2724 04 Sicilia Rec02 (Inglés) · PDF filephase of the jihad led in Sicily by Asad Ibn al-Furat, after four years of an inconclusive military campaign which had brought the Muslim

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San Giovanni degliEremiti, cupola andpresbyteral area,Palermo.

ITINERARY II

Testimonies of the Arabic AgeScientific Committee

First day

II.1 PALERMOII.1.a Cappella dell’Incoronata – Hypostyle HallII.1.b San Giovanni degli Eremiti – Remains of the Mosque, Church, Cemetery and CloisterII.1.c Qanat (inside the Psychiatric Hospital)

Qanats of the Conca d’Oro

of the Dar al-Islam) to the role of capital ofthe Norman county of “Trinacria” (1072-1130) and then, to the prestigious seat ofthe crown of the Kingdom of Sicily. Theoccupation in 831 by Muslim troops, sentto Sicily by Ziyadat Allah followed a longsiege (lasting almost a year), which causedthe decimation of the population. Thisevent became integrated into the firstphase of the jihad led in Sicily by Asad Ibnal-Furat, after four years of an inconclusivemilitary campaign which had brought theMuslim contingent as far as the gates ofSyracuse (following the volteface to thedetriment of Eufemio and his indepen-dence faction). But then, disastrously, theinvading forces were obliged to fall backonto the stronghold of Mazara (the firstimportant Sicilian city to become Muslim),leaving the isolated fortress of Mineo at themercy of a bloody siege.The occupation of Palermo was the firstsign of recovery, which was to carry for-ward Muslim Banners in an irresistible ad-vance towards the eastern provinces of theisland, ending victoriously in 965 with thefall of Rometta. After the heroic resistanceof the last homes of Christian groups fromthe mountains in 1072, the retaking pos-session of Palermo by the Normans wasrecognised as a Christian reconquest bythe majority of the population, who, infact, took part in the “freeing” of the city,despite 240 years of Muslim domination.Christianity survived, despite the impor-tant position achieved by Palermo duringthe Moslem era, the preferred city in East-ern Sicily, whether for strategic-logisticalmotives (being less exposed to the at-tempts at reconquest from the sea by theByzantine fleets) or because the inhabi-

The temporal span in which Palermo be-came involved in the matter of the spreadof Islam in the Mediterranean ranged from831 to 1072. Two dramatic events markedthe beginning and the end of the period.The first, following Muslim occupation,started the slow process of overcoming thesituation of a peripheric city-emporium,or the trading centre of the Byzantine em-pire, followed by its transformation intothe main city of the Siqilliya. The secondevent marks the passage of the state of ami-ral metropolis (among the most substantial

Reconstruction of themap of Palermo inthe Arabic age(Di Giovanni,1889-1890).

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ITINERARY II Testimonies of the Arabic Age

San Giovanni degliEremiti, cloister andcupolas of the church,Palermo.

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tants (the few surviving locals and themany who had possibly moved from thecountryside of Val di Mazara), not beingHellenic either by tradition or by lan-guage, were absolutely free from the feel-ing of identity with the Byzantine world.Contrary to other towns of Sicily, whichhad suffered irreparable destruction andannihilating or radical removal of the localpopulation during the Muslim conquest(as in the case with Syracuse, Taormina,Enna and Agrigento), Palermo had bene-fited from the positions of privilege whichthe Muslims reserved for those who, afterunsubduable acts of resistance, had capit-ulated on certain terms. Nevertheless, inPalermo also, as in the territory sur-rounding (the Conca d’Oro), the juridicalstate of the Christians under Muslim dom-ination, contrary to the proverbialclemency, freedom and tolerance whichhad been handed down (by chroniclers,travellers of the period, not a few modern

scholars as well as 19th-century historians)the population was subject to limitations,even if purely formal, especially in the lastcentury of the so-called Arab era in Sicily.It is not surprising, therefore, that in1072, Roberto il Guiscardo and hisbrother Ruggero succeeded in conquer-ing the “Arabic citadel” of Palermo, aftera siege of five months which had seen theMuslim contingent of the amiral capitalunder pressure from two sides: external-ly by the action of the Norman army andwithin, made up of Christian inhabitantsfor whom the discriminatory tolerancehad by now had its day. The final conclu-sion of the siege was ensured thanks to aperfectly co-ordinated action: while Rug-gero accomplished a striking diversionarymanoeuvre, launching an attack with themain part of the army on the walls ofGalca (in the “old city”, on the fortifiedpromontory on which the Norman Palacewas to be built) enforcing the Muslims to

perimeter is certainly revealing of a cli-mate anything but peaceful. The al-Khal-isa, which had given its name to the KalsaQuarter, at one time extending from thepresent-day Piazza Marina to the Bastionedello Spasimo, had been built in a veryshort time from 937, within the frame ofrepressive actions undertaken to the harmof the inhabitants of the Christian faithbut also of dissident Muslim factions dur-ing the governorship of the Amir KhalilIbn Ishaq. The old city having been aban-doned (commensurate with the area ofthe Piazza della Vittoria and the whole ur-ban sector formed by the complex of theArchbishop’s Palace and the military quar-ter of San Giacomo) the Muslims retainedcontrol of the castrum on the ruins ofwhich the Normans built their royalpalace.More than a century after the conquest ofPalermo, the Muslims were forced tohide within a fortified town, strategicallyplaced near to the escape-route by sea;however, they consisted of not more thana considerable minority, to which wereadded the communities in productive set-tlements in the countryside surroundingthe city, these also being fortified (the ma-hals). The inhabitants of Balarmu duringthe last phase of Islamic domination sub-stantially lived in three sectors carved outby the riverbeds of the two courses of theKemonia (al-Wadi al-Satawi) and Papire-to (Pepyritus). Between these stood thepromontory, or Piede Fenicio (“Phoeni-cian Foot”, extending from the NormanPalace as far as the present-day crossingbetween Via Roma and Corso VittorioEmanuele), on which had been built theancient Panormus, which during the time

concentrate there the major part of theirbest troops, Roberto, with a detachmentof selected troops, exploited a surprise el-ement by penetrating the southern forti-fied access, which was to be re-baptisedthe “Porta della Victoria” (“Victory Gate”,today enclosed within the walls of theChurch of Santa Maria della Vittoria inPiazza Spasimo).The very existence of al-Khalisa or of theArab citadel with a quadrangular shaped

San Giovanni degliEremiti, detail of thetransition elements ofa cupola, Palermo.

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of the Arabs included two Quarters: al-Khalqa or Galca (formerly Paleopolis) andal-Qasr al-Qadim (formerly Neapolis). Tothe south of Kemonia (or present-day ViaCastro) was the village of al-Hara al-Jadi-da, separated from the sea by the al-Khal-isa. To the north of the effluent from themarsh of the Papireto, which lappedagainst the walls of the Paleopolis (whosenorthern rim ran parallel with the routeof Via Celso), the Quarter known as theHarat al-Saqaliba stretched out as far asthe present day Via Mura di S. Vito, Pi-azza G. Verdi and Via S. Spinuzza.Historical sources estimate a populationof around 300,000 (slightly less possibly);it was however a considerable figure forthe period, such as to ensure that Paler-mo was among the biggest and most im-portant cities of the Mediterranean, oftencompared with generous praise, to thegrandeur and the splendours of Cordova.The population, however, having adaptedin the mildest of ways to the rules of theQur’an must have made their own not in-distinct character of the Islamic world ofwhich it was now formed an integralpart: from the way of comportment andliving to figurative and literary culture,from the manner of dressing to the tech-nicalities of cultivation, from administra-tive organisation to toponymy, from artis-tic work to the culinary arts. One sector,this last, in which the roots of Islamic cul-ture showed themselves to be particular-ly enduring, to the extent of being classi-fied during the positivist period, areamong the most interesting aspects ofpopular local tradition. Pastry has a placeof honour. Among the most permanentone of the most typical of Muslim culture

is the use of sugar to sweeten ricotta. Itproduces a processed cream, seasoned ornot, which makes a base for some of themost characteristic Sicilian sweets, main-ly emanating from Palermo. Such is thecase of the cassata, true ephemeral “ar-chitecture” the tradition of which datesback to 998, and whose name is of Ara-bic origin, while the origin of cannolo isfrom Caltanisetta, this also being one ofthose sweets, a myth of Sicilian cooking,which uses processed ricotta.Islamic religious expansion played littlepart in the involvement of religion of theSicilians. Many became converted; butthey must mainly have been formal actsto withdraw from the limitations and trib-utes imposed on the Christians. Only fe-male descendants born from marriagesbetween non-coreligionists could be ed-ucated in the Christian religion; but nogreat movement of pilgrimage to Meccaever seems to have left Palermo, as wasprobably the case for the rest of Sicily. IbnHawqal, who came from the refined buttoo “observant” Baghdad, did not showparticular willingness for the general cli-mate of religious relaxation in the amiral

Cappelladell’Incoronata,plan, Palermo.

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equally open to the faithful among thepublic) the property of notables and richcity merchants and about 200 wealthyfamilies who lived in the fortified hamletssurrounding the urban centre.In this, the urban centre, the heights ofthe buildings were adapted to follow theorographic outline of the site, highlight-ing the promontory of the ancient Panor-mus at the centre, and emerging in rela-tion to the external quarters from whichit was well separated by the presence oftwo river beds of the torrential Kemonia,and the marshy Papireto. These in effect(during the whole of the Arabic period)hindered the possibility of building on aconsiderable part of the “internal” terri-tory of the urban conglomerate.Ibn Hawqal described Palermo in 977 asconsisting of five clearly defined quarters.Above, the true city with its fortificationlived in by merchants and called al-Qasr(“the castle”, cassaro as it is still called to-day); nearer the sea the al-Khalisa (“theelected one”, built in 937 on the territo-ry the other side of the river Maltempo,the Kemonia), this also fortified, seat ofthe amir and his court, two baths, amosque for his own use, prisons, the ar-senal, the diwan; in the area of the port,the Harat al-Saqaliba (“Slaves’ Quarter”to the north), the most populous andrichest in water; then the Harat al-Masjid(“Mosque Quarter”), being large and withan even bigger mosque, capable of con-taining 7,000 faithful, but without run-ning water and only provided with wells;the al-Hara al-Jadida (“New Quarter”, tothe south) separated from that of themosque by markets, and frequented bytravelling oil salesmen.

capital of the island, and between 972 and973 registered not without some concernthese and other substantial derogationsfrom the precepts of Islam; further, thenon-Muslim Sicilians, apart from avoid-ing solemn Friday Prayers drank wine“shamelessly” while the mu‘allimun tend-ed to evade the theological implicationsof their educational mandate and proba-bly to follow the more lucrative aspectsof their profession.Israelites and Christians (while being sec-ond in net majority) benefited from aregime of tolerance, nothing more. Thenumber of 300 mosques handed down tous could prove to be tendentious, almostso as to reveal Islamic prevalence accord-ing to Ibn Hawqal: this number wouldprobably include the private mosques(normally of very modest dimensions but

San Giovanni degliEremiti, stuccotransenna of thewindow, first half13th century(Gabrieli, Scerrato,1979).

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Outside the fortified walls the differenttrades were exercised and there lived tai-lors, armourers, boilermakers; butchers,in great numbers, were inside the walls.Many adventurers stayed in the ribat onthe seashore.The Jewish Quarter (the Harat al-Yahud,which in 1172 could reckon a populationof 1,500 individuals, according to the tes-timony of the Spanish Jew Benjamín deTudela) was instead in the depth of de-pression, designated by the meanderingKemonia, immediately outside the Portadi Ferro (“Iron Gate”) of the walls of theqasr (in an area now traversed by ViaMaqueda, extended to include the cur-rent Via Ponticello and Via Calderai). Theexpansion beyond the two riverbeds ofthe Kemonia and the Papireto, with theexception of the al-Khalisa appeared,therefore, as a perimetrical rabad, but notnecessarily well fortified. On the con-trary, the ancient Panormus was wellfortified. The perimeter walls of thepromontory during the Arabic era werefurther fortified and allocated nine gates.From the western margin of the northernwall of the Galca (not far from present-day Corso Alberto Amadeo) and follow-ing in an easterly direction as far as theBab al-Bahr (Gate of the Sea) whichlinked the qasr to the harbour (Cala) therewere, in the following order: the Bab al-Ruta (Gate of Rota or Roda, which tookits name from a large underwater spring,activating a system of mills and emergedjust near the gate in the walled part of theGalca, at one time near the present-dayPiazza Domenico Peranni); the Gate ofAbu al-Hasan; the Bab al-Shifa’ (from thename of the spring ‘Ayn al-Shifa’ which

rose nearby). The Bab al-Bahr (Gate of theSea) fell back to the surroundings of thejunction of present-day Via Roma and ViaVittorio Emanuele, formerly the point ofconvergence of the Kemonia and the Pa-pireto in the Cala, at that time much fur-ther back in relation to the current coast-line. Proceeding westwards as far as theBab al-Abna’ (Gate of the Young Men, andconnected to the castle of the Galca),there opened within the walls of thesouthern perimeter: the gate connectingthe qasr with the quarters of Abu Himaz(which later became the Fieravecchia) alsobuilt by Abu al-Hasan and presumed to benear present-day Via Discesa dei Guidiciand on a level with the Via degli Sciop-pettieri; Bab al-Hadid (Gate of Iron), out-side which Harat al-Yahud had grown; Babal-Sudan which it is presumed was next tothe district of the Blacksmiths.Included within the new urban structure,the old Panormus contained a rich market,which ran from west to east and called al-

Plaque in marblewith a trilingualinscription, 1049,Museum of IslamicArt, Zisa, Palermo.

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ry and conveying the water to the city.Also essential was the realisation of har-bour and fortification works. Palermo isundoubtedly unique among the Siciliancities in having had a strong recovery in theArabic period; the flourishing of a quali-fied artistic industry linked to the birth ofa craftsmen class was, undoubtedly, suchan important factor as to induce the Al-tavillas to institute a royal manufacture (theTiraz), and in order to develop it they alsorecruited workers from Ifriqiya. Interest-ing collections of documents, finds and ob-jects in common use, of Islamic, or Sicil-ian fabrication or of neither (whether ofthe period of the Arab occupation or lat-er), are preserved in the ArchaeologicalMuseum, in the Treasury of the Cathedraland in the Cappella Palatina.However, in this historic phase the futurematurity of an original architectonic andartistic culture in Sicily is not yet pre-dictable.In Palermo in a heterogeneous urbanconglomerate, various different ethnic

samt (“the file”) was entirely paved withstone. It was a trading street with varioustypes of merchandise, identified by the oldlongitudinal road layout of the Neapolis,later rectified, finally in 1575 taking thename of Via Toledo (or more commonlyCassaro, now Via Vittorio Emanuele).Al-Idrisi was to write in the middle of the12th century that Palermo “had buildings ofsuch beauty that travellers would start walking[pulled by the] fame of the [marvels that wereoffered there by] the architecture” (trans. M.Amari, 1854-1868). Reference was how-ever being made to the city in large partrebuilt by Ruggero II; it is difficult to assesswith any certainty what had remained ofthe Arabic period, or better, what had tru-ly been realised ex novo during the era ofthe Kalbites. Also difficult to assess is whatthe long Byzantine era had transmitted oftheir own culture and of Roman inheri-tance to the Muslims, the new dominators.It is unquestionable that during the Arabicera there was an undertaking of consider-able hydraulic works crossing the territo-

G. Patricolo, “Entry ofthe Count Ruggero inPalermo”, first half19th century, PalazzoReale, Palermo(Calandra et alii,1991).

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groups lived under discriminatory con-ditions: minorities descended from thePersians and Greeks of the Byzantine era,but also Berbers, Andalusians and peoplefrom the Maghreb from the time of theconquest and successive waves of immi-gration from Ifriqiya, not necessarily inaccordance with the dominant class. Thisoperated at a decision-making level, butwas subordinated to the authority of thewali, with an assembly (jama‘a) of elect-ed members whose meetings generallytook place in Palermo and more rarely,in Agrigento. Not infrequently the jama‘aand wali disagreed; a condition whichwas certainly revelatory of an apprecia-ble exercise of government, which, how-ever, was not exempt from institutionaldegeneration, as is shown by the distur-bances during the twilight years of theArabic era in Sicily.Contrary to the knowledge of adminis-trative order and in the habits of life, thearchitectonic and artistic traces of this pe-riod, therefore, are somewhat fragmen-tary, either because evidence has mainlybeen destroyed (whether during the warwith the Normans or as a result of laterevents), or removed in the case of worksof art and precious objects, or because theAltavillas and their dignitaries effectedconsiderable changes to the buildings andhydraulic works already in existence atthe time of their arrival.Substantial elements from the Islamicperiod survive, however, in the histori-cal centre of Palermo. Apart from thebuilding work, and a good part of thebodies of the Palace of Maredolce and ofSan Giovanni dei Lebbrosi, there are alsoremains and evidence of excavations at

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Silk fabric, royalmanufacture, 12th

century (Sicily),Victoria and AlbertMuseum, London.

the Palazzo Reale and in the nearby com-plex of San Giovanni degli Eremiti,where a mosque was found. Equally in-teresting are the remains of a hypostyleroom near the Loggia dell‘Incoron-azione, which the Porta Della Vittoria(Gate of Victory) absorbed from the Or-atory of the Bianchi.A special itinerary follows the streets andmarkets of the ancient Arab Quarters ofPalermo that, completely transformed bythe late Middle Ages, have still retainedthe original road network.

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ITINERARY II Testimonies of the Arabic AgePalermo

II.I PALERMO

II.1.a Cappella dell’Incoronata –Hypostyle Hall

Leave the car at Piazza Della Vittoria. Walkalong Corso Vittorio Emanuele, turn left intoVia M. Bonelli and get to the junction withVia dell’ Incoronazione, where the monumentis located.Under restoration during preparation of thiscatalogue.

The Cappella dell’Incoronata rises up be-hind the Cathedral, almost aligned withthe façade of the narthex. The presentconfiguration results in the joining of theCappella di Santa Maria dell’Incoronataand a portico leaning against its westernside, known as the Loggia dell’Incoron-azione. The chapel (dating from sometime after 1130) is preceded by a pronaos,which leads into an aula with a singleapse. The remains relative to the bases ofthe columns and pillars enclosed in thewalls of the chapel of Santa Maria l’In-coronata, in particular in the area of thepronaos and the apse, have led to the be-lief that structures of the Aghlabite era(9th century) probably belonging to thegreat mosque obtain with modificationsof the ancient Byzantine church, in par-ticular a hypostyle room 18 m. long and3.8 m. wide. (Bellafiore, 1990).The portico, already completed with abalustrade, was altered in 1591 so as tobe used as an oratory, destroying the cov-ering arches and building an upper level.On 27 May 1860 bombs of the Bourbonartillery seriously damaged the building,hence the current interest in restorationwork and restitution of earlier structures.

II.1.b San Giovanni degli Eremiti –Remains of the Mosque, Church,Cemetery and Cloister

Return to Piazza Della Vittoria and take Viadel Bastione; walk as far as the crossing intoVia Benedettini where the monument is situat-ed, at number 16/1.Opening hours: weekdays 9.00-19.00 (18.30 inwinter); holidays 9.00-13.00. Entrance fee –

Cappelladell’Incoronata,longitudinal andtransversal sections,Palermo (Di Stefano,1955).

San Giovanni degliEremiti, plan of thecomplex, Palermo.

San Giovanni degliEremiti, view of thecloister (Viollet-le-Duc,1980).

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ing the pointed arches to the windows,which had become rectangular. The re-mains of the structures of the Muslim pe-riod were eventually rediscovered.In witness to the use of the place duringthe Islamic era, it can be seen today howthe southern wall of the nave was formedfrom the northern wall of the enclosureof an earlier building called the “ArabicHall” (sala araba), that is, a rectangularaula also affected by the construction dur-ing the Norman era and interrupted onone of the smaller sides by the extensionof the diaconicon of the Christian church.

free up to 18 and over 65 years; it is possible toobtain a through ticket (valid for two days) tovisit Zisa, Cuba and the Cloister at Monreale.

The complex is situated in the immediatevicinity of the Palazzo Reale, now seen af-ter the interventions of liberation andrestoration directed by Giuseppe Patrico-lo in 1877, displaying a structured col-lection of various types of architecture,the most significant of which is the Chris-tian edifice. Norman buildings (churchand monastery) were erected under cov-er of the city walls by Ruggero II, be-tween 1132 and 1148 on already existingconstructions at various unidentifiabletimes, which had been built up to the 6th

century by Pope St Gregory the Great.The vicinity of the monastery to the roy-al residence immediately made it a placeof privilege, destined also for the burialof the dignitaries of the court.After having been abandoned for sometime, coinciding with the end of the dy-nasty of the Altavillas and the transferenceof the royal palace, it was assigned to theBenedictine monks of San Martino delleScale and then in 1524, at the desire ofthe Emperor Charles V, was conceded asa “hospice” or “farm” to the Benedictinemonks of Monreale and to the archbish-op of that diocese for his personal resi-dence. Modifications and transformationsfollowed during the course of centuries;structures to the monastery were added,standing beside the church, and later,some modest housing. These were de-molished with the works of restoration,when the apsidal area and northern façadeof the church were cleared, stripping theplaster and the interior stucco and restor-

In the part remaining, there are five smallsplayed ogival windows and the remainsof the original spans of roofing, of whichthe bases of two piers remain, togetherwith half a pillar leaning against the west-ern wall of the hall. The enclosure, opento the sky, has a boundary marked out bythe portico to the north by the hall, to theEast, and by a wall, preserved for itswhole length, to the south; there is notrace left of its western boundary.Witnesses of successive epochs have fi-nally been found in the internal facing ofthe eastern wall of the hall: three figuresfrom frescos with monograms, somesepulchral inscriptions painted in red andsome niches for funeral urns. The Churchof San Giovanni, freed from successiveadditions, today appears in its regular andcompact volumetry, with the extrados ofthe cupolas plastered in red. The plan ofthe Church is based on a T-shaped cross,with the nave consisting of two largesquare bays separated by a powerful ogi-val arch and with a triapsidal transept; thecentral apsis, almost semi-circular, isidentifiable from the outside. The santu-ario is flanked to the south by the diacon-icon and to the north by the prothesis, bothbeing provided by small apses containedwithin the thickness of the walls. Thequadrangular tower rises from the bodyof the prothesis. Two lone transversal arch-es fill the longitudinal space of the nave.On the outside, the aula is distinguishedby two semi-circular cupolas raised oncylindrical tambours, with angularsquinches that have ogival arches a rincas-so. The progressive juxtaposition of thecubic volume, which marks the buildingends in the rising bell-tower.

The Islamic building must have consistedof three architectonic units-the aula, theportico and an enclosure. The Arabic Hall(17.76 × 5.62 m.), with the major axisfacing from north to south in the direc-tion of Mecca, was divided longitudinal-ly into two naves of five square-sectionedpillars. Above these were spanned thearches of the 12 bays (six on each side),of which a small part of the structure ofthe south wall of the diaconicon still re-mains. Each bay is lit from a small splayedogival window. The hall is covered todayby three large 16th-century cross vaults.The northern wall of the portico has beenpreserved, without, however, the arcades.

San Giovanni degliEremiti, cupola,Palermo.

San. Giovanni degliEremiti, general view,Palermo.

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What remains of the cloister is the resultof construction work, which came in twosuccessive phases and several transforma-tions. The remains of its colonnade rise inthe northwest angle of the garden, whichforms one of the characteristics of thecomplex. The cloister, originally adjoin-ing the monastic buildings, seems, forconstructive and stylistic reasons, morelikely to have been built, or at any rate,rebuilt, in around the 13th century. Theportico is formed by the continuing se-quence of small ogival arches, with dou-ble lintels, and small twin columns. In thegarden to the north side of the cloister, afurther body of building material has beendiscovered, and identified as forming thehouse of the Archbishop of Monreale.

II.1.c Qanat(inside the Psychiatric Hospital)

Return to Piazza della Vittoria, and by car,enter Corso Catalafimi. Turn right into ViaPindemonte, then left into Via G. La Loggia,where the entrance to the Psychiatric Hospitalis to be found at number 5. There is parkingwithin the Hospital.Entry on payment. Visit by appointment only;contact the co-operative La Solidarietà, whichruns the visits (Via G. La Loggia, Tel: 091580433).

The entrance to the so-called QanatGesuitico Basso is located within the vastarea of the Psychiatric Hospital, to the leftof the principal façade of the former Je-suit monastery called “Della Vignicella”(little vineyard). The qanat, an under-ground water system the origin of which

dates back to the period between 3000and 2500 BC, is a subterranean drain thatintercepts the water from the slopes andleads them, also to some considerabledepth, to a few metres from the country-side plain. These discoveries in Palermofit into the typological framework of theArabic-Persian qanat, displaying almostthe same constructive and functional ele-ments, nevertheless adapted to the geol-ogy of the area. A characteristic typology

San Giovanni degliEremiti, nave,Palermo.

Qanat Gesuitico Basso,draining branch,Palermo.

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opens closed from the outside. Two chan-nels start from this hall: one towards thenorth, about 120 m. long where the lev-el of the water is lowered, and one to-wards the south, which has a roof higherthan the one in the gallery describedabove. This latter conduit, which carrieson towards Via G. La Loggia is surely themost suggestive on account of the pres-ence of a number of roots hanging fromthe roof; its course is, however, inter-rupted by a large quantity of material un-loaded from an overhanging well. Thewaters had to be carried up to the level ofVia G. La Loggia (S. Tusa) where proba-bly they were channelled into one of thebranches of the course, shown as QanatScozzari (P. Todaro). It has been foundimpossible to verify the actual link be-tween the two qanats since Corso Gesuiti-co Basso, near Via G. La Loggia, was in-tercepted by a sewage system, whichprevented its natural extension. The sys-tem deserves particular attention on ac-count of some technological solutionsadopted in order to obviate some un-favourable hydro-geological conditions.The interest and uniqueness of the qanatlie in the perfect conservation of the sys-tem and in its almost total integrity, es-pecially in the catchment area.

which differentiates it from Eastern ex-amples is the lack of a real providing well,substituted by a transversal drainagegallery called mushatta, located uphill.Thanks to these conduits, a continuousand spontaneous flow of water from thedeep underground strata up to the surfacewas guaranteed, stimulating the flourish-ing of fountains, fishing pools, publicbaths, canals of water and luxurious gar-dens which affected the aspect of the in-land city.The Qanat Gesuitico Basso consists of awell 14-m. deep intercepting a channel60-cm. wide and 4-m. high; containingwater 1-m. in depth. The channel ran intwo directions: one towards the valley inan easterly direction, and one towards theuplands in a westerly direction. To thewest, after about six metres the channelended with a syphon leading to the qanatat its starting point, whose vault, after 5m., was lowered until it touched water,rendering the underground passage im-practicable. In the upper part, above thesyphon, there is an inactive conduit,probably destined for drainage and situat-ed below the convent. Facing downwardsthe channel winds its way for about 40m., reaching a more or less triangularhall, on the roof of which another well

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The Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus andXerxes, one of the most legendary East-ern Empires, saw the birth of a typologyof an aqueduct among the most evocativeand ingenious that has been invented byhumanity.The system based on the qanat, that is tosay on a covered subterranean canal wasborn exactly where, some thousands ofyears earlier during early Neolithic soci-ety, the open-air canal had been born. Itwas probably the long experience ofcanalisation in hot or semi-hot climates,which induced the Achaemenid experthydraulic engineers to contrive a watertransport system compensating for twodangerous inconveniences: water loss dueto evaporation caused by the climate andthe vulnerability of canals due to the easewith which enemies could block themleading to lethal economic collapse.The qanat, the name being derived fromthe Akkadian qanu, a subterranean canal,sometimes excavated for several kilome-tres underground, obviously avoided theinconveniences overthrowing the conceptof water transport at ground level. Thewater was captured at the fountain headand immersed more or less immediatelyinto conduits which had been dug into theground with a constant decline (c. 0.5%)which thanks to the sensible slope of thegradient allowed for an easy flow avoid-ing at the same time the dangers of ero-sion or of silting-up, as well as pollutionand acquisition by the enemy.The geniality of this invention determinedits rapid diffusion to the East and to theWest; the qanat took root in Europe andthe Mediterranean after the fall of the Ro-man Empire and only in limited areas and

in flat-lying land where the excavationcould be run smoothly without having togo down to prohibitive depths.In Sicily this system possibly arrived withthe Arabs, but more likely in the follow-ing Norman period, thanks to al-Idrisiwho had learnt the construction in NorthAfrica.The research carried out by the Palermosection of the Club Alpino Italiano, co-or-dinated by Vincenzo Biancone, enrichingthe framework elaborated in his day withgreat merit by Pietro Todaro, had pre-sented a basic picture of how Palermowas supplied up to a very short time agoby a capillary network of qanats whichfrom the piedmont strata to the rim ofthe Conca d’Oro brought water whetherto the city centre or to the fertile landnearby. The localised qanats are of greatconcern to a large part of the agricultureof Palermo.The discovery in two of these in the cen-tral area of the Piana dei Colli (Castelforteand Scalea I) of fragments of ceramicsattributable to the 12th-13th centuries leadsto the belief that such data gave a majorindication to confirm their existence inSicily at least up to that date.However there is nothing to exclude thatfuture research may show the presence ofunderground water conduits also operat-ing in earlier periods.In the area of Palermo, the qanat for manycenturies (at least seven) constituted anintegral part of a system of functional wa-ter adduction whether for agricultural ac-tivities being carried out in the Concad’Oro or for the provision of water forsubstantial areas of the city. At the typo-logical level, the qanats of Palermo pro-

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QANATS OF THE CONCA D’ORO

Vincenzo Biancone, Sebastiano Tusa

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were established. Sicily did not flee fromthe logic of re-assessing external influ-ences on the basis of its own needs. It isfor this reason that the original functionof the qanat as happened in the East,which was to carry water long distancesunderground, was enriched in the area ofPalermo by the working of an under-ground drainage system. In reality, in fact,if we were to analyse in detail the variousqanats in the area of Palermo we noticethat often they are not in parallel with thelines of water drainage from the slopes,but are transversal in their developmentor show more or less developed branch-es, orthogonal to the lines of the waterdrainage. Hence a qanat has been createdwith the mixed functions of waterdrainage and water supply. Therefore theqanat in the area of the Piana di Palermodeveloped into drainage systems, a func-tion which in the Eastern qanats was onlycarried out by alimentary wells.

vide analogies with Iberian-Majorcanmetrological and technological charac-teristics.The obvious analogy with other regionsof the Mediterranean, and even beyond,also derive from a clear convergence ofthe patrimony of technological knowl-edge probably descended through gener-ations of families or guilds of muqanni(“well diggers”), which in their turn, theyhad received from the first workmen whobrought them from neighbouring regions.The convergence between North Africa,Sicily and the Iberian Peninsula explains,on the basis of a common disseminationduring the 10th-12th centuries, evidenceof the same knowledge and technicalitiesof construction and management of theqanats through the labours of workmenwho had learnt their skills from theArabs.However, the general knowledge adaptedto the different zones where the qanats

Qanat Gesuitico Basso,transport canal,Palermo.

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ITINERARY II

Testimonies of the Arabic AgeScientific Committee

Second day

II.1 PALERMOII.1.d Ponte dell’AmmiraglioII.1.e San Giovanni dei LebbrosiII.1.f Castello della Favara at Maredolce (Arabic pre-existence)

II.2 CEFALÀ DIANAII.2.a HammamII.2.b Castle

Palazzo della Favara,general view, Palermo(Gally Knight, 1838).

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The major source of information on therealty of Sicily during the Arabic era isfound in the accounts given by travellersmoving from the coasts of Africa andthe Iberian Peninsula towards the cen-tre of the Mediterranean. The scarceprovision of architectonic remains stillin the island do not allow an evaluationwith documentary proof of artistic ac-counts of a settlement lasting over 200years. The collective mosques found inalready existing Christian churches, be-came Christian centres once again withthe arrival of the Normans in the island;therefore, every vestige and every styl-istic and distributive transformationconnected with Muslim religious prac-tice officially disappeared. Travelling in977 (or, for some, 973) Ibn Hawqal de-scribed the city and its surrounding ter-ritory in his Libro delle vie e dei reami(Book of Streets and Realms). Outside theresidential area, surrounded by high de-fensive walls and encircled by his quar-ters, the countryside extended, to thesouth interrupted by the River Oretofull of water “a grand and wide river”,known by its Arabic name of Wadi ‘Ab-bas, enriched by affluents running fromthe hinterland such as those that came

from the village of Balhara (Monreale),in its turn rich with gardens and vine-yards. Along the banks of the river therewere numerous mills, the activity ofwhich Ibn Hawqal did not with any cer-tainty assign the distribution of water inthe territory for the purpose of irriga-tion, whether for orchards or for gar-dens, since this already came by way ofcanalisation of other water fountains “asin Syria and in other countries”.The provision of water for irrigation wasin fact ensured by springs, which in greatpart flowed out of mountainous reliefssurrounding the city. From East to West,abundant and vigorous flows of waterran through the whole territory andserved to supply other mills, which wereestablished near the beds of torrentialwater, as well as those in the quarters ofthe city. Even today, water from bothtorrents, the Kemonia and the Papireto,channelled and subterranean, probablynear the old perimeter of the fortifiedwalls of the Phoenician era, still flow un-der the streets of the city. “Persian cane”grew and pumpkins were cultivatedalong the banks, where there wasmarshy land on account of the presenceof water and plenty of pools. Also, thepapyrus plant used for the production ofropes for ships and in paper production,on which official administrative actswere drawn up, also grew along theriverbanks. The Norman kings, puttingto good use the tradition of mills exist-ing in the territory, were to be amongthe few reigning medieval kings, also touse paper apart from the usual parch-ment. Also used during the Norman era(as shown in a diploma written in Ara-

Ponte dell’Ammiraglio,general view, Palermo(Gally Knight, 1838).

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bic in 1115) one of the cane thicketsused for this purpose was grown nearthe Palace of the Favara (from Arabicfawwara), a copious spring of waterflowed out from Monte Grifone and fedthe gardens of the southern countrysideamong which Ibn Hawqal omitted to citethe magnificent gardens of Maredolce.In truth, the Kalbite Amir Ja‘far, towhom the complex (also called Favara)is attributed, ruled Palermo somedecades later, between 998 and 1019.Many historians cite also, to the east ofthe palace the presence of a thermalbuilding or laconico; Vincenzo Auria de-signed it in a scene in the 17th centuryand Gaspare Palermo saw it still in 1816,but it disappeared in his elevation of1880. The building, divided into threerooms and with a small cupola (as it isseen in Auria’s design), respected theprincipal features of the private baths; itwas a hothouse provided with subter-ranean channels through which the hotwater passed, and its typology has beenassimilated to those of the Roman age.Some scholars have also identified re-mains of the Roman epoch in extra-ur-ban structures such as hamlets andfarms, and in some findings (successive-ly covered again) which came to light inthe excavations carried out during the17th and 18th centuries in the Piano diSant’ Erasmo and in the vicinity of theRiver Oreto.The formation of small landed proper-ties is however a Muslim phenomenon,with the practice of appropriation offarms, regulated by the laws of the mil-itary occupation. The extensive landssurrounding the city became divided

into small farm holdings occupied byfreeholders who followed one anotherafter controversy among the occupants.The obligations to which they weresubjected were substantially to supplywood for shipbuilding and men to pro-vide the ranks of combatants for theholy war. Agricultural activity, howev-er, granted favourable fiscal facilities,gave way to the export of products toNorth Africa and to coastal regions ofthe Mediterranean. Prosperity on theland was, however, already in declinewhen Ibn Hawqal visited the country.Taxed by his translators with deceit, forhaving been angry with his coreligion-ists because they were living in promis-cuity with Christians, he neverthelessoffered a social picture, which funda-mentally showed the arrival and the be-ginnings of a decline in Muslim societytransplanted in Sicily. The Arab trav-eller describes a civilisation that is nolonger flourishing; a social, construc-tional, economic and above all, reli-gious abandonment, but he did not for-get to describe the characteristics thatthe countryside around Palermo as-sumed with the building of farmhous-

With the arrival of the Normans theperimeter of the fortified boundary wasincreased and the external quarters werealso included within these limits. Threeof the gates that acted as a link with thesurrounding territory stood on the northof the river, these were as follows: thePorta Termini (next to the present-dayVia Garibaldi and destroyed in 1852), andwhich provided an exit to the country inthe south-east, to cross the River Oretoand join the bridge built by Admiral Gior-gio d’Antiochia in 1125 (and thereforecalled the Ponte dell’Ammiraglio). ThePorta Sant’Agata (still in existence inCorso Tukory, connecting to the street ofthe same name) from which, after 1170,it was also possible to reach theMonastery of Santo Spirito, founded atthat time by Archbishop Gualtiero. ThePorta Mazara (still in existence in CorsoTukory, in the 14th-century configura-tion), which led to the settlements in thesoutheast near the river. The Normansconstructed various religious buildings atdifferent times in that part of the land: theChurch of San Michele de Indulciis(which disappeared in the 18th century)near the Ponte dell’Ammiraglio and at-tributed to Giorgio d’Antiochia himself;the Church of San Giovanni Battista, lat-er San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi; the Churchof the Madonna dell’Oreto built on apromontory of the river in 1088, with itsconvent (today only small parts remain ofthe church at the entrance of the bridgeat Viale della Regione Siciliana) and theMonastery of San Nicolò lo Gurgo builtaround 1145 (in ruins at the beginning ofthe 20th century). The fortification of theKalsa was destroyed, new churches were

es, each one being allotted a small pri-vate mosque, and an enclosure separat-ing the property, with gardens and agri-cultural land.The “many groups of houses” called mahalsof which Ibn Hawqal spoke, at that timefilled a territory broken up into cultivat-ed land and gardens, which took thename of mu‘askars. Following the NormanConquest, the Muslim mahals of the 10thcentury were occupied by the Latin pop-ulation and formed a connecting webwith the royal hunting grounds.During the Norman era at the time ofRuggero II, al-Idrisi relates that the terri-tory of the island “of infinite beauty and sin-gular merit” swarms with farms, hamletsand country houses.

Hammam, view of theinterior, Cefalà Diana(Gally Knight, 1838).

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nuchs but also as cooks, vizirs and cham-berlains. He recounts with pleasure thatthe sovereign “resembles the Muslim kings byway of staying steeped in the delights of theprincipality; not least that by legislative order,by the customs, by the gradation of his opti-mates, the magnificence of the court and theluxury of the ornamentation” (trans. M.Amari, 1854-1868). But he also recordsin the same city the bitter confession ofone of the pages at the King’s court, oblig-ed to hide his profession of the Muslimfaith, fearing, on these grounds, for hislife. Arriving in Palermo, not sparing therecurring and exorcising intercalation “mayGod return it to the Muslims”, tells of hismarvel and pleasure: “ancient and elegant,splendid and gracious … it makes proud of itssquares and plains, which are all one garden.Spacious in the small streets [as also] in themain streets, sight is dazzled by the rare visionof the aspect. Stupendous city: resembling Cor-

Castle, panoramicview, Cefalà Diana.

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built and new cultivations were intro-duced. The territory between the southwalls and the River Oreto, once the dy-nasty of Ruggero II had been extin-guished, became in large part the prop-erty of the Chiaramonte family at thebeginning of the 14th century, and at theend of same century it was confiscated.Ibn Jubayr, the Valencian pilgrim, in thediary of his long journey, between 1183and 1185, told of the conditions of theMuslims in the island, by then returned toChristianity. He depicts the Muslims re-maining in Messina in a state of servitudeand isolated on farms in the rest of the is-land; only in Palermo (called al-Madina bythe Muslims, Balarmu by the Christians)the capital city of the kingdom, the Mus-lims live within the suburbs, have theirown mosques and markets; are also ad-mitted to the court of King Guglielmo IIwho uses them not only as slaves and eu-


Amari still recognised in 1880 as “Can-nita” and which Nino Basile identified asthat of Favara di San Filippo). The placewas inhabited by a colony of Muslimsand owned a moschea which Basile con-sidered to be one of the most beautifulin the world, with an extended rectan-gular installation, with pointed arches,lit by 40 brass lamps, with richly workedglass and paving. The qasr, which he de-scribes as magnificent, dates back to theMuslim era on the island. It is sur-rounded by walls, closed by an iron doorand consists of abodes, houses and well-aligned constructions; the mosque is si-tuated in the upper area and is surround-ed by a large road, nearby is a well ofsweet water. Outside the walls there is aMuslim cemetery. Ibn Jubayr recountsthat along the road he has also seen theQasr Ja‘far I (Maredolce), with its fishfarm and the sweet-water spring and fur-ther over within the proximity of the seais the leper colony near the Church ofSan Giovanni.

doba for its architecture; its buildings are allmade of cut stone; a limpid river runs throughit; four fountains gush out from its sides. ItsKing sees in it every pleasure in the world andnevertheless made it the capital of his FrankishKingdom, may God exterminate him!” (trans.M. Amari, 1854-1868).It is possible to see with his eyes the suc-cessive stratification, the realities of theRoman, Byzantine, Arabic and Normanand the surprise of finding instead of thestone covered with plaster, square stoneplaced with great skill one on top of theother; instead of deft but tortuous narrowlanes, an urban installation naturallystraightened and regular, where the an-cient city, enclosed and surrounded andalso for this reason resembling Cordova,has palaces “which seem to be well-walled cas-tles, from which small loggias rise into the airand dazzle the eyes with their beauty” (trans.M. Amari, 1854-1868).Along the coastal road in order to reachPalermo, 6 km. from the residentialarea, is Qasr Sa‘d (a place which Michele

Ponte dell’Ammiraglio,general view, Palermo.

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Ponte dell’Ammiraglio,central arch, Palermo.

San Giovanni deiLebbrosi, view of thetower, Palermo.

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configuration, itself of the riverbed, tothe extent that in 1838 it was necessaryto construct a new bridge, called Pontedelle Teste (Bridge of the Heads).

II.1 PALERMO

II.1.d Ponte dell’Ammiraglio

Return to Piazza dell’Ammiraglio, follow theroundabout leading into Via P. Balsamo; turnright into Corso dei Mille and having crossedthe River Oreto, continue until the PiazzaPonte Ammiraglio.

The Ponte dell’Ammiraglio (Bridge of theAdmiral), so called because it was built inabout the second quarter of the 12th cen-tury by Admiral Giorgio d’Antiochia inthe service of King Ruggero II who waslikewise founder of the Church of SantaMaria dell’Ammiraglio, now lies under-ground and is fenced in, lower by aboutthree metres in relation to the level of theCorso dei Mille, with which it is aligned.The bridge, the passage across the RiverOreto, was erected near the Porta Ter-mini. It presents a configuration in “sad-dle-back” form, with two characteristicspecula ramps and is composed of sevenspans on flying buttresses with arches arincasso, the height descending from thecentre to the two ends. The six massivepillars have fornix openings above the lev-el of the water so as to gear down thespray of the river in full spate. The wholestructure is achieved with limestone ash-lars cut in regular shapes, and on accountof the technology and morphology, pro-poses once again a typology diffusedthroughout the area of the Maghreb. Dur-ing the years, the course of the river un-derwent notable displacement in the areanear its mouth and the modification of the

San Giovanni deiLebbrosi, apsis,Palermo.

San Giovanni deiLebbrosi, central nave,Palermo.

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II.1.e San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi

Follow Corso dei Mille to the crossing with ViaS. Cappello, the monument is located at num-ber 38. Parking facilities available in the spaceopposite the church.

Opening hours: weekdays 9.00-11.00 and16.00-18.30. Visit by appointment, Tel: 091475024.

The Church is dedicated to San Giovan-ni Battista and owes its name to the lep-er hospital, annexed shortly afterwards.The façade appears unbalanced towardsthe left on account of the size of the stair-case giving access to the portico-belltower which denotes the entrance to thechurch, built to replace the previous en-trance during the restoration directed byFrancesco Valenti between 1925 and1930. The clear volume of the church,carried out with small ashlars of tuffplaced in regular rows, are hardly arti-culated by the simple windows of pointedarches (with a double lintels) open on thesides and at the centre of the apses. Theinterior reveals a basilica structure withthree naves, divided by three pairs ofpolygonal-section sturdy pillars, onwhich four slightly pointed arcades arelaid down. The naves lead towards theeast to the tri-partite space of the pres-bytery, which is three steps higher in re-lation to the ground level of the basilica,and preceded, in the direction of theaula, by a couple of cruciform pillars.Three apses with angular columns com-plete the three bays of the presbytery. Tothe right the capital of an angular columncan be seen, with an Arabic inscriptionin kufic characters unfortunately indeci-pherable as they have been rubbed away.The central apse of the presbytery is cov-ered with a cupola linked to the impostby way of the characteristic pendentiveswith re-entering niches. The apses areexposed on the outside.

The date of the first structure is uncertainas documents are lacking. According toTommaso Fazello in the 16th century (andagreeing with him are other later histori-ans) the church would have been found-ed by Roberto il Guiscardo and by hisbrother Ruggero d’Altavilla during thesiege of Palermo in 1071, on the samesite where a Saracen castle had oncestood. Of this some remains can be seen,at the most, traces of walls and fragmentsof paving next to the church; it was sur-rounded by a palm grove which the Nor-mans used as an encampment from wherethey launched the final attack to conquerthe city. It seems probable, however, thatduring the siege the Normans had onlyjust begun the construction, completingit when they had achieved victory. It istherefore maintained that during the siegeRoberto il Guiscardo had initiated theconstruction of the church in a wing ofthe pre-existing qasr, finishing the build-ing after the conquest (1071), as thoughfulfilling a vow, and probably before theyear of his death in 1085. In fact thechurch shows some peculiarities in rela-tion to other achievements in Palermo;there is some affinity shown with the firstchurches built by the Normans in the ter-ritory of Messina and it also displays someoriginal characteristics, such as the use ofpillars in the naves. The leper colonywould have been added between 1140and 1150 and Guglielmo I would laterhave had the statutes drawn up.At the time of the Swabians, Federico IIgave the church and hospital to the Or-dine dei Cavaliere Teutonici Della Ma-gione, which they held, up to the end ofthe 14th century. Thereafter the City Sen-

ate administered the hospital, while thechurch stayed in the care of the Abbot ofthe Magione until the 18th century. To-day it forms part of the State property ofthe region.

II.1.f Castello della Favara atMaredolce (Arabic pre-existence)

Take once again Corso dei Mille, follow it forabout 2 km., turn right into Via Emiro Gia-

San Giovanni deiLebbrosi, plan,Palermo.

Palazzo della Favara,view of the west front,Palermo.

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far and after Street number 62, turn left intoVicolo Castellaccio where the entrance of themonument is located at number 19.Opening hours: weekdays in the morning ex-cept on Wednesdays in the afternoon too.

The home of the amir, later the sollazzo ofthe Norman kings, and better known asthe Castello della Favara or of Maredolce,was built between 998 and 1019 by theKalbite Amir Ja‘far, during the period ofhis reign, as a suburban palace. Lying be-tween the slopes of Mount Grifone andthe overflow of the River Oreto it fellinto ruin according to Michele Amari fol-lowing the attacks suffered in 1019 dur-ing the popular uprisings. Under the Nor-man kings, under Ruggero II, thepromoter of vast intervention of restora-tion and expansion, the building reachedits maximum splendour. The location andorganisation of the complex pleased thenew sovereigns who maintained its mostsignificant characteristics. The primitivebuilding like the one that can still be seentoday, was in fact surrounded on threesides by the water from an artificial lake,fed from a spring at the foot of the moun-tain rising from two large fornixes withpointed arches, and was channelled fromthere. The main façade of the complex isthe one in the north-east; the one that isnot bathed by the waters and presentlythe one in the best state of conservation.In the complex already transformed byRuggero II in around 1150, the privatesurroundings were placed along thesouthern, eastern and western sides. Asimilar layout of the surroundings of thecourtyard was to be found in the Palaceof Ruggero II at Altofonte according to a

Palazzo della Favara,view of the courtyard,Palermo.

Palazzo della Favara,plan, Palermo.

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possible reconstruction. The distributiveprinciple that ruled the sollazzo of Favarawas assimilated and compared with thatof the ribat of Arabic architecture, actualfortified convents sheltering the combat-ants of the Muslim faith. They were in theform of square blockhouses with angularand median round towers, one of whichwas higher, planned as a watchtower andfor prayer. There was one single entranceand the lodgings were made up of smallcells set out along the sides of the build-ing on two levels; the place of prayer wasat the upper level.The name fawwara indicated the spring ofsweet water, which fed the lake andflowed through a channel of adduction.Recent restoration works to release thepondage of the lake at the end of the damhave revealed channels for the eduction ofwater, one of which shows construction-al features attributable to the Muslim era.The lake was covered with hydraulic plas-ter in its characteristic red colour, ob-tained through mixing calcium, river sandand fragments of brick, of which sometraces remain on the walls of the orchardpondage. With the rediscovery of ahypocaust (a cavity wall extracted underthe pavement with channels for the cir-culation of fumes) at the foot of MountGrifone the existence of an old thermalbuilding to provide services for the com-plex was also considered possible.Ruggero II intervened in the buildingwork, having it enlarged and granting it aChristian chapel, possibly in the sameplace as the original private mosque of theamir and the last home of the muezzin andpreceptors. The lake, also enlarged, ascan be seen from documents of the peri-

od, was populated with fish coming fromvarious regions. The palace was devel-oped, at two levels, round a vast L-shapedcourtyard, with gates covered by crossvaults. The dates are not known of thepossible remains of the masonry work orof the isolated elements of the Muslimage: it is certain however that the lake wasthe work of the amir and that Ruggero IIordered its enlargement by building adyke to contain the water.The main facade is to the northeast, fac-ing the areas of representation and com-mon usage. From here the passages leadto an entrance into the room facing thechapel, revealed in the façade by the ac-centuation of the rhythm of the blind ar-cades. The southwest corner suggests theprobable presence of a large arched open-ing onto the artificial lake, used for thelanding of light boats crossing the lake.

Palazzo della Favara,chapel cupola,Palermo.

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The fronts are marked by a series of arch-es a rincasso, some of which have beenfound following works of restoration,with windows freely arranged. The pri-vate areas are set out along the remainingsides.The chapel dedicated to Santi Filippo eGiacomo, is an aula with two bays cov-ered by cross vaults and a small transeptending with three apses. The central bayis covered by a small cupola, placed on atall drum linked to the nave by angularniches. The royal aula is rectangular, di-vided into three bays; there is also aniche on the short side covered by avault with stucco with rope-like decora-tion. A small irregularly shaped artificialisland rose in the centre of the lake,planted with citrus trees. The lake wasprovided by Ruggiero II with a control-ling dyke facing downwards built withthe earth provided from the excavationand contained by a wall of large squareashlars on which symbols incised bystonemasons have been found. Sevenwalls at declining heights subdivided thepondage into a system of tanks allowingfor the flow of water across a fornix inthe northern bank.After the end of the Norman Dynasty, thecastle belonged to Vice-Regal State own-ership until in 1328 Federico II of Aragonceded it to the Order of the TeutonicKnights of the Magione, who transformedit into a fortress. At the end of the 15th

century the sollazzo was given over to pri-vate ownership that for a long time culti-vated citrus plantations in the pond. Fi-nally obtained by the Regional StateProperty Department, today it is underrestoration.

Hammam, view of thewest façade,Cefalà Diana.

Hammam, room of thebasins, Cefalà Diana.

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Hammam, frieze withkufic inscription of thewest façade, CefalàDiana.

II.2 CEFALÀ DIANA

II.2.a Hammam

The itinerary proceeds by car following the signsto join the Palermo-Catania motorway. At theexit for Villabate enter the 88121 in the direc-tion of Agrigento and follow this until the exitfor Baucina-Cefalà Diana. Proceed as far as thecrossing and from here follow the signs for Vil-lafrati. Having reached the next crossing, takethe road in the direction of Palermo; after about1 km., turn right facing the monument.Opening hours: daily 9.00-13.00 exceptMondays.

Probably coming from the re-use of ananalogous Roman existence, the hammamis built on a small hillock sloping gentlydown towards the valley of the River Ce-falà, almost hidden by modest buildingswhich surround it on three sides, andtherefore thought by G. Lo Jacono to havebeen an original concept of an inn andhospital combined. Within the complex,the positioning of the buildings, apartfrom the widespread typology of thefarms in the Sicilian countryside, recallsthe theme of the enclosure, nuclear gen-erator of so much Islamic architecture.The true hammam is built as only one rec-tangular-shaped room, articulated in twodistinct rooms: one, more extended inlength, is divided transversally into threebasins decreasing from four saddle-shapedmasonry separators; the other, adjacent,placed in the vicinity of the spring, isformed of one sole basin. The two areasare divided by a large transenna with three

ogival arches on columns, almost a lay tri-belon. The columns are a variant of theCorinthian order, having an attic plinthand chalice-shaped capitals of terracottawith a double row of leaves twisting rounda decoration ornamented with gadroonsand pods. The thrust of the arcades is aug-mented by the insertion of a brickworkskewback. The arches are also of brick andsupport a wall of the same type, posi-

Hammam, plan,Cefalà Diana.

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ITINERARY II Testimonies of the Arabic AgeCefalà Diana

Opinion as to the date of construction isstill controversial, especially since the ge-ographer al-Idrisi in his Libro di Ruggero,completed shortly before the death of theNorman sovereign in 1154, and despitesignaling the presence of 11 thermalbaths in large and small centres of Sicily,failed to mention the one at Cefalà Di-ana. One scholar has proposed recentlya chronological distinction between thevarious parts of the construction, at-tributing the northern, western and east-ern outside walls to the Hellenistic-Ro-man Period (between 50 BC and 59AD). The two columns sustaining thearches of the tribelon are attributed to theArabic era and the stringcourse façadewith the inscription in kufic characters tothe Norman period following the deathof the first Guglielmo, in 1166 (Ryolo,1971). A final dating attributed it entire-ly to the later period of the Normanreign (Krönig in Di Stefano, 1979) claim-ing many analogies with the language ap-plied to architecture of the period ofGuglielmo II.

The Reserve of Pizzo ChiarastellaThe Natural Reserve of Pizzo Chiarastelle isto be found near the baths. The vegetation,limited to the eastern slopes of the mountain,consists of species of Mediterranean scrub. Therelief of the Pizzo is of particular importancealso because it comprises one of the areasfeeding the hydrological circuit flowing intothe baths. The protection of the many springsof hot water that flow at different tempera-tures in the carbonate rocks is, in fact, theaim of the reserve, also taking the name ofthe thermal building. The reserve is run bythe Regional Province of Palermo.

tioned so as to close the overreaching vaultthat crumbled and was reconstructed inthe 15th century together with the arches.Three small rectangular windows, muchlengthened, open in the walls above thearches; an ogival vault of large proportionsand having air vents covers the whole sys-tem. The edifice has a closed and blockedvolumetry; the external walls possess a fa-cade consisting of a central band in cal-carous ashlars bearing a much worn in-scription in kufic characters and by twonarrower bands surrounding it. Thesehave been worked in oversized bricks, vis-ible, however, in different parts of thestructure (possibly bricks of Roman ori-gin used once again in pre-Norman con-struction). The system of undergroundchannelling for the filling and emptying ofthe basins is still largely identifiable in theareas nearest to them.

Castle, plan,Cefalà Diana.

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II.2.b Castle

Turn at the junction and proceed in the di-rection of Cefalà Diana along the SS77;after 1 km., on the right, follow the sign forthe castle.Opening hours: weekdays 9.00-13.00; holi-days 16.00-19.00. Visit by appointment ingroups, Tel: 091 8201184/8291546.

There is no certain information concern-ing the date of construction, but somescholars have considered its existence as

dating from 1121. The principal court-yard lies between the inner wall perime-ter and the wall overhanging the rockface, and is paved with bare stone fromthe rocky relief, natural paving with asteep decline and an irregular trapezoidalshape. The mastio, a solid rectangularkeep, rises in the most visible part of therock. A series of small compartmentscovered by barrel vaults weigh on the sec-ond wall and overlook through theiropenings onto the courtyard between thetwo walls.

Castle, view of the westentrance, Cefalà Diana.

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