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Edited by

John Shi, Ph.D.

Functional FoodIngredients andNutraceuticals

Processing Technologies

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Functional food ingredients and nutraceuticals : processing technologies / edited by John Shi.

p. cm. ‑‑ (Functional foods & nutraceuticals series ; 9)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0‑8493‑2441‑6 (alk. paper)1. Functional foods. I. Shi, John. II. Series.

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Foreword

The linkages between diet and health, and their economic implications, continue to beelucidated and to gain public acceptance as credible science in this fascinating field ofstudy. Knowledge of the specific contributions that functional foods, bioactive com-pounds, and nutraceuticals make to our health has grown immensely over the pastdecade. So, too, has the desire of consumers to purchase and integrate these materialsinto healthful diets, and for mainstream retail chains to give these products lucrativeshelf space increased. To effectively disseminate this knowledge and achieve broadpublic benefit from this work, it is essential that emerging factual information in thescientific literature be distilled, assembled, and consolidated into more concise commu-nications, as presented here, that can be put into action throughout the food continuum.

This ninth volume in the CRC Press Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals Series,edited by Dr. G. Mazza (AAFC-PARC, Summerland, BC), continues the work of theearlier volumes and moves farther along the continuum to address the most recentadvances in food engineering and processing. These advances hold the greatest promisefor the immediate future to achieve stable, high-volume production of functional foodand nutraceutical products of defined and reliable composition, thereby fostering thehealth and economic benefits that could ensue. Dr. John Shi, an internationally well-known scientist in this field, and coeditor of an earlier volume of the series, steps outindependently to take the role of editor as well as contributing author on this volume.The team of contributing authors, representing five continents, reflects the internationaldistribution of interest and expertise on this topic, and the essential widespread collab-oration that is required to generate advances most effectively.

In 16 chapters, this volume provides a sequential study of key factors in thepreparation of functional foods and nutraceuticals, from the selection of sourcesthrough the extraction, purification, decontamination, packaging, and preservationof a variety of products in these categories. Where the earlier volumes focused onan array of products and their biochemical constituents, this volume is processoriented, although it touches on a variety of products as well as their characteristicsand how individual properties influence the suitability of the processes described.

The authors and editor have done a masterful job and are to be congratulatedfor their success in selecting the most significant issues and the most promisingopportunities for presentation in this enlightening publication. The dissemination ofthe information this volume contains will accelerate the integration of theseapproaches and technologies into the production processes of tomorrow.

This book will be an excellent resource for students of food science, life sciences,as well as food industry professionals interested in functional foods.

Yvon Martel, Ph.D.

A/Assistant Deputy MinisterAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada

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Preface

People from North America and the European community are committing more timeand effort to have greater control over their health by exploring alternative or herbalmedicines and natural health products for disease prevention and better health. Therehas been a growing interest in the role of special micronutrients (phytochemicals)on human health and well-being. The relationships among special food components,their physiological functionality, and health benefits have been revealed progres-sively in the recent years. Functional foods contain significant levels of naturalextracts, concentrates, or natural ingredients that are extracted from natural sources.These can reduce current healthcare costs by health improvement and disease pre-vention. During the past decade, the trend of functional food consumption wasconsumer driven. It also serves the needs of the aging population that wants greatercontrol over their health and well-being. This trend is expected to continue, and asa result, scientific information on all aspects of functional foods is vital to theadvancement of this emerging sector. The increase in consumer demand for func-tional foods has prompted international health organizations and government agen-cies to develop specific guidelines for their production and use. The scientificcommunity must, therefore, utilize modern technologies to ensure efficacy and safetyin the manufacturing of functional foods.

Manufacturers are always eager to fulfill the consumer’s desire for functionalfood products that could be used to promote health. In order to provide a betterunderstanding and to disseminate the latest developments in this rapidly expandingfield, this ninth volume of the CRC Press Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals BookSeries,

Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: Processing Technologies,

was devel-oped. Sixteen chapters in this book cover a broad spectrum of functional foods frombiological material, applications of engineering techniques in functional food pro-duction, process engineering and modeling, functional food bioavailability, to prod-uct quality. The emphasis is on (1) applications of engineering techniques such ashigh pressure, supercritical fluid, membrane, microencapsulation, and moleculardistillation in the processing of functional foods; (2) stability of bioactive compo-nents and antioxidative properties during processing and shelf life; (3) improvementin bioavailability of bioactive components by physical and chemical methods; and(4) mechanisms of antioxidant action and clinical and epidemiological evidence offunctionality.

The contributing authors are international experts in their respective fields, andI am grateful to each and every one of them for their thoughtfulness in contributionsto this book. This book will be of interest to a wide spectrum of professionals fromfood scientists and technologists, nutritionists, biochemists, and engineers to entre-preneurs worldwide. It will also serve as a unique reference for food scientists forthe R&D departments of food companies that are working with functional foods

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and ingredients. Additionally, it will serve as a source of basic information for collegeand university students majoring in food science and technology, food processing,and engineering. Readers will obtain sound scientific knowledge of engineeringtechniques and the quality of functional foods and nutraceuticals.

John Shi, Ph.D.

Editor

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Series Editor’s Preface

The Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals Book Series, launched in 1998, was devel-oped to provide a timely and comprehensive treatment of the emerging science andtechnology of functional foods and nutraceuticals which are shown to play a role inpreventing or delaying the onset of diseases, especially chronic diseases. The firsteight volumes in the series,

Functional Foods: Biochemical and Processing Aspects,Volumes 1 and 2

;

Herbs, Botanicals and Teas

;

Methods of Analysis for FunctionalFoods and Nutraceuticals

;

Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods

;

Handbook ofFunctional Dairy Products

;

Handbook of Functional Lipids

;

and

Dictionary ofFunctional Foods and Nutraceuticals,

have received broad acceptance by food,nutrition, and health professionals.

The latest volume,

Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

:

Processing Technol-ogies

, edited by Dr. John Shi, addresses the most recent advances in processingtechnologies for functional food ingredients and nutraceuticals.

Distinctive featuresof this book include in-depth treatments of the peer-reviewed literature on super-critical fluid extraction, pressurized low polarity water extraction, membrane sepa-ration, distillation, dehydration, food pasteurization, and sterilization with high pres-sure, microencapsulation of omega-3 fatty acids, and bioprocessing. Other topicsaddressed include

microbial modeling for bioreactor design, biochemical reactionsin supercritical fluids, modeling of supercritical fluid extraction of plant material,stability of lycopene during processing, functional foods packaging, fruits with highantioxidant activity, and biological antioxidation mechanisms quenching of perox-ynitrite.

The book contains 16 excellent chapters written by 32 international expertsat the forefront of functional food and nutraceutical science and technology. It ishoped that the effort will be beneficial to process engineers; food, nutrition, andhealth practitioners; and students, researchers, and entrepreneurs in industry, gov-ernment, and university laboratories.

Earlier volumes in the series addressed a range of topics and include:

Functional Foods: Biochemical and Processing Aspects, Volume 1

, the firstvolume of the series, edited by G. Mazza, is a bestseller, and is devoted to functionalfood products from oats, wheat, rice, flaxseed, mustard, fruits, vegetables, fish, anddairy products. In

Volume 2

, edited by Drs. John Shi, G. Mazza, and Marc Le Maguer,the focus is on the latest developments in the chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology,epidemiology, and engineering of tocopherols and tocotrienols from oil and cerealgrain, isoflavones from soybeans and soy foods, flavonoids from berries and grapes,lycopene from tomatoes, limonene from citrus, phenolic diterpenes from rosemaryand sage, organosulfur constitutes from garlic, phytochemicals from echinacea,pectin from fruit, and omega-3 fatty acids and docosahexaenoic acid from flaxseedand fish products.

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The book

Herbs, Botanicals and Teas,

edited by Drs. G. Mazza and Dave Oomah,provides an in-depth literature review of the scientific and technical information onthe chemical, pharmacological, epidemiological, and clinical aspects of garlic, gin-seng, Echinacea, ginger, fenugreek, St. John’s wort, ginkgo biloba, kava kava,goldenseal, saw palmetto, valerian, evening primrose, liquorice, bilberries and blue-berries, and green and black teas. The book, which is superbly referenced, alsocontains chapters on international regulations and quality assurance and control forthe herbal and tea industry.

The volume

Methods of Analysis for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals,

edited by Dr. W. Jeffrey Hurst, presents advanced methods of analysis for caro-tenoids, phytoestrogens, chlorophylls, anthocyanins, amino acids, fatty acids, fla-vonoids, water-soluble vitamins, and carbohydrates.

The fifth volume of the series,

Handbook of Fermented Functional Foods

, editedby Dr. Edward R. Farnworth, provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art treatmentof the scientific and technological information on the production of fermented foods,the microorganisms involved, the changes in composition that occur during fermen-tation and, most importantly, the effects of these foods and their active ingredientson human health.

The

Handbook of Functional Dairy Products,

edited by Drs. Colette Shortt andJohn O’Brien, contains outstanding chapters dealing with probiotic lactobacilli andbifidobacteria, lactose hydrolyzed products, trans-galactooligosaccharides as prebi-otics, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and its antiatherogenic potential and inhibitoryeffects on chemically induced tumors, immuno-enhancing properties of milk com-ponents and probiotics, and calcium and iron fortification of dairy products.

On lipids, we have the volume,

Handbook of Functional Lipids

, edited byProfessor Casimir C. Akoh, which presents up-to-date information on all majorscientific and technological aspects of functional lipids, including isolation, produc-tion, and concentration of functional lipids; lipids for food functionality; lipids withhealth and nutritional functionality; and the role of biotechnology for functionallipids.

Finally, the

Dictionary of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals,

written by N.A. Michael Eskin and Snait Tamir, is essentially a mini-encyclopedia that providesthe reader with valuable and up-to-date information on the occurrence, chemistry,and biological activity/efficacy of 480 functional foods and nutraceuticals. Theinformation is based solely on peer-reviewed literature, and it is presented alpha-betically in a clear and concise manner.

G. Mazza, Ph.D., FCIFST

Series Editor

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Acknowledgments

This book is a product of collaborative efforts, and a number of scientists gave theirvaluable time to review the manuscripts. The editor is indebted to their contributionsand support that improved this book significantly. The reviewers include Dr. IreneoKikic (University of Trieste, Italy); Dr. Thomas Gamse (Graz University of Tech-nology, Austria); Drs. Yukio Kakuda, Gauri S. Mittal, and Warrer Stiver (Universityof Guelph, Canada); Drs. Selma Guigard and Marleny Saldana (University ofAlberta, Canada); Dr. Paulyn Appah (Food Development Centre, Manitoba, Canada);and Drs. Giuseppe Mazza, Christopher Young, and Lamin S. Kassama (Agricultureand Agri-Food Canada).

The editor also would like to express appreciation to Dr. Yvon Martel (A/Assis-tant Deputy Minister, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) for his kind preparationof the foreword for this book; and to Drs. John Lynch (Science Director) and MariaNazarowec-White (Program Coordinator) for their help and support. The editor alsowishes to acknowledge the encouragement and help from Dr. Jerry King (Los AlamosNational Laboratory, Chemistry Division, United States); Dr. Asbjørn Gildberg (Nor-wegian Institute of Fishery and Aquaculture, Norway); Drs. Amparo Chiralt andPedro Fito (Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain); Drs. Albert Ibarz and JoaquinGiner Segui (University of Lleida, Spain); Dr. Sam K. C. Chang (North Dakota StateUniversity, United States); Dr. James H. May (University of Hawaii at Manoa, UnitedStates); Dr. Yueming Jiang (South China Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy ofSciences, China); Dr. Eleanor Riemer, Ms. Susan Lee, and Ms. Patricia Roberson(CRC/Taylor & Francis) for their support and encouragement in the preparation ofthe book proposal and manuscript.

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Editor

Dr. John Shi

is a senior research scientist in the Federal Department of Agricultureand Agri-Food Canada, and is also an adjunct professor of food engineering, at theSchool of Engineering, University of Guelph. He is co-editor of two books,

Func-tional Foods II – Biochemical and Processing Aspects,

and

Asian Functional Foods

,published by CRC Press, now Taylor & Francis. He graduated from Zhejiang Uni-versity, China, earned a Masters degree in 1985, and Ph.D. in 1994 from PolytechnicUniversity of Valencia, Spain. Dr. Shi is an international editor of the

Journal ofFood Science and Nutrition

and

Nutraceuticals and Foods

, and also a member ofthe editorial boards of the

Journal of Medicinal Foods

and

Journal of Agriculture,Food and Environment

.As a post-doctoral fellow, he conducted research at North Dakota State Univer-

sity, USA; and as visiting professor he conducted international collaborative researchat the Norwegian Institute of Fishery and Aquaculture, Norway, and at LleidaUniversity, Spain. He was keynote speaker at a number of international conferencesin the United States, Canada, Japan, China, Korea, Thailand, Spain, and Colombia.He has published more than ninety research papers in international scientific journalsand twenty book chapters. His current research interests focus on processing tech-nologies to separate health-promoting components from natural products and todevelop functional foods.

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Contributors

Mary Ann Augustin, Ph.D.

Science ManagerFood Chemistry and Formulation

ScienceFood Science AustraliaVictoria, Australia

Alberto Bertucco, Ph.D.

ProfessorInstitute of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of PadovaPadova, Italy

Mércia de Fátima M. Bettini, Ph.D.

Technical Director of Flavor Tec - Aromas de Frutas Ltda

Pindorama, Brazil

Juan Eduardo Cacace, M.S.

Visiting Research EngineerPacific Agri-Food Research CenterAgriculture and Agri-Food CanadaSummerland, BC, Canada

Feng Chen, Ph.D.

Associate ProfessorDepartment of Food Science and

Human NutritionClemson UniversityClemson, SC, United States

Louise Deschênes, Ph.D.

Research ScientistFood Research and Development

CentreAgriculture and Agri-Food CanadaSt. Hyacinthe, QC, Canada

Caye M. Drapcho, Ph.D.

Associate ProfessorDepartment of Biosystems

EngineeringClemson UniversityClemson, SC, United States

Hideo Etoh, Ph.D.

ProfessorFaculty of Agriculture Shizuoka UniversityShizuoka, Japan

Maja Habulin, Ph.D.

Associate ProfessorFaculty of Chemistry and Chemical

EngineeringUniversity of MariborMaribor, Slovenia

Yueming Jiang, Ph.D.

ProfessorSouth China Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou, China

Yukio Kakuda, Ph.D.

ProfessorDepartment of Food Science University of Guelph Guelph, ON, Canada

Lamin S. Kassama, Ph.D.

Post-doctoral Research FellowGuelph Food Research Centre Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaGuelph, ON, Canada

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Zeljkoˇ Knez, Ph.D.

Professor Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical


Aditya Kulkarni, M.S.

Research AssistantFaculty of Agriculture Shizuoka UniversityShizuoka, Japan

Ashwani Kumar, Ph.D.

Research ScientistInstitute for Chemical Process and

Environmental TechnologyNational Research Council of CanadaOttawa, ON, Canada

Chiara G. Laudani, Ph.D.



Giuseppe Mazza, Ph.D., FCIFST

Principal Research ScientistPacific Agri-Food Research CenterAgriculture and Agri-Food CanadaSummerland, BC, Canada

Gauri S. Mittal, Ph.D.

ProfessorSchool of Engineering University of Guelph Guelph, ON, Canada

Valérie Orsat, Ph.D.

Research EngineerBioresource Engineering DepartmentMacdonald Campus of

McGill UniversitySte-Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada

Mateja ˇPrimozic,ˇ Ph.D.


Engineering Laboratory for Separation ProcessesUniversity of Maribor Maribor, Slovenia

G. S. Vijaya Raghavan, Ph.D.

ProfessorBioresource Engineering

DepartmentMacdonald Campus of

McGill UniversitySte-Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada

Luz Sanguansri, Ph.D.

Research ScientistFood Science Australia Victoria, Australia

John Shi, Ph.D.

Research ScientistGuelph Food Research Centre Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaGuelph, ON, Canada

Helena Sovová, Ph.D.

ProfessorInstitute of Chemical Process

FundamentalsAcademy of Sciences of the Czech

RepublicPrague, Czech Republic

Sara Spilimbergo, Ph.D.

ProfessorDepartment of Materials Engineering

and Industrial TechnologiesFaculty of EngineeringUniversity of TrentoTrento, Italy

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Terry H. Walker, Ph.D.

Associate ProfessorDepartment of Biosystems EngineeringClemson UniversityClemson, SC, United States

Shiow Y. Wang, Ph.D.

Plant Physiologist/BiochemistFruit LaboratoryARS-USDABeltsville, MD, United States

Xiaoqin Zhou, M.S.

Professional EngineerDepartment of Chemical Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, ON, Canada

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Table of Contents

PART I

Supercritical Fluid Extraction Technology

Chapter 1

Supercritical Fluid Technology for Extraction of Bioactive Components ...............3

John Shi, Lamin S. Kassama, and Yukio Kakuda

Chapter 2

Solubility of Food Components and Product Recovery in the Supercritical Fluid Separation Process....................................................................45

John Shi and Xiaoqin Zhou

Chapter 3

Modeling of Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Bioactives from Plant Materials .........................................................................................................75

Helena Sovová

Chapter 4

Biochemical Reactions in Supercritical Fluids .....................................................111

Zeljkoˇ Knez, Chiara G. Laudani, Maja Habulin, Mateja ˇPrimozic

PART II

Pressurized Low Polarity Water Extraction, Membrane Separation, Distillation, and Dehydration Technologies

Chapter 5

Pressurized Low Polarity Water Extraction of Biologically Active Compounds from Plant Products ..........................................................................135

Juan Eduardo Cacace and Giuseppe Mazza

Chapter 6

Purification of Orange Peel Oil and Oil Phase by Vacuum Distillation ..............157

Mércia de Fátima M. Bettini

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Chapter 7

Dehydration Technologies to Retain Bioactive Components ...............................173

Valérie Orsat and G. S. Vijaya Raghavan

Chapter 8

Membrane Separation Technology in Processing Bioactive Components ...........193

Ashwani Kumar

PART III

Bioprocessing Technology

Chapter 9

Bioprocessing Technology for Production of Nutraceutical Compounds ............211

Terry H. Walker, Caye M. Drapcho, and Feng Chen

Chapter 10

Microbial Modeling as Basis for Bioreactor Design for Nutraceutical Production .......................................................................................237

Caye M. Drapcho

PART IV

Preservation and Packaging Technologies

Chapter 11

Food Pasteurization and Sterilization with High Pressure ...................................269

Alberto Bertucco and Sara Spilimbergo

Chapter 12

Microencapsulation and Delivery of Omega-3 Fatty Acids .................................297

Luz Sanguansri and Mary Ann Augustin

Chapter 13

Packaging Technologies of Functional Foods.......................................................329

Louise Deschênes

PART V

Antioxidant Properties and Material

Chapter 14

Biological Antioxidation Mechanisms: Quenching of Peroxynitrite ...................341

Aditya Kulkarni and Hideo Etoh

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Chapter 15

Stability of Lycopene During Food Processing ....................................................353

John Shi, Yukio Kakuda, Yueming Jiang, and Gauri S. Mittal

Chapter 16

Fruits with High Antioxidant Activity as Functional Foods ................................371

Shiow Y. Wang

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