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Individual Differences and Academic Achievement: What Does the Research Tells us About Reading?

Gloria Maccow, Ph.D., Assessment Training Consultant

Copyright © 2014. Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 1

Individual Differences and

Academic Achievement:

What Does the Research Tell Us

About Reading?

Gloria Maccow, Ph.D.

Assessment Training Consultant

2 | Copyright © 2014. All rights reserved.

Objectives

• Describe research-based cognitive factors

that predict performance in reading.

• Describe assessment batteries to identify

subtypes of reading disability.

• Describe interventions based on subtype of

reading disability.





Reading

Reading is made up of two major parts:

– Pronouncing written words (decoding), and

– Comprehending words and text.

A major correlate of comprehension is

vocabulary size.

Vocabulary Comprehension


Reading Skills

Grade Skills

K

Name letters accurately.

Identify and generate rhyming words.

Segment syllables and phonemes in spoken words.

1 Name real words accurately (without context clues).

Decode pseudowords accurately (without semantic cues).

2 Name real words accurately and quickly (without context clues).

Decode pseudowords accurately and quickly (w/o semantic cues).

3

Name real words accurately and quickly without context clues.

Decode pseudowords accurately and quickly w/o semantic cues.

Decode silently.

Read silently with fluency.

4 and

above

Comprehend words.

Comprehend sentences.

Comprehend paragraphs.





Three Types of Struggling Readers

Deficient

Decoding

Nonspecific Reading Disability

(Hyperlexia)

“Garden Variety” poor readers

Specific Reading

Disability

(Dyslexia)

Comprehension

Deficient

Adequate

Adequate


What is Dyslexia?

• Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is

neurological in origin.

• It is characterized by difficulties with

accurate and/or fluent word recognition and

by poor spelling and decoding abilities.

(IDA; Adopted by the Board of Directors: November 12, 2002)





What is Dyslexia?

• These difficulties typically result from a deficit in

the phonological component of language that is

often unexpected in relation to other cognitive

abilities and the provision of effective classroom

instruction.

• Secondary consequences may include problems

in reading comprehension and reduced reading

experience that can impede growth of

vocabulary and background knowledge.

(IDA; Adopted by the Board of Directors: November 12, 2002)

What are the research-based

cognitive factors that underlie

performance in reading?





Shaywitz (2003)

• . . . “the deficit responsible” for dyslexia

“resides in the language system.”

• “Dyslexia does not reflect an overall defect in

language, but, rather, a localized weakness

within a specific component of the language

system: the phonologic module.”

Discourse

Syntax

Semantics

Phonology (pp. 39-41)


Shaywitz (2003)

Discourse

Syntax

Semantics

Phonology

Language System

Comprehension

Reading

Decoding

Decoding

(Word ID) Comprehension

(Meaning)

Reading

Dyslexia

(p. 52)




Shaywitz (2003)


(p. 145)

Shaywitz (2003)

Researchers used fMRI to study activation sites in the

brain as children read both real and nonsense words.






Bell, McCallum, Cox (2003)

Factor Letter-Word

Calling

Reading

Comprehension Decoding Spelling

Auditory

Processing .43 .38 .33 .27

Visual

Processing/

Speed

.23 .16 .22 .27

Memory .19 .16 .06 .19

Cognitive Ability Research Study

• Phonological Awareness

• Phonologic Awareness (specifically

Phonemic Awareness

• Catts & Hogan, 2003.

• Shaywitz, 2003.

• Phonological Memory and Verbal

Working Memory

• Phonologic Memory


• Shaywitz, 2003.

• Phonological Retrieval (word

finding, rapid naming, and RAN).

• RAN


• Shaywitz, 2003.

Reading Disorder and Cognitive Weaknesses





Rapid Automatic Naming

• Wolf and Bowers (1999) have shown that

rapid automatic naming (RAN) tasks are

consistently predictive of word-level reading

difficulties as well as passage comprehension.

• Rapid letter naming tasks were more

predictive of word level reading skills than

tasks involving the naming of familiar objects.


Special Group Study (DAS-II) Reading Disorder

DAS-II; n = 46; ages 7:0–13:11

Composite RD Mean

Control

Mean

Mean

Diff. p value Std. Diff.

Verbal 92.1 100.6 8.57 <.01 .65

Nonverbal

Reasoning 91.2 99.3 8.13 <.01 .72

Spatial 93.0 99.5 6.52 <.05 .56

School

Readiness 92.9 104.0 11.09 <.01 1.08

Working

Memory 91.4 99.4 8.00 <.01 .67

Processing

Speed 89.8 100.9 11.07 <.01 .87





Special Group Study (NEPSY-II) Reading Disability

NEPSY-II; n = 36

Attention and Executive Functioning

Score RD Mean

Control

Mean

Mean

Diff. p value Std. Diff.

CL Total

Score 8.1 9.4 1.31 <.01 .51

IN Naming

Total

Completion

Time

7.5 8.9 1.34 <.01 .55


CL = Clocks; IN = Inhibition

NEPSY-II; n = 36

Language

Score RD Mean

Control

Mean

Mean

Diff. p value

Std.

Diff.

CI Total Score 7.9 9.8 1.89 <.01 .66

PH Total Score 6.9 9.4 2.44 <.01 .94

SN Total

Completion Time 6.7 10.0 3.33 <.01 1.10

SN Combined

Scaled Score 6.9 9.9 2.97 <.01 1.10


Special Group Study (NEPSY-II) Reading Disability

CI = Comprehension of Instructions; PH = Phonological Processing;

SN = Speeded Naming.





Reading-Related Processes (Berninger, 2007)

• Encoding

• Segmenting

• Phonological

Awareness

• Morphological

Awareness

• Vocabulary Knowledge

• Concept Knowledge

• Expressive Language

• Verbal Working

Memory

• Executive Functions


Coding Word Forms in Verbal Working Memory (Berninger, 2007)





Phonological Loop (Berninger, 2007)


Executive Functions–Switching Set (Berninger, 2007)





Executive Functions–Inhibition (Berninger, 2007)


Executive Functions–Monitoring (Berninger, 2007)





Written Language Problems Based on a

Working Memory Architecture (Berninger, 2007)

Supports oral

reading

Supports

writing

language and

writing math


Written Language Problems

and the Three Word Forms

(Berninger, 2007)




Individual differences in Reading Achievement:

Subtypes of

Specific Reading Disability

Subtypes of Specific (Reading) LD

Phonological/Dysphonetic Subtype Orthographic/Surface/Dyseidetic

Subtype

• Unable to use a phonological route to bridge letters and sounds.

• Frequently guesses words based on initial letter.

• Over-relies on visual and orthographic cues to identify words in print.

• Tends to memorize whole words because of poor decoding strategies.

• Unable to automatically, effortlessly recognize printed words.

• Read letter-by-letter and sound-by-sound.

• Struggle to name words with non-predictable patterns – e.g., island = izland.

• Fluency is adversely affected.





Subtypes of Specific (Reading) LD

Mixed Subtype

• Most severe type of RD.

• No usable key to unlock the functional code of literacy.

• Has difficulty across the language spectrum – poor phonological processing, slow rapid and automatic word recognition, inconsistent language comprehension.


Assessment to Identify

Subtypes of

Specific Reading Disability




Assessment Battery for Reading Difficulties


• phonological processing skills,

• rapid naming,

• auditory working memory,

• general language functioning,

• verbal learning,

• visuospatial skills,

• executive functions, and

• fine-motor skills.

Assessment Questions and Instruments

Question Assessment Instrument(s)

Is there evidence to support a deficit in reading skill relative to age and education?

Assess (at a minimum) letter and word reading, nonsense word reading, spelling, reading comprehension.

• KTEA-II

• PAL-II

• QRI

• WIAT-III

• WJ-III Tests of Achievement

• WRMT-III





Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Third Edition

Composite/Subtests Standard Score (Mean=100) Percentile Rank

Oral Language 96 39

Listening Comprehension 100 50

Oral Expression 95 37

Basic Reading 72 3

Word Reading 66 1

Pseudoword Decoding 77 6

Reading Comprehension and Fluency 72 3

Reading Comprehension† 87 19

Oral Reading Fluency† 63 1

Written Expression 81 10

Spelling 78 7

Sentence Composition 80 9

Mathematics 102 55

Numerical Operations 105 63

Mathematics Problem Solving 98 45

Mathematics Fluency 107 68

† Score for Reading Comprehension and for Oral Reading Fluency is based on grade 1 item set.



Is there evidence to support a deficit in the phonological component of language?

• CTOPP Blending and

Segmenting Subtests

• DAS-II Phonological Processing

Subtest

• KTEA-II Phonological

Awareness Subtest

• NEPSY-II Phonological

Processing Subtest

• PAL-II Rhyming, Syllables,

Phonemes, Rimes

• WJ-III Sound Awareness,

Sound Blending, and

Incomplete Words Subtests







Phonological Processing (DAS-II)

Discrepancy Comparisons

Ability

Score 1

Ability

Score 2 Diff.

Critical

Value

Sig. Diff.

Y / N

Rhyming - Blending 100 110 -10 33 N

Rhyming - Deletion 100 89 11 26 N

Rhyming – Phoneme ID &

Segmentation 100 76 24 27 N

Blending - Deletion 110 89 21 26 N

Blending – Phoneme ID &

Segmentation 110 76 34 27 Y

Deletion – Phoneme ID &

Segmentation 89 76 13 19 N


Is the identified deficit in

the phonological

component of language

unexpected in relation to

other cognitive abilities?

• DAS-II

• PAL-II Receptive Coding,

Expressive Coding, RAN

Letters and Letter-Groups,

Are They Related?, Does it

Fit?

• WISC-IV

• WJ-III Tests of Cognitive

Abilities







Is the identified deficit in

the phonological

component of language

unexpected in relation to

other cognitive abilities?

• NEPSY-II Comprehension of

Instructions, Speeded

Naming, Auditory Attention

and Response Set,

Inhibition, Memory for

Names and Memory for

Names Delayed, Word List

Interference

• D-KEFS Color-Word

Interference Test




Differential Ability Scales-Second Edition (DAS-II)

Cluster/Diagnostic Subtest Standard Score

(Mean=100) T-Score

(Mean= 50) Percentile

Rank

Working Memory (MV = narrow ability) 93 32

Recall of Sequential Order (Gsm) 40 16

Recall of Digits Backward (Gsm) 52 58

Processing Speed (Gs) 89 23

Speed of Information Processing (Gs) 51 54

Rapid Naming (Gs) 38 12

Other Diagnostic Subtests

Recall of Objects – Immediate (Glr) 40 16

Recall of Objects – Delayed (Glr) 41 18

Recall of Digits Forward (Gsm) 53 62

Recognition of Pictures (Gv) 54 66

Phonological Processing (Ga) 51 54

Diagnostic Subtests





Concordance-Discordance Model of SLD Diagnosis

Processing

Strength

Processing

Weakness

Achievement

Deficit

Significant

Difference

(Hale & Fiorello, 2004)

Interventions

Subtypes of Reading Disability

(from Feifer, 2000)





Age Program

< 7 yrs

• Fast ForWord • Earobics I • Phono-Graphix • Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LIPS)

7-12 yrs

• Alphabetic Phonics (Orton-Gillingham) • Slingerland • VAKT Approach • Project Read • Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LIPS)

> 12 yrs • Wilson Reading System • SRA Corrective Reading

Phonological Subtype


Age Program

< 7 yrs • Analytic or Embedded Phonics Approach • DISTAR • Reading Recovery

7-12 yrs • Great Leaps Reading • Neurological Impress method

> 12 yrs • Neurological Impress method • Wilson Reading System • Laubach Way to Reading

Orthographic Subtype





Mixed Subtype

• Use an eclectic approach capitalizing on the

neurodevelopmental strengths of the child.

• Use multisensory or any of the

aforementioned programs depending upon

the age, skill level, and neuro-

developmental profile of the child.


Verbal Working Memory

Interventions

Elaborative Rehearsal

– Associate meaning with stimuli.

– Keeps information active in WM without

repetition and also facilitates moving

information to LTM.

Semantic Rehearsal

– Brief sentences using the word to be

remembered.





Executive Working Memory

Interventions

Dual Encoding

– Strategies utilizing concurrent visual and verbal

encoding.

– Some dual encoding occurs naturally (reading).

– In the classroom, visual and verbal materials

should be utilized.


An Evidence-based

intervention for

working memory

training.

www.cogmed.com

Working Memory Training





References

Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working

memory. In G. H Bower (Ed.), The psychology of

learning and motivation, Vol 8. London: Academic

Press.

Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new

component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive

Science, 4, 417-423.

Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory: Looking

back and looking forward. Neuroscience, 4, 829-839.


References

Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories,

models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 63:1–

29.

Bell, S. M., McCallum, R. S., & Cox, E. A. (2003).

Toward a research-based assessment of dyslexia:

Using cognitive measures to identify reading

disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, pp.

505-516.

Berninger, V. W. (2007). PAL-II user’s guide. San

Antonio, TX: Pearson.





References

Catts, H. W., & Hogan, T. P. (2003). Language basis

of reading disabilities and implications for early

identification and remediation. Reading Psychology,

24, 223–246.

Feifer, S. G., & De Fina, P. A. (2000). The

neuropsychology of reading disorders: Diagnosis and

intervention workbook. Middletown, MD: School

Neuropsych Press, LLC.

Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School

neuropsychology: A practitioner’s handbook. New

York: Guilford.

Hale.


References

Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new

and complete science-based program for reading

problems at any level. New York: Vintage Books.

Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-

deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438.




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Comments or Questions Gloria Maccow, Ph.D.

[email protected]

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www.pearsonassess.ca

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Documents

Objectivesimages.pearsonclinical.com/images/PDF/Webinar/Individ… · · 2014-03-03• Encoding • Segmenting • ... Pseudoword Decoding 77 6 ... Assessment Training Consultant