construct. Those who have astrong sense of efficacy "visualize success scenarios thatprovide positive guides for performance" (Bandura, 1997,p. 116). Self-efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1997) also indi-cates that this relationship is bi-directional. This meansthat while high levels of efficacy foster images of success-ful performance, images of successful enactment shouldalso affect one's sense of personal efficacy.

Past research has found that athletes' use of imagery ingeneral was predictive of performance in competition (cf.Martin et al., 1999). On the basis of these findings, it washypothesized that pre-competition imagery use would bepositively related to golf performance. However, Martin etal. predicted that while each of the five imagery functionsidentified in their model should be associated witheffects/outcomes that are conducive to better performanc-es in competition (e.g., reduced stress, improved confi-dence, etc.), improved performance may not necessarilyoccur as a direct result of imagery use. Indeed, Martinet al. identify numerous mental and behavioral processes that should mediate the relationship between imagery useand competitive performance (e.g., free throw shooting

percentage, golf scores) or performance outcomes (e.g.,winning or losing). Given the association between motiva-tional general-mastery imagery and self-efficacy proposedby Martin et al. (which is also consistent with theorising byBandura, 1997) allied with a wealth of empirical supportfor a positive relationship between self-efficacy and per-formance (cf. Bandura, 1997; Feltz & Chase, 1998), it isprobable that the relationship between motivational gener-al-mastery imagery use and performance should be medi-ated by self-efficacy. In other words, motivational general-mastery imagery use could be seen as a strategy athletesuse to help enhance or maintain high levels of self-efficacywhich, in turn may help stimulate processes (e.g. increased effort, persistence) that are conducive tohigher levels of performance.

ObjectiveObjectiveThe principal purpose of this study was to utilize Hall et

al.'s (1998) taxonomy of sport imagery use to investigateathletes' use of imagery immediately prior to competitionand the relationship between pre-competition imagery use,self-efficacy, and performance.


It was hypothesized that pre-competitive motivationalgeneral-mastery imagery use would be related to subse-quent performance, but that pre-competition self-efficacywould mediate the relationship.

DesignDesignCross-sectional field study.

SettingSettingPre/Post competition at a regional golf tournament.

SubjectsSubjectsTwenty-nine elite amateur golfers were volunteer partici-

pants in the study. They completed measures of pre-com-petition motivational general-mastery imagery use and golfself-efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002) prior to a major pro-am qualifying tournament in Southern Alberta. Golf scoresfor the 18-hole round were later obtained for each partici-pant from the official tournament scorekeeper.

Main ResultsMain ResultsDescriptive statistics and correlations for study meas-

ures are presented in Table 1. Contrary to the hypothesis,although there was a negative relationship between thetwo variables, pre-competition MGM imagery use was notsignificantly correlated with golf score. However, golf self-efficacy was significantly related to performance, r(29) =-0.65, p < .001). Due to the lack of significant relation-ships between MGM imagery use and golf score as wellas self-efficacy, a test of mediation (Baron & Kenny, 1986)was not performed.

Variable Mean + SD 1 2 31. Score 81.73+6.22 - -.28 -.65*2. Pre- round

MGM use 5.41+1.40 -- .363. Self-

efficacy 82.12+13.69 --* p < .001

CommentaryCommentaryThe purpose of the study was to examine the temporal

relationships among pre-competition imagery use, self-effi-cacy and performance in competitive golf. The pattern ofresults was consistent with the hypothesis that pre-compe-tition self-efficacy is a stronger predictor or golf perform-ance than MGM imagery use. However, due the lack ofsignificant relationships between some of the variables, aformal test of mediation was not carried out. Nonetheless,findings do point to the strong relationship between self-efficacy and performance that has been shown in previousstudies.

There is little doubt that the analyses for the presentstudy were underpowered. That is, a sample size of 29 isnot sufficient for a test of mediation using multiple regres-sion (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Nor was the sample ofsufficient size to describe the bivariate relationships

between the variables with confidence. In a recent studyof imagery use as a mediator of the self-efficacy - perform-ance relationship, Beauchamp et al. (2002) analyzed datafrom 36 golfers. At a significance level of p = .05 (one-tailed), an N of approximately 35 would have yielded significant results. Therefore, further research involvinglarger samples is recommended.

Given our findings were consistent with the hypothesisthat MGM imagery use during the pre-competition periodis a strategy for increasing or maintaining self-efficacy,future studies should build on this study as a conceptualfoundation.

Source of Funding:Source of Funding:Sport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a

grant from the Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks andWildlife Foundation.

For more information contactFor more information contactSteven R. Bray, Ph.D.Department of KinesiologyUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridge, AlbertaT1K 3M4

ReferencesReferencesBandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. NewYork: Freeman and Company.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator vari-able distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strate-gic, and statistical consideration. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 51, 1173-1182.

Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R., & Albinson,J.A. (2002). Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 697-705.

Budney, A. J., Murphy, S. M., and Woolfolk, R. L. (1994). Imageryand motor performance: What do we really know? In Imagery inSports and Physical Performance (edited by A. A. Sheikh & E. R.Korn), pp. 97-120. New York: Baywood Publishing Group.

Bull, S. J, Albinson, J. G., and Shambrook, C. J. (1996). The MentalGame Plan: Getting Psyched for Sport. Eastbourne, UK: SportDynamics.

Feltz, D. L., and Chase, M. A. (1998). The measurement of self-effi-cacy and confidence in sport. In Advances in Sport and ExercisePsychology Measurement (edited by J. L. Duda), pp. 65-80.Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology Inc.

Gould, D., Eklund, R. C., and Jackson, S. A. (1992). 1988 U.S.Olympic wrestling excellence: I. Mental preparation, precompetitivecognition, and affect. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 358-382.

Hall, C., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., and Hausenblas, H. (1998).Imagery use by athletes: Development of the Sport ImageryQuestionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 73-89.

Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., and Hall, C. R. (1999). Imagery use insport: A literature review and applied model. The Sport Psychologist,13, 245-268.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statis-tics. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon


Head Blows and Concussions:

TAEKWONDOVideo analysis of blows to the head and face at the 2001 Canadian

National Taekwondo ChampionshipsJ. Koh & E. J. Watkinson Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada

Introduction

Taekwondo is a Korean martial art that has growninto a new worldwide sport since the 1950s.Competition Taekwondo is a free-sparring, full con-

tact sport. The match is usually won by a high-score butalso by a knock-out (KO). Points are scored when a kickor a punch made to the torso or the face is powerfulenough to generate a so-called "trembling shock" (toshake slightly when receiving a direct blow). For thesekicks to be scored, they must produce sufficient force. Asa result, kicking techniques pose potential injuries to com-peting athletes.

In particular, blows to the head region occur commonlyin Taekwondo competitions since the face is a major scor-ing region. Several studies have reported injuries for thehead and face region in Taekwondo tournaments: contu-sion, laceration, facial fracture, dislocation, and concus-sion. Among these conditions, there are growing concernswith respect to concussion since the concussion mayresult in cognitive dysfunction (Master et al. 2000,Physician and Sportsmed., 28: 87-92), and its effects maybe cumulative. In addition, frequency of head concussionseems to have increased since mandatory usage of head-gear was introduced in 1985. According to injury reports, however, wearing headgear in Taekwondo competition,reduced the frequency of other injuries such as facial bonefracture. Thus, receiving a head blow predisposes one topotential brain injury regardless of wearing protectiveheadgear.

Several studies on competition Taekwondo injuries havebeen published. However, no research has beenconducted on head blows, particularly those that mayresult in mild traumatic brain injury in competitionTaekwondo. Recently, Koh and Watkinson have analyzedvideotapes on head blows in world class competitionTaekwondo to determine a method for describing theevents leading up to head blows that might produce injury(2002, J. Sports Medicine & Phys. Fit., in press). They

found a number of head blows which pose high potentialfor mild traumatic brain injury at a single tournament, andpotential offensive and defensive techniques that might beused to reduce or prevent serious head blows.

ObjectiveThe purposes of this study were to quantify the inci-

dence and nature of head blow and concussion, and toexamine the situational and contextual factors surroundinghead blows, using videotape analysis, with a view to mak-ing recommendations that might reduce their frequency.

DesignProspective cohort study.

SettingCanadian National Taekwondo Championships in 2001,

Edmonton, Canada.

ParticipantsA total of 212 competitors (139 M; 73 F) participated in

this tournament and ranged in age from 14-42 years.

Intervention/Main Outcome MeasuresOnce a significant head blow occurred based on the

head blow criteria occurred during a match, data were col-lected by project staff. All the recipients of a head blowwere examined by the tournament physician or athletictrainers immediately after the competition using a struc-tured interview. All matches were videotaped and analyzedto examine the situational and contextual factors.

Main ResultsOverall incidence rates for head blows and concussions

were 273 [95% CI: 231-319] and 53 [95% CI: 34-79] per1,000 athlete-exposures, respectively. From the videotapescreening, a total of 135 head blow scenes including con-cussions were identified. Of these, 113 head blows wereagreed to be significant head blows based on the head

The influence of leg length onThe influence of leg length onoptimal cadence in cyclingoptimal cadence in cycling

Ronald D. Kooistra,Hermien E. Kan,Jos J. de Koning,

& Brian R. MacIntosh


blow criteria. None of the concussed competitors lost con-sciousness. A total of 4 knocked-down cases and 18cases of gait unsteadiness were observed after a headblow amongst the head blow recipients without concus-sion. Forty-six head blows leading to concussion occurredas a result of an opponent's counter attack.

From all head blow recipients, we observed only 1 ath-lete attempting to use blocking skills. Overall, the mostcommon situation leading to concussion was when theattacker was situated in closed sparring stance (48%) andwith a round-house kick (43%). The most frequentanatomical site of head impact was the temporal region(79%). The frequency of head blows occurring when theattacker's were of similar height was 47%, followed bytaller in 36%, and shorter in 17% of the cases.

ConclusionsOverall, the incidence rate of head blow and concussion

is high in Taekwondo competition. Nearly 50% of signifi-

cant head blows caused a concussion. All of these con-cussions occurred without loss of consciousness.Therefore, to reduce or prevent possible serious injuriesrelated to a head blow, coaches and medical personnelmust be made more aware of this concussion incidencerate and be better prepared to treat accordingly following asignificant head blow in competition Taekwondo.

Source of funding:Sport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a

grant from the Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks andWildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

For more information contact:Jae Koh, Ph.D. or Jane Watkinson, Ph.D. Faculty of Physical Education and RecreationUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AB

Faculteit der Bewegingswetenschappen,Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Kinesiology, Human PerformanceLaboratory, University of Calgary, Canada

IInnttrroodduuccttiioonnIInnttrroodduuccttiioonn: :

Peak power output (PPO) is an important parameter in various sports such as cycling, sprinting,skating and jumping. PPO in cycling is reached at an optimal combination of resistance and

cadence (see Figure 1) and is influenced by several parameters, which include fiber type and possi-bly l imb length.

Continued on page 10


Fig 1. An example of the linear relationship betweenresistance (left axis) and cadence. The curved line at thetop of the graph corresponds to the y-axis on the right rep-resenting cadence versus power. The star on the x-axisrepresents optimal cadence.

HHyyppootthheessiissHHyyppootthheessiiss : : It was hypothesized that the optimal knee angular

velocity for peak power output during cycling would be thesame as the optimal angular velocity for peak power out-put in knee extension. It was anticipated that subjectswith longer legs would have lower angular velocity at agiven cadence and a correspondingly higher optimalcadence than subjects with shorter legs.

MMeetthhooddssMMeetthhooddss : A mathematical model was developed to simulate a

cycling leg.

Fig 2. The relationship between cadence and angularvelocity of the knee (AVK). The diamonds represent theAVK from the cycling test, and the squares represent theAVK predicted by the model.

This model predicted a linear relationship betweencadence and angular velocity (see Figure 2). Thirty sub-jects performed a series of cycling tests and a leg exten-sion test to determine the torque - angular velocity rela-tion. During the cycling test, the braking force on the fly-

wheel and the pedaling rate were measured, EMG meas-urements were taken and video data of the left leg (hip,knee, ankle and foot) was recorded. During the leg exten-sion test, force and angular displacement of the knee weremeasured. Anthropometrical measurements were taken tocalculate the fat free muscle mass of the thigh (FFM).

Fig 3. A plot of observed optimal cadence versus leglength for our 30 subjects.

RReessuullttssRReessuullttss ::There was no relationship between optimal knee angu-

lar velocity for PPO during cycling and optimal angularvelocity for PPO in knee extension. Lower, upper andtotal leg length, PPO for the cycling test divided by FFMand PPO for the leg extension test divided by FFM weretested for relationship to optimal cadence. Most of thesewere significantly related to optimal cadence (see Figure 3for the relationship with leg length), but stepwise multipleregression analysis showed that when PPO for the cyclingtest divided by FFM was known, none of the other param-eters contributed to improved prediction of optimalcadence.

DDiissccuussssiioonnDDiissccuussssiioonn::Total leg length has a minor effect on optimal cadence,

but did not increase the accuracy of prediction of optimalcadence beyond that provided by normalized peak power.

Comparison of the angular velocities of the knee fromthe model with the angular velocities of the knee duringcycling revealed differences that can probably be account-ed for by ankle movements that compensate to reduce theangular velocity of the knee at any cadence.

SSoouurrccee ooff FFuunnddiinnggSSoouurrccee ooff FFuunnddiinngg ::Sport Science Association of Alberta (SSAA) through a

grant from the Alberta Sport, Recreation, Parks andWildlife Foundation (ASRPWF).

FFoorr mmoorree iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ccoonnttaaccttFFoorr mmoorree iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ccoonnttaacctt ::Dr. Brian R. MacIntoshphone: 403 220 3431email: [email protected]

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m)

Continued from page 9

Earlier this year, Canadian hearts were warmedto find out cross-country skier Beckie Scotthad won in her crusade to get her 2002

Olympic Winter Games medal upgraded from bronzeto gold. The International Olympic Committeeagreed to strip the Russian skiers who finishedahead of Scott of their medals because of dopingoffences.

It was a happy moment for the anti-drug commu-nity when it comes to sport, but in the wake of othernews, it is becoming more and more obvious thatthe Scott case is nothing but a hollow victory. Why?Because we have been inundated with more andmore drug scandals in the world of internationalsport that continue to go on unpunished.

The World Anti-Doping Agency(WADA), under the guidance of formerCanadian IOC presidential candidate DickPound, is attempting to get all majorsport leagues and organizations acrossthe globe to adhere to a no-tolerance pol-icy when it comes to performance-enhancing drugs and athletes. But, atthis stage, this looks to be a losing battle.

WADA would like to see pro leaguesand amateur athletic associations insti-tute two-year bans for drug violators.When American president George W.Bush told his nation that pro athletesshould be held more accountable forsteroids and performance-enhancingdrugs, the National Football LeaguePlayers Association bristled. Union headGene Upshaw pointed out that theleague's current rules already called for afour-game suspension for first-timesteroid offenders.

Let's break that down; if you usesteroids and get caught, the NFL sus-pends you for one-quarter of the season,or about one month. That's 1/24th ofWADA's recommended suspension. But,get this, if you are caught twice, you getsix games! A month and a half! And ifyou get strike three, it will cost you aseason-long suspension, or about half therecommended WADA penalty.

Continued on page 12


The Inside

SCOOPSteve Sandor (Edmonton's Sport Scene, March 2004)

Continued from page 11

Last month Greg Anderson, a trainer who sup-plies supplements to the likes of baseball starsBarry Bonds and Gary Sheffield, told a grand jurythat his Bay Area Laboratory Co-Operative (BALCO)did indeed supply anabolic steroids to many notedAmerican track stars, Major League Baseball play-ers and NFLers. None of the actual players whoused steroids was named by the grand jury.

No matter which players are eventually fingered -whether they be superstars or bit players - BALCO'sadmission is proof positive that pro sports in NorthAmerica are not only tainted by performance-enhancing drugs, they are inundated with them.

Pound's attempt at inter-national sports diplomacyare also worrying. AfterCanadian-turned-Brit tennisstar Greg Rusedski testedpositive for nandrolone latelast year, WADA wasdragged into a moral dilem-ma. Rusedski used one ofthe oldest defence in thebook - ignorance. He saidhe had no idea that thesupplements he was pre-scribed by tour trainers had the steroids.

I know that I always keep track of what I eat.And I don't allow myself to be jabbed with injectionswithout asking first about what's in the vials. I tryto know as much about what I eat as possible.Ignorance shouldn't work as an excuse forRusedski. He must be accountable for what hetakes and if he was silly enough to ingest some-thing without question, he should be culpable; butPound said last month that Rusedski would escapea ban if he could prove the nandrolone came fromsupplements supplied by tour trainers. IfRusedski's defence works, it will set a precedent forevery drug taker to follow, to simply say, "I was onlydoing as I was told" and will eradicate every smallvictory Beckie Scott has made in her anti-drug war.

But there is one sporting arena where the per-formance-enhancement controversy is all the moreprominent, and that is with the most popular gameof all - soccer. Late last year, key England centreback and Manchester United defensive lynchpin RioFerdinand forgot to turn up for a drug test. Underinternational rules, missed tests are to be treatedthe same as positive tests. Ferdinand claimed hewas out shopping and had forgotten about theappointment; he also later tested and his samplewas clean.

But the English Football Association moved to banhim for eight months, a decision that set off fire-works; Man United and Ferdinand claimed thepenalty was too harsh for a case of forgetfulness.Meanwhile, Pound and WADA called for a full two-year ban. Ferdinand is appealing his suspension,but is not expected to win.

But the soccer intrigue gets all the more interest-ing. In the final playoffs for sports at Euro 2004,Wales and Russia met in a two-game, home-and-home, total goals series. Key Russian midfielderYegor Titov played in the second game of the series

after missing the first match (atie) with injury. Russia won thesecond game thanks to a 1-0win in Cardiff, but drug-testsdone after the game showedthat Titov had the banned sub-stance Bromantan in his sys-tem. Officials from Wales havedemanded that they be awardeda 3-0 forfeit win and Russia'sspot in the tournament, butwhile UEFA, the sport's govern-ing body in Europe, haveslapped Titov with a one-year

club-and-country suspension, it has refused to tossRussia out of the tournament.

Wales stated it will appeal UEFA's decision as faras the legal system will allow; it claims that,because is has evidence that Titov took the drugunder orders from the team, the entire Russian fed-eration should be banned from the tournament.

All of these controversies are enough to depresseven the most optimistic of sports fans and theyshould have you wondering if the war on perform-ance enhancing drugs can ever be won.



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Documents

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