4-1©2005 Prentice Hall Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 4th Edition 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity Chapter

4-1 ©2005 Prentice Hall

Understanding and

Managing Organizational

Behavior

4th Edition

Chapter 4:4:Perception, Perception,

Attribution, and the Attribution, and the Management of Management of

DiversityDiversity

Insert photo fromcase opening?

JENNIFER GEORGE JENNIFER GEORGE & GARETH JONES& GARETH JONES


Chapter Objectives

Describe how perception is inherently subjective and how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation can influence perceptions

Understand how the use of schemas can both aid and detract from accurate perceptions

Be aware of biases that can influence perception without perceivers being aware of their influences

Tracy Tuten Ryan

Still needs web links! plus video, and any extra art from book


Chapter Objectives

Appreciate why the effective management of diversity is an imperative for all kinds of organizations and the steps that organizations can take to ensure that different kinds of people are treated fairly and that the organization is able to take advantage of all they have to offer


Chapter Objectives

Understand why attributions are so important and how they can sometimes be faulty

Describe the two major forms of sexual harassment and the steps organizations can take to combat sexual harassment


Opening Case: Proactively Managing Diversity

Why do organizations need to guard against discrimination and proactively manage diversity?

Is discrimination a thing of the past? Who suffers from discrimination?


Perception

The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them

People try to make sense of their environment and the objects, events, and other people in it


Figure 4.1 Components of Perception

Perceiver Target

Situation or context in which perception takes place


Components of Perception

Perceiver: person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made or the input from his or her senses

Target of Perception: whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of

Situation: the context in which perception takes place


The Accuracy of Perceptions

Not always accurate Perceptions are critical for managerial functions

– Motivating subordinates– Treating subordinates fairly and equitably– Making ethical decisions

Accuracy can be improved by understanding – what perceptions are– how they are formed– what influences them

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Insert Figure 4.2 here

Figure 4.2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception


Table 4.1 Factors That Influence Perception

Characteristics of the Perceiver

Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics of the Situation

Schemas Ambiguity Additional information

Motivational state

Social status Salience

Mood Use of impression management


Schemas

Abstract knowledge structures that are stored in memory

Responsible for the organization and interpretation of information about targets of perception

Based on past experiences and knowledge

Resistant to change


The Functionality of Schemas

Functional– Schemas help us make sense of a

confusing array of sensory input, choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide perceptions of ambiguous information

Dysfunctional– Schemas can result in inaccurate

perceptions


Stereotypes

Set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group

Dysfunctional schemas– Based on inaccurate information– Assigned based on a single distinguishing

characteristic


Motivational State and Mood

Motivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.

Mood: How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.


A lack of clearness or definiteness As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes

increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception

When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target

The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception

Ambiguity


A person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization.

Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.

Social Status


An attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others

Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions

Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in self-monitoring to engage in impression management tactics

Impression Management


Table 4.2 Impression Management Tactics

BehavioralMatching

The target of perception matcheshis or her behavior to that of theperceiver.

A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’sbehavior by being modest and soft-spokenbecause her boss is modest and soft-spoken.

Self-Promotion

The target tries to present herselfor himself in as positive a light aspossible.

A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with co-workers who are evaluated highly.

Conformingto SituationalNorms

The target follows agreed-uponrules for behavior in the organization.

A worker stays late every night even if she hascompleted all of her assignments becausestaying late is one of the norms of her organization.

Appreciatingor FlatteringOthers

The target compliments the per-ceiver. This tactic works best whenflattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension importantto the perceiver.

A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.

BeingConsistent

The target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreementbetween the target’s verbal andnonverbal behaviors.

A subordinate delivering a message to his bosslooks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.


Extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things

Causes of salience– Being novel: Anything that makes a target

unique in a situation (e.g., being the only young person)

– Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes)

– Being inconsistent with other people’s expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary

Salience


Table 4.3 Causes of Salience

Being novel Anything that makes a target unique in a situation

Examples: Being the only person of a particular age, sex, or race in a situation

Being figural

Standing out from the background

Example: Being in a spotlight, sitting at the head of the table, wearing bright clothes

Being Inconsistent with other people’s expectations

Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary

Example: A normally shy person who isthe life of the party


Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception

PrimacyEffects

The initial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have an inordinately large effect on the perceiver’s perception and evaluation of the target.

Interviewers decide in the first few minutes of an interview whether or not a job candidate is a good prospect.

ContrastEffect

The perceiver’s perceptions of others influence the perceiver’s perception of a target.

A manager’s perception of an average subordinate is likely to be lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers.

HaloEffect

The perceiver’s general impression of a target influences his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions.

A subordinate who has made a good overall impression on a supervisor is rated as performing high-quality work and always meeting deadlines regardless of work that is full of mistakes and late.


Table 4.4 Biases and Problems in Perception

Similar-to-me Effect

People perceive others who are similar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar.

Supervisors rate subordinates who are similar to them more positively than they deserve.

Harshness,Leniency, AverageTendency

Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly lenient. Others view most targets as being about average.

When rating subordinates’ performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as being aboutaverage.

Knowledgeof Predictor

Knowing how a target stands on a predictor of performance influences perceptions of the target.

A professor perceives a student more positively than she deserves because the professor knows the student had a high score on the SAT.


Attribution Theory

Describes how people explain the causes of behavior

Focuses on why people behave the way they do

Attributions can be made about the self or another person

Biases reduce the accuracy of attributions


Insert Figure 4.3 here

Figure 4.3 Types of Attributions


Attributional Biases

Fundamental attribution errorFundamental attribution error - tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than external causes

Actor-observer effectActor-observer effect - tendency to attribute other’s behavior to internal causes but one’s own behavior to external causes

Self-serving attributionSelf-serving attribution - tendency to take credit for successes but avoid blame for failures


Objectives of Diversity Programs

Making explicit and breaking down organizational member’ stereotypes that result in inaccurate perceptions and attributions

Making members aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences, and values

Showing members how to deal effectively with diversity-related conflicts and tensions

Generally improving members’ understanding of each other


Diversity Training

Role-playing Self-awareness activities Awareness activities Education Mentoring

– Formal – Informal


Sexual Harassment

Quid pro quo– Occurs when the harasser requests or

forces an employee to perform sexual favors in order to receive some opportunity

Hostile work environment– Occurs when organizational members are

faced with a work environment that is offensive, intimidating, or hostile


Examples of Hostile Work Environment Sexual harassment

Pornographic pictures Sexual jokes Lewd comments Sexually-oriented comments Displays of sexually-oriented objects


Steps to Combat Sexual Harassment

Develop a sexual harassment policy supported by top management

Clearly communicate the organization’s sexual harassment policy throughout the organization

Investigate charges of sexual harassment with a fair complain procedure

Take corrective action as soon as possible once it has been determined that sexual harassment has taken place

Provide sexual harassment training and education to all members of the organization

Documents

4-1©2005 Prentice Hall Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 4th Edition 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity Chapter