622 – 1453 C.E.

Muhammad was raised in a caravan like typical Arab nomads in his day. In this traveling lifestyle, he was exposed to Jewish, Christian and other Arab cultures. In 595 C.E., Muhammad married Khadijah, a widow 15 years older than he was.

He would go into the desert in his mid-life and these meditations provided the discipline to receive a message from the Angel Gabriel. In 611 C.E., Muhammad became the messenger of God (Allah). He received oral messages that were later written down by his followers.

Muslim teachings focused on community (ummah). Islam (submission) brought together Jewish and Christian themes. Muhammad was the final prophet to the world sent by the God of Abraham. Like Judaism, Islam taught a fiercely monotheistic message. Like Christianity, Islam taught prophets were the voice of God in history. Abraham, David, Jesus and Muhammad were messengers of Allah.

Initially, Meccans opposed his teachings so he migrated (hijira) to Medina in 622 C.E. This flight from Mecca to Medina marks the first year of the Muslim calendar. For eight years, Muhammad taught and built a community in Medina through peaceful means. By 630 C.E., Medina converted to Islam.

In the final years of his life, Muhammad marched south and eventually returned to Mecca with 10,000 men. He led military expeditions along the way. Once he arrived in Mecca, there was only one battle left to fight. Muhammad destroyed the idols in the Kaaba and proclaimed Allah as the God of the Arabs.

In 632 C.E., Muhammad dies and the Arabian Peninsula embraces Islam. Throughout the next 13 centuries, the Arabian peninsula has been devoutly Muslim and has been the center of a global movement.

Muslim means “people who submit to Allah.” Submission to God is the primary focus in each practice, prayer and gathering.

Muslims believe Allah is the God of the Jews and Christians. Jews and Christians do not necessarily agree. Islamic prehistory is the history of the Jews and Christians before Muhammad. Muhammad’s reception of Qur’an corrects the corruptions of Judaism and Christianity.

Muslims reject the Jewish notion of a Messiah. There will be no more prophets or saviors. The world has what it needs to understand Allah.

God is not in 3 persons as the Christians proclaim. Jesus was a prophet and did not sin, but he was not God. Muslims have only one God.

“Five Pillars” of Sunni Islam are practiced by most Muslims around the world

Shahada – confession of faith in Allah as the One God and Muhammad as his messenger

Salat – daily prayer facing toward Mecca

Zakat – annual alms giving of 2.5% of total wealth

Sawm – annual fasting for Ramadan (no food or drink during daylight hours)

Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca (only taken once in a lifetime)

A sixth concept often is closely connected to the Five Pillars. Struggle (jihad) consist of two elements lesser (military) and greater (spiritual). Jihad is a quest for moral purity that can either be directed outward or self-reflexive. Jihad is the most controversial Islamic teaching since it often resulted in military conquests and forced conversions.

Around 642 C.E., Muhammad’s teachings were recorded by his followers in a book known as The Recitation (Qur’an). It is comprised of 114 chapters (suras). Each sura begins with the phrase (bisimilah) “In the Name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy.” Arabic is the only true language of the Qur’an. Translations are not considered accurate since they cannot capture the nuances of the Arabic language. Qur’an is chanted in the mosques and at home in a song like cadence.

The following prohibitions are binding for Muslims:

Do not worship idols

Do not drink wine

Do not eat pork

Do not gamble

Do not lend money to exploit others

All people are equal before Allah. However, male authority is strictly enforced. Men may marry only 4 wives if they are able to provide for them. Men can divorce their wives for any reason. Men lead the community in political, spiritual and social arenas.

The strict rules for women are meant to protect them. Women wear veils as symbols of submission. Muslim law forbids the killing of female babies and permits women to own property.

The Muslim afterlife is similar to the Christian understanding. Heaven and Hell are the two states of existence after death. Muslims will face a final judgment. Righteous Muslims will live in Heaven. Non-believers, including Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims will go to Hell.

These types of Islam are the three major divisions but numerous others exist. Branches of Islam emerged over the competition for the succession following the death of the prophet Muhammad. The caliphs and imams are leaders of the community, but they do not hold the title of prophet. Muhammad was the last prophet of Allah.

1. Sunni

Their name is a derivative of sunna meaning “tradition of the fathers”

Caliphs were successors to Muhammad in political and military capacities

Sunni Muslims comprise around 90% of the Islamic world

Islamic texts play a larger role in Sunni Islam

2. Shia

Shi’ite Muslims followed Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law Ali

Imams are political and spiritual leaders of the community

Iran and Iraq have large Shi’ite populations

3. Sufi

Their name comes from the wool (suf) clothes they wear

Sufism is the most mystical form of Islam. It is a strict life of discipline. Students seek teachers who have been approved in this spiritual path.

Sufi Islam focuses on the love of God and personal union with God

Dervishes in Iran and Turkey are most well known Sufis

Islam avoided human or animal depictions with few exceptions. There is a fear as in Judaism and in early Christianity of images leading to idolatry. Visual art forms developed despite this strict guideline, but they are unique to the Islamic world.

Three types of Islamic art are most easily seen:

1. geometric patterns

2. floral patterns also known as arabesque

3. calligraphic – Kufic script used on book covers and in illuminated manuscripts

Islamic architecture is one of its greatest artistic contributions. Muslim architects innovated a pointed arch that proved durable and versatile.

Mosques are places of prayer and community meetings. Mosques usually have tall towers (minarets) for singers (muezzins) to call for prayer. The call to prayer five times daily reminds Muslims to come to the mosque. Men and women sit on separate sides of the large hall.

Mosques face Mecca (qibla). Each mosque has a niche (mihrab) to indicate the direction of prayer.

The minbar is a small platform to the right of the mihrab where the Qur’an may be read from.

The courtyard (sahn) allows Muslims to wash properly before prayer according to the Quran and Hadith.

The holiest site in Islam is pre-Arabic architecture that housed the Arabian gods. The Kaaba is the site where Muhammad purged the idols from the Arabian people and where Islam first made its place in the world.

The Mosque of Omar is the oldest mosque in the world. It is the third most holy site for Muslims. Its location in Jerusalem above the Western Wall makes it one of the most contested holy sites in the world. The Dome of the Rock is the assumed spot where Adam was created. Jews attribute it to be the spot where Solomon’s Temple was built. Islamic tradition also places it as the point where Muhammad took his night journey to Heaven.

DOME OF THE ROCK MOSQUE 687-691 C.E.

Córdoba served as a mosque, synagogue and cathedral for Muslims, Jews and Christians in the eighth and ninth centuries. It is now only a Catholic Cathedral.

The ceiling is supported by 500 double tiered columns (far right). It is intentionally devoid of images. Córdoba’s geometric patterned arches are indicative of Islamic aesthetics.

The Alhambra served as a cultural center in southern Spain. This great palace maintained a Muslim presence in Europe until 1492 C.E. The Court of the Lions (right) features a series of pools in the garden complex to keep the courtyards cool. Notice the elaborate, repetitive patterns above the decorative arches.

Mogul emperors were great builders. Their architectural feats were the size of cities, but were built for political, bureaucratic, and administrative purposes.

Shah Jahan (1627-1666) commissioned the Shahjahanabad also known as ‘The Red Fort.’ The walls encompass gardens, audience halls, courtyards, pavilions, baths and a great mosque, which is the largest in India.

White marble arcades are carved with geometric and arabesque patterns. Inlaid jewels and stones provide added decoration into the marble columns. These mimic the Byzantine mosaic style.

The Royal Hall featured the Peacock Throne. It was a solid gold throne covered with emeralds, rubies, diamonds and pearls where Emperor Shah Jahan would sit and receive visitors.

Shah Jahan build the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum to his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, after she died following the birth of her 14th child. Its foundation rests in front of a massive reflective pool which gives the illusion that it floats in the air. Over 20,000 builders worked under the direction of a Persian architect in a fusion of Byzantine, Muslim and Hindu styles.

Islam spread rapidly as its political, religious and military goals aligned. It offered Arabs and other neighboring communities an entire lifestyle with clear guidelines. Doctrines and practices are personally directed. Sharia law from Qur’an and Hadith set the ethical code for Islam.

The following peaceful means of expansion were typical:

1. Education: Mosques often had Islamic schools (madrasas) which helped educate Muslim and non-Muslim children. This was one of the more effective means of reaching outward.

2. Economics: Trade brought Muslims in contact with non-Muslim peoples. Muslims didn’t have to pay taxes on trade. Early expansion in Africa was primarily through trade. Royal African families took to Islam for the advancement of their tribe or dynasty.

3. Politics: Treaties often included spiritual incentives. Friends of Islam were protected by neighboring Islamic powers.

Within the first hundred yeas following the death of Muhammad, Islam spread throughout North Africa and the Near East. The following regions fell to Islam as follows:

1. 634 C.E. Damascus

2. 636 C.E. Persia (Iran)

3. 638 C.E. Jerusalem

4. 640 C.E. Egypt

5. 661-750 C.E. Umayyad caliphs rule North Africa and Spain

In 732 C.E., Charles Martel halted Islamic expansion in Europe at the Battle of Tours. Islam did not expand beyond the Iberian peninsula following this conflict in southern France.

Africa

Islamic merchants in Africa managed the trade in salt, gold and slaves. Muslim territories had the geographical advantages of the Near East as they connected Africa to the Silk Road trade routes. Saharan caravans moved items to and from West Africa to Central Asia. Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai used Islam to consolidate their rule. Arabic became the administrative language of these African kingdoms. Muslim scribes and qadis helped form their bureaucracies. Timbuktu was the largest mosque in West Africa. East African expansion was less permanent, but economic ties remained strong with the Arabian peninsula.

Middle East

Between 661-750 C.E., Damascus was the administrative center for the Umayyad caliphate.

In 750 C.E., the Abbasid caliphate moved its capital to Baghdad. Under the Abbasids there were around 300,000 people in Baghdad.

From 786-809 C.E., the fifth Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s court produced some of the great Muslim scholarship. Arabic translations of Greek, Persian, Syriac and Sanskrit texts were prepared. It was the center for music, dance, writing, poetry. Notable mathematical and scientific landmarks include:

1. 820 C.E. Al-jabr wa I mugabalah (algebra text translated from Sanskrit)

2. 830 C.E. Abbasid geographers estimate the circumference of the Earth

3. 850 C.E. scholars make accurate predictions of the lunar calendar used in annual Islamic feasts and fasts

4. 910 C.E. Rhazes writes medical account of small pox

5. 950 C.E. al-Farabi publishes Catalogue of the Sciences

In 1258 C.E., Baghdad was destroyed by Mongols. Cairo gained the place of prominence after Baghdad. Ottoman Turks in southern and central Turkey maintained Islamic prominence until WWI.

Islam developed a simple leadership structure as it spread. In Sunni communities, Caliphs are popularly elected political leaders and Imams lead the community in prayer and in social life. In Shia communities, Imams are the true Caliphs who hold a prophetic significance to a lesser degree than Muhammad. Mullahs interpret Islamic law for the community based upon the Quran and Hadith (traditions of Muhammad). Qadi judge cases of dispute within the community based upon sharia (Islamic law).

Muslim scholars incorporated technologies from China. Paper and block printing provided an easier technology to disseminate knowledge. Gun powder made it easier to capture slaves and to spread into neighboring regions. It also defended Middle Eastern cities against Christian aggression during the Crusades. See this article on Arab warfare for more information.

Muslim scholars also passed knowledge from India. Hindu numbers were transmitted to Europe to replace Roman numeral system through contact with the Arab world.

Classical Greek writings were preserved through Arabic translations of Aristotle’s works Greek manuscripts of Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Hippocrates, Galen, Ptolemy, etc. These Arabic translations reeducated Europeans in Classical literature during the Renaissance in the 15th century.

Muslim scholars also contributed greatly in the medical sciences in the following ways:

1. In 765 C.E., a medical hospital was built in Baghdad

2. Treatises written on small pox, measles and rabies

3. Treatises written on cauterization of wounds and the preparation of drugs

4. An analysis of food and drink upon human health called Tacuinum Sanitatis was written

5. The distillation of alcohol was discovered

6. Ibn Sina aka Avicenna (980-1037 C.E.) compiled the Canon of Medicine

The Quran is religious literature, but it possesses a poetic cadence that is beautiful when heard in Arabic. Arabic and Persian languages were used in Islamic poetry. Bedouin poets traveled and sung poems that became classic works. The sound of the Arabic language is key to cadence and word choice that is not translatable. Various subjects were typical: laments over injustice, memories of deceased, romantic love including hetero- and homosexual relationships.

Arabic love poetry likely influenced Medieval French and Italian ideas of courtly love. Ibn Hazm (994-1064 C.E.) of Cordoba wrote a handbook on love called The Ring of the Dove which reaffirms the spiritual nature of sexual relations from an Islamic perspective.

Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071 C.E.) and Princess Walladah (d. 1091 C.E.) represented two sides of 12th century male-female pursuits of love in their writings.

Jalal al-Din Rumi ca. 1207-1273 C.E. is one of the most famous Sufi poets. Rumi values intuition over reason. His work is respected by Christians and Buddhists as well. He emphasizes personal union with God and love for God and for all humanity.

Prose literature was less popular than poetry. One of the greatest prose pieces is The Thousand and One Nights or The Arabian Nights ca. 850 C.E. This epic is comprised of many smaller stories shared by Bedouin nomads. They are woven together in a plot structure based upon Queen Shahrazad’s stories. She married King Shahriyar who is notorious for killing his virgin wives the night after he sleeps with them for the first time. Shahrazad manages to enchant her husband by telling him stories each night. Her stories never end because she lulls him to sleep. This is the only way she can survive until dawn and live another day. After 1,001 nights the king respects her storytelling abilities and learns to value her as his wife. Ali Baba, Aladdin and Sinbad were characters in this epic story.

Like Judaism and Christianity, Islamic music focuses upon the solo voice. The muezzin’s call to prayer is most common musical tune in Islam.

Desert nomad music influenced Islamic music. Even in this nomadic style the single voice is featured. Simple instrumentation would accompany the predominant vocal arrangements.

Islamic music has a repetitive nature. It is indicative of the intricacies of Islamic literature and art.

Persian music differed from other Arab music. It included the use of lyres, flutes and drums from pre-Islamic Persia. Bells and tambourines were also common. Persian instruments were easily transported by camel caravans.

Spanish Muslims, known as Moors, developed orchestral arrangements with multiple parts. Western Renaissance and Baroque music might have stemmed from Moorish music.

Musicians in courts of Córdoba and Baghdad performed for caliphs. Ziryab (789-857 C.E.) was a well regarded Persian musician who worked in North Africa and Spain under their Caliphs. He is founded the world’s first conservatory of music.

Al-Isfahani (897-967 C.E.) compiled Great Book of Songs. This massive 21 volume work chronicles Muslim music and poetry. It is the most informative source on Arab music from its origins to the 10th century C.E.