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PLANNING
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
Presented by:
ARIEL A. CATAPALMBA OLIVAREZ COLLEGE1st SemesterS.Y. 2009 - 2010
MR. ERNESTO M.APODACAProfessor
Subject:
MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES & DYNAMICS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge and extent my heartfelt gratitude to the following persons
who made the completion of this Formal Paper possible:
Our Dean of Graduate School, Dr. Eric L. Olivarez, for his vital encouragement and
support.
Dr. Avelino S. De Chavez, our Assistant to the Dean, for his understanding and
assistance.
Ms. Bernadette Uy, Secretary of Graduate School for the constant reminders and much
needed motivation.
Mr. Ernesto M. Apodaca, my professor in Management Principles & Dynamics for the
continuing help and support and inspiration he extended.
All the Graduate School, faculty members and Staff.
Most especially to my family and friends.
And to GOD, who made all things possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
II. IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
III. THE PLANNING PROCESS
Define your objectives
Determine where you stand vis-a-vis objectives
Develop premises regarding future conditions
Analyze and choose among action alternatives
Implement the plan and evaluate results
IV. BENEFITS OF PLANNING
Planning Improves Focus and Flexibility
Planning Improves Action Orientation
Planning Improves Coordination
Planning Improves Time Management
Planning Improves Control
V. TYPES OF PLANS
Short-Range and Long-Range Plans
Strategic and Operational Plans
Policies and Procedures
Budgets and Projects
VI. PLANNING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Forecasting
Contingency Planning
Scenario Planning
Benchmarking
Staff Planners
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Participation and Involvement
VII. DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Identify and Define the Problem
Generate and Evaluate Alternative Courses of Action
Decide on a Preferred Course of Action
Implement the Decision
Evaluate Results
VIII. RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
The Nature of Managerial Decision Making
Models of Decision Making
IX. NATURE AND TYPES OF MANAGERIAL DECISIONS
Nature of Managerial Decision making
Types of Problems and Decisions
General Organizational Situations
Decision Making Styles
X. STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
What is Strategy?What is Strategic Management?
The Strategic Management Process
y Analysis of Mission, Values, and Objectives
y Analysis of Organizational Resources and Capabilities
y Analysis of Industry and Environment
Strategy Used by Organizations
y Levels of Strategy
y Growth and Diversification Strategies
y Restructuring and Divestiture Strategies
y Global Strategies
y Cooperative Strategies
y E-Business Strategies
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Strategy Formulation
y Porters Competitive Strategies
y Portfolio Planning
y Incrementalism and Emergent Strategy
y Strategy Implementation
y Management Practices and Systems
y Corporate Governance
y Strategic Leadership
XI. SUMMARY OF TOPICS
Additional Relevant ReadingsInterview with an expert on topics assigned
XII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
XIII. APPENDIX
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INTRODUCTION
The process of management involves planning, organizing, leading, and controlling the
use of resources to accomplish performance goals. The first of these four functions,
planning, sets the stage for the others by providing a sense of direction. It is a process
of setting objectives and determining how best to accomplish them. Said a bit
differently, planning involves deciding exactly what you want to accomplish and how
best to go about it. Planning involves defining the organizations goals, establishing an
overall strategy for achieving these goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans
to integrate and coordinate organizational work. The term planning as used in this
chapter refers to formal planning. The quality of the planning process and appropriate
implementation probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of
planning. Planning as just described is an application of the decision making process. It
is a systematic way to approach two important tasks: setting performance objectives,
and deciding how best to achieve them. But remember, planning is not something
managers do while working alone in quite rooms, free from distractions, and at
scheduled times. It is an ongoing process, often continuously being done even while
dealing with an otherwise busy and demanding work setting. And like other decision
making, the best planning is done with active participation of those people whose work
will eventually determine whether or not the plans are well implemented and the
objectives are accomplished.
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IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
When planning is done well, it creates a solid platform for the other management
functions: organizing allocating and arranging resources to accomplish tasks; leading-
guiding the efforts of human resources to ensure high levels of tasks accomplishment;
and controlling monitoring tasks accomplishments and taking necessary corrective
action. The centrality of planning in management is important to understand. In todays
demanding organizational and career environments it is essential to stay one step
ahead of the competition. This involves always striving to become better at what you are
doing and to be action oriented.
THE PLANNING PROCESS
In the planning process, objectives identify the specific results or desired outcomes that
one intends to achieve. The plan is a statement of action steps to be taken in order to
accomplish the objectives. Five steps in the planning process are:
1. Define your objectives: Identify desired outcomes or results in very specific ways.
Know where you want to go; be specific enough that you will know you have
arrived when you get there, or know how far off the mark you are at various
points along the way.
2. Determine where you stand vis-a-vis objectives: Evaluate current
accomplishments relative to the desired results. Know where you stand in
reaching objectives; know what strengths work in your favour and what
weaknesses may hold you back.
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3. Develop premises regarding future conditions: Anticipate future events;
Generates alternative scenarios for what may happen; identify for each
scenario things that may help or hinder progress toward your objectives.
4. Analyze and choose among action alternatives: List and carefully evaluate
possible actions. Choose the alternative(s) most likely to accomplish your
objectives; describe step-by-step what must be done to follow the chosen course
of action.
5. Implement the plan and evaluate results: Take action and carefully measure your
progress towards objectives. Do what the plan requires, evaluate results, take
corrective action, and revise plans as needed.
BENEFITS OF PLANNING
Organizations in todays dynamic times are facing pressures from many sources.
Externally, these include ethical expectations, government regulations, uncertainties of
a global economy, changing technologies, and the sheer cost of investments in labor,
capital, and other supporting resources. Internally, they include the quest for operating
efficiencies, new structures and technologies, alternative work arrangements, greater
diversity in the work-place, and related managerial challenges. As you would expect,
planning in such conditions offers a number of benefits.
Planning Improves Focus and Flexibility
Good planning improves focus and flexibility, both of which are important for
performance success. An organizationwith focusknows what it does best, knows the
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needs of its customers, and knows how to serve them well. An individualwith focus
knows where he or she wants to go in a career or situation, and in life overall. An
organization with flexibility is willing and able to change and adapt to shifting
circumstances, and operates with an orientation toward the future rather than the past.
An individualwith flexibilityadjusts career plans to fit new and developing opportunities.
Planning Improves Action Orientation
Planning is a way for people and organizations to stay ahead of the competition and
become better at what they are doing. It helps avoid the complacencytrap simply being
carried along by the flow of events. It keeps the future visible as a performance target
and reminds us that the best decisions are often those made before events force
problems upon us.
Planning Improves Coordination
Planning improves coordination. The different individuals, groups, and subsystems in
organizations are doing many different things at the same time. But even as they pursue
their specific tasks and objectives, their accomplishments must add up to meaningful
contributions to the organization as a whole. Good planning throughout an organization
creates a means-endschain or hierarchy of objectives in which lower-level objectives
lead to the accomplishment of higher-level ones. Higher-level objectives as ends are
directly tied to lower-level objectives as the means for their accomplishment.
Planning Improves Time Management
One of the side benefits that planning offers is better time management. Lewis Platt,
former chairman of Hewlett-Packard, says: Basically, the whole day is a series of
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choices. These choices have to be made in ways that allocate your time to the most
important priorities. Platt says that he was ruthless about priorities and that you have
to continually work to optimize your time.
Most of us have experienced the difficulties of balancing available time with the many
commitments and opportunities we would like to fulfil. It is easy to lose track of time and
fall prey to what consultants identify as time wasters. Too many of us allow our time to
be dominated by other people and/or by nonessential activities. To do lists can help,
but they have to contain the right things. In daily living and in management, it is
important to distinguish between things that you mustdo (top priority),shoulddo(high
priority), would be nicetodo (low priority), and really dontneedtodo (no priority).
Planning Improves Control
When planning is done well, it facilitates control, making it easier to measure
performance results and take action to improve things necessary. Planning helps make
this possible by defining the objectives along with the specific actions through which
they are to be pursued. If results are less than expected, either the objectives or the
actions being taken, or both, can be evaluated and adjusted. In this way planning and
controlling work closely together in the management process. Without planning, control
lacks objectives and standards for measuring how well things are going and what could
be done to make them go better. Without control, planning lacks the follow-through
needed to ensure that things work out as planned.
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TYPES OF PLANS
Managers face many different planning challenges in the flow and pace of activities in
organizations. In some cases the planning environment is stable and quite predictable;
in others it is more dynamic and uncertain. A variety of plans are used to meet these
different needs.
Short-Range and Long-Range Plans
A rule of thumb is that short-range plans cover 1 year or less, intermediate range plans
cover 1 to 2 years, and long range plans look 3 or more years into the future. Top
management is most likely to be involved in setting long-range plans and directions for
the organization as a whole, while lower management levels focus more on short-run
plans that help achieve long-term objectives. Unless everyone understands an
organizations long-term plans, there is always risk that the pressure of daily events will
create confusion and divert attention from important tasks. In other words, without a
sense of long-term direction, people can end up working hard but without achieving
significant results.
Strategic and Operational Plans
Plans differ not only in time horizons but also in scope. Strategic plans set broad,
comprehensive, and longer-term action directions. Strategic planning by top
managementinvolves determining objectives for the entire organization, describing what
and where it wants to be in the future.
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Operational plans define what needs to be done in specific functions or work units to
implement strategic plans. Typical operational plans for a business firm include
productionplans dealing with the methods and technology needed by people in their
work; financial plans dealing with money required to support various operations;
facilitiesplans dealing with facilities and work layouts; marketingplans dealing with
the requirements of selling and distributing goods or services; and human resource
plans dealing with the recruitment, selection, and placement of people into various
jobs.
Policies and Procedures
Among the many plans in organizations, standingplansin the form of organizational
policies and procedures are designed for use over and over again. A
policycommunicates broad guidelines for making decisions and taking action in specific
circumstances. For example, typical human resource policies address such matters as
employee hiring, termination, performance appraisals, pay increases, promotions, and
discipline.
Rules or proceduresdescribe exactly what actions are to be taken in specific
situations. They are often found stated in employee handbooks or manuals as SOPs
standard operating procedures. Whereas a policy sets a broad guideline for action,
procedures define precise actions to be taken.
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Budgets and Projects
In contrast to standing plans, single-useplans are used once, serving the needs and
objectives of well-defined situations in a timely manner. Budgets are single-use plans
that commit resources to activities, projects, or programs. They are powerful tools that
allocate scarce resources among multiple and often competing uses. Most managers
bargain for adequate budgets to support the needs of their work units or teams. They
are also expected to achieve performance objectives while keeping within the allocated
budget.
PLANNING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
The benefits of planning are best realized when the foundations are strong. Among the
useful tools and techniques of managerial planning are forecasting, contingency
planning, scenarios, benchmarking, participative planning, and the use of staff planners.
FORECASTING
Forecasting is the process of predicting what will happen in the future. All plans involve
forecasts of some sort. Periodicals such as Business Week, Fortune, and the
Economistregularly report forecasts of economic conditions, interest rates,
unemployment, and trade deficits, among other issues. Some are based on qualitative
forecasting,which uses expert opinions to predict the future. Others involve quantitative
forecasting, which uses mathematical models and statistical analyses of historical data
and surveys to predict future events.
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CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Planning by definition, involves thinking ahead. But the more uncertain the planning
environment, the more likely that ones original assumptions, forecasts, and intentions
may prove inadequate or wrong. Contingency planning identifies alternative courses
of action that can be implemented to meet the needs of changing circumstances.
Although one cant always predict when things will go wrong, it can be anticipated that
they will. It is highly unlikely that any plan will ever be perfect; changes in the
environment will sooner or later occur, as will crises and emergencies. And when they
do, the best managers and organizations have contingency plans ready to be
implemented. Contingency plans contain trigger points that indicate when preselected
alternative plans should be activated.
SCENARIO PLANNING
A long-term version of contingency planning, called scenario planning, involves
identifying several alternative future scenarios or states of affairs that may occur. Plans
are then made to deal with each should it actually happen.
BENCHMARKING
All too often planners becomes too comfortable with the ways things are going and
overconfident that the past is a good indicator of the future. It is often better to keep
challenging the status quo and not simply accept things as they are. One way to do this
is through benchmarking, the use of external comparisons to better evaluate ones
current performance and identify possible actions for the future.
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The purpose of benchmarking is to find out what other people and organizations are
doing very well, and then plan how to incorporate these ideas into ones own
operations. One benchmarking technique is to search forbest practices, thing people
and organizations do that help them achieve superior performance. Well-run
organizations emphasize internal benchmarking that encourages all members and work
units to learn and improve by sharing one anothers best practices. They also use
external benchmarking to learn from competitors and non competitors alike.
STAFF PLANNERS
As organizations grow, there is a corresponding need to increase the sophistication of
the planning system itself. In some cases, staff planners are employed to help
coordinate planning for the organization as a whole or for one of its major components.
These planning specialists are skilled in all steps of the planning process, as well as
with planning tools and techniques. They can help bring focus and energy to accomplish
important, often strategic, planning tasks. But one risk is a tendency for a
communication gap to develop between staff planners and line manager. Unless
everyone works closely together, the resulting plans may be inadequate, and people
may lack commitment to implement the plans no matter how good they are.
PARTICIPATION AND INVOLVEMENT
Participation is a key word in the planning process. Participatory planning includes in
all planning steps the people who will be affected by the plans and/or who will be asked
to help implement them. Participation can increase the creativity and information
available for planning. It can also increase the understanding and acceptance of plans,
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as well as commitment to their success. And even though participatory planning takes
more time, it can improve results by improving implementation.
DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The decision-making process involves a set of activities that begins with identification
of a problem, includes making a decision, and ends with the evaluation of results. The
steps in managerial decision making are (1) identify and define the problem, (2)
generate and evaluate alternative solutions, (3) choose a preferred course of action and
conduct the ethics double check, (4) implement the decision, and (5) evaluate results.
All five steps can be understood in the context of the following short-but-true case.
STEP 1 IDENTIFY AND DEFINE THE PROBLEM
The first step in decision making is to find and define the problem. This is a stage of
information gathering, information processing, and deliberation. It is important to clarify
goals by identifying exactly what a decision should accomplish. The more specific the
goals, the easier it is to evaluate results after the decision is actually implemented. The
way a problem is defined can have a major on how it is resolved.
STEP 2 GENERATE AND EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION.
Once the problem is defined, it is time to assemble the facts and information that will be
helpful for problem solving. It is important here to clarify exactly what is known and what
needs to be known. Extensive information gathering should identify alternative courses
of action, as well anticipated consequences.
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The process of evaluating alternatives often benefits from stakeholder analysis. Key
stakeholders in the problem should be identified, and the effects of possible courses of
action on each of them should be considered. Another useful approach for the
evaluation of alternatives is a cost-benefit analysis, the comparison of what an
alternative will cost in relation to the expected benefits. At a minimum, the benefits of an
alternative should be greater than its costs. Typical criteria for evaluating alternatives
include the following:
y Benefits:What are the benefits of using the alternative to solve a performance
deficiency or take advantage of an opportunity?
y Costs: What are the costs of implementing the alternative, including resource
investments as well as potential negative side effects?
y Timeliness: How fast will the benefits occur and a positive impact be achieved?
y Acceptability: To what extent will the alternative be accepted and supported by
those who must work with it?
y Ethicalsoundness: How well does the alternative meet acceptable ethical criteria
in the eyes of the various stakeholders?
STEP 3 DECIDE ON A PREFERRED COURSE OF ACTION
This is the point of choice, where an actual decision is made to select a preferred
course of action. Just how this is done and by whom must be successfully resolved in
each problem situation.
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The classical decision model views the manager as acting rationally in a certain
world. Here, the manager faces a clearly defined problem and knows all possible action
alternatives as well as their consequences. As a result, he or she makes an optimizing
decision that gives the absolute best solution to the problem. The classical approach is
a rational model that assumes perfect information is available for decision making. The
behavioural decision model, accordingly, assumes that people act only in terms of
what they perceive about a given situation. Because such perceptions are frequently
imperfect, the decision maker has only partial knowledge about the available action
alternatives and their consequences. Consequently, the first alternative that appears
give a satisfactory resolution of the problem is likely to be chosen.
STEP 4 IMPLEMENT THE DECISION
Once a preferred solution is chosen, actions must be taken to fully implement it. Nothing
new can or will happen unless action is taken to actually solve the problem. Managers
not only need the determination and creativity to arrive at a decision, they also need the
ability and willingness to implement it.
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