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An environmental risk that we started taking many years ago was damming rivers . We lost or reduced many runs of salmon as a result. Nowadays fishways engineered to match swimming behaviour can be built to bypass the dams (see Chapter 2).
Derek Ellis
Environments at Risk Case Histories of Impact Assessment
With 99 Figures
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Prof. Dr. DEREK ELLIS
Biology Department University of Victoria Victoria, B.c. Canada V8W 2Y2
Map on page I: sites of catastrophes described in this book
ISBN-13: 978-3-540-51180-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-747724 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-747724
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its version of June 24, 1985, and a copyright fee must always be paid. Violations fall under the prosecution act of the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Typesetting: International Typesetters Inc., Makati, Philippines
213213145-543210 - Printed on acid-free paper
Dedicated to the Canadian effort in environmental science and management. If I were not one of many, I could never have written this book.
Preface
This book is a product of the Canadian story in environmental management. Since the late 1960s, our governments, one federal and ten provincial, have reflected the growing Canadian environmental conscience and legislated many environmental controls. The impact assessments that we now make on almost any engineered development draw upon our own experience and from elsewhere around the world. I write this book not only to show what has been achieved worldwide in environmental assessment and risk prediction, but hoping that the experiences of a Canadian in this field raise issues useful elsewhere.
However, because I am Canadian I write as a Canadian, not as an Englishman or an American. Our Dictionary of Canadian English in several formats and editions since 1941 shows the way we use the English language. So if my style seems strange, remember it is the Canadian mix of English and American: some spelling from each, some formality from the English and some informality from American.
Many people have helped me one way or the other over the years; and I thank them all. But some have been particularly generous with their time and patience when my requests for information or help, or my point of view, pushed them to the limits of their tolerance. I particularly thank the following: Chapter 2, Hell's Gate John Roos, Ian Todd and Bill Ricker, Chapter 3, Minamata Akira Kudo, Chapter 4 Island Copper Ron Hillis, Ian Horne, Glen Andrews, John Hanna and Chris Brown, Chapter 5 Annat Point Tom Pearson, Rick Young and Irina Ostrovsky, Chapter 6 City Sewage Mike Williams, Chapter 7 Spills, David Page, John Vandermeulen and Royston Ellis, Chapter 8 Thames Estuary David Stott, Chapter 9 Audits Jules Powell, Neil Marshman and Pam Ruffin, Chapter 10 Permitting Kit Kitasaki and Ken Reim, Chapter 11 Fact-Finding and Social Input Sir Alistair Frame. Needless to say, opinions expressed are mine, not theirs.
Dr. Akira Kudo, Island Copper Mine and V.S. Borax, provided the originals of some of the illustrations in Chapters 3, 4 and 10 respectively. Generally photographs are by the author, except where noted in the caption. I am grateful to the following for permission to use photographs and other proprietary materials: the Royal British Columbia Museum, the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, Island Copper Mine, V.S. Borax, Marcopper Mining Corp., Bougainville Copper Mine.
Many student assistants have helped me retrieve documents: the most recent was Jennifer Vanderleelie. Others have drafted for me: Craig
VIII Preface
Leonard, Zena Rogak, Monique van Hoek, but mostly Greg Allen in the past year. My wife, Katharine Ellis, typed most of this book (and helped in many other ways) and Eleanor Floyd typed some of chapters. Barb Howson and James Ellis provoked the line of thought which led to the title.
Funding which has supported my efforts to gather documentation on cases of environmental impact has come from several sources. Work-study grants from the B.C. Provincial Government over several years have allowed me to employ some of the student assistants to search and retrieve documents and for drafting. Travel grants from the University of Victoria have allowed me to attend scientific conferences, and meet other impact assessors. Several industries and the Capital Regional District of British Columbia have retained me on occasions as environmental consultant, the funds from which I have used for related research, student assistance and travel. This consulting work has given me first-hand on-site experience of environmental impact assessment.
Finally I am in debt to the late Derek Sewell, Professor of Geography at the University of Victoria, who pushed me to reach out from biological studies to overlap with other disciplines. Much of Chapter 2, Hell's Gate, was written while I was collaborating with him in teaching.
May 1989 DEREK ELLIS
Contents
Part 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Working Concepts 2
1.1 Risk and Assessment 2 1.2 Impact and Recovery: Ecological Catastrophe and Succession 3 1.3 Timing ............. 4 1.4 The Patterns of Risk and Impact 6 1.5 Organisation and Communication 10 1.6 Interaction 12 1.7 Summary ............ 14
Part 2 Assessments
Chapter 2 Construction - Hell's Gate (Canada) 17
2.1 The Risks 17 2.2 The Problem and Its Remedies 20
2.2.1 Location, Impact and Timing 20 2.2.2 Assessments; Biology 24 2.2.3 Remedies 26 2.2.4 Participants 27
2.3 Issues 29 2.3.1 Research and Development 29 2.3.2 Native Rights 33 2.3.3 Delays 33 2.3.4 Values and Costs 34 2.3.5 Construction Risks 36
2.4 Summary 36
Chapter 3 Chemicals - Minamata (Japan) 38
3.1 The Risks 38 3.2 The Problem and Its Resolution 42
3.2.1 Location 42 3.2.2 Minamata Disease 44
x Contents
3.3
3.2.3 Timing.... 3.2.4 Assessments. 3.2.4.1 Epidemiology 3.2.4.2 The Hunt for the Cause 3.2.4.3 Mapping Mercury ... 3.2.4.4 Undersea Reclamation and Its Assessment Issues 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3
Assessment Personnel . . . . . . . Prevention: by Discharge Standards The Risk: As Seen Now
3.4 Summary .............. .
Chapter 4 Mining - Island Copper (Canada)
4.1 The Industry Risks ......... . 4.1.1 In General . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Coastal Mines and Waste Disposal to the Sea
4.2 Island Copper's Resolutions
4.3
4.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Location... .. 4.2.3 Timing ..... . 4.2.4 Pollution Controls 4.2.5 Assessment... 4.2.6 Effluent... .. 4.2.7 Tailing - Direct Impacts 4.2.7.1 Water Turbidity ... 4.2.7.2 Seabed Covering 4.2.7.3 Water Contamination . 4.2.7.4 Fish (and Shellfish) Kills 4.2.8 Tailings-Derived Impacts 4.2.8.1 Habitat and Ecosystem Changes 4.2.8.2 Biological Productivity 4.2.8.3 Food Chains and Fisheries Changes 4.2.8.4 Biological Contamination . . . . . 4.2.9 Land and Freshwater Assessments 4.2.10 Summary of Assessments Issues 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3
Assessment Personnel . . Pollution Controls . . . . Media Attention, Social Protest and Environmental Action
4.4 Summary .......................... .
Chapter 5 Organic Chemicals, Pulp and Paper -Annat Point (Scotland)
5.1 The Industry Risks
45 50 50 50 56 59 61 61 64 67 69
70
70 70 73 73 73 76 77 81 82 83 87 87 88 89 90 91 91 94 96 98
101 101 103 103 105
107 107
109
109
Contents
5.2 Annat Point's Resolution
5.3
5.2.1 The Impact 5.2.2 Assessments .. Issues 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3
The Team of Scientists Field Versus Laboratory Science: and Timing One-Shot Versus Continuing Assessments: Canadian Mills
5.4 Summary ........... .
Chapter 6 Sewage - Victoria (Canada)
6.1 The Risks ........... . 6.2 Victoria's Resolution ..... .
6.3
6.2.1 The Location of Victoria - Next to the U.S.A. 6.2.2 The Sewerage Authority 6.2.3 The Sewerage System in Victoria 6.2.4 Timing - Five Assessment Phases 6.2.5 Assessments and Impacts .... 6.2.5.1 Macaulay Point - The First Deep Outfall 6.2.5.2 Clover Point- Accident! ..... 6.2.5.3 McMicking Point - Citizen Protests . . . 6.2.5.4 Finnerty Cove - Insufficient Action ... 6.2.5.5 The Western Community - The Supreme Court 6.2.5.6 West Saanich Peninsula - A Unique Environment 6.2.5.7 East Saanich Peninsula - Small Treatment Plants 6.2.5.8 Ganges - A Remote Community Issues 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5
Periodic Reviews Institutional Frameworks Assessment Personnel . . Changing Social Perceptions of EIA Future Risk Assessment
6.4 Summary ................. .
Chapter 7 Spills-AMOCO CADIZ (France), Bhopal (India), Chemobyl (U.S.S.R.)
7.1 The Risks ............. . 7.2 Case 1. AMOCO CADIZ (France)
7.2.1 Impact and Timing 7.2.2 Assessments ....... . 7.2.3 Issues: Institutional Frameworks and International
Co-Operation 7.2.4 Summary ...... .
7.3 Case 2. Bhopal (India) 7.3.1 Site, Impact and Timing
XI
112 112 115 119 119 120
121 125
126
126 130 130 134 134 135 139 139 143 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 148 149 150 151 152 154
155
155 157 161 164
166 167 167 167
XII Contents
7.3.2 Assessment Problems . . . . . 171 7.3.3 Issues: The Sudden Emergency 172 7.3.4 Summary ....... 173
7.4 Case 3. Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) . . . . . 173 7.4.1 Site, Timing and Impact . . . . 175 7.4.2 Derived Impacts and Assessments 178 7.4.3 Issues.............. 180 7.4.3.1 A Near-Global Emergency 180 7.4.3.2 The Massive Emergency Response 180 7.4.3.3 International Co-Operation and Information Flow 181 7.4.3.4 Reporting, Archiving, and Hindsight Reviews 181 7.4.4 Summary 182
7.5 Comparison ofthe Spills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 8 Multiple and Dispersed Impacts - Acid Rain (USA/Canada), the Thames Estuary (England) 184
8.1 The Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 8.2 Case 1. Acid Rain (Eastern North America) 187
8.2.1 Location and Background 187 8.2.2 Impact and Timing 190 8.2.3 Assessments 191 8.2.4 Events... 191 8.2.5 Networking 193 8.2.6 Controls 195 8.2.7 Issues... 196 8.2.8 Summary 196
8.3 Case 2. The Thames Estuary (England) 197 8.3.1 History ........ 197 8.3.2 Site, Impact and Timing 199 8.3.2.1 London ........ 199 8.3.2.2 The First Degeneration 200 8.3.2.3 The Second Degeneration 202 8.3.3 Assessments 203 8.3.3.1 D.O. 1884 203 8.3.3.2 Chemicals 205 8.3.3.3 Fish .... 206 8.3.3.4 Other Biological Measures 207 8.3.4 Environmental Quality Control 208 8.3.5 Issues..... 208 8.3.5.1 Timing...... 209 8.3.5.2 Powerful People 209 8.3.5.3 Centres of Science 209 8.3.6 Fine-Tuning the Risk 210 8.3.7 Summary 210
8.4 Comparison of Risks ..... 211
Contents
Part 3 Reducing Risk
Chapter 9 Environmental Audits - Marcopper Mining Corp. (The Philippines), Bougainville Copper Mine
XIII
(Papua New Guinea) .......... 215
9.1 The Needs .................. 215 9.2 Case 1. Marcopper Mining (The Philippines) 217
9.2.1 Location and Timing ........ 217 9.2.2 Environmental Action and Assessments 220 9.2.3 The Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 9.2.4 Summary ............... 225
9.3 Case 2. Bougainville Copper Mine (Papua New Guinea) 225 9.3.1 Location and Timing ......... 225 9.3.2 Environmental Action and Assessments 230 9.3.3 The Audit . . . 232 9.3.3.1 Marine Benthos . 232 9.3.3.2 Fish Populations . 232 9.3.3.3 Fish Trace Metals 234 9.3.3.4 Interaction with the Geomorphology Project 235 9.3.3.5 Interaction with the Geochemistry Project 235 9.3.3.6 Interaction with the Reclamation Project 235 9.3.4 Issues......... 235 9.3.5 Predictive Assessments 236 9.3.6 Summary ...... 240
9.4 Comparison of the Two Audits . 240
Chapter 10 Permitting and Regulating - Quartz Hill Molybdenum Mine (Alaska), Yabulu Nickel Refinery (Australia) 242
10.1 The Permitting Process ............ . . 242 10.2 Case 1. Quartz Hill Molybdenum Mine (Alaska) 245
10.2.1 Location, Timing and Risks 245 10.2.2 The Local Resolutions 248 10.2.2.1 Assessments . . . 248 10.2.2.2 Permitting . . . . 251 10.2.3 Issues: Openness 253 10.2.4 Summary 257
10.3 Case 2. Yabulu Nickel Refinery (Australia) 257 10.3.1 The Risks for Smelters and Refineries 257 10.3.2 Yabulu's Resolutions 260 10.3.2.1 Location and Processing 260 10.3.2.2 The Permits and Timing 260 10.3.2.3 Assessments . . . . . . 266 10.3.3 Issues: Discretionary Action 266 10.3.4 Summary 268
10.4 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
XIV
Chapter 11 Fact-Finding and Social Input - a Public Hearing (Mining, Canada) and a Multinational AGM (Rio Tinto Zinc, England) ...... .
11.1 The Problem ................ . 11.2 Case 1. A Public Hearing - Mining ( Canada)
11.2.1 The Situation 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.2.6
The Event and Timing The Product . . . . . Media Responses .. Issues: Alternatives to Public Hearings Summary .............. .
11.3 Case 2. A Multinational AGM - Rio Tinto Zinc PLC (England)
11.3.1 The Company . 11.3.2 The 1984 AGM 11.3.3 Issues ..... 11.3.3.1 AGM Strategies by Management and Intervenors 11.3.3.2 Specifics Versus Issues 11.3.3.3 Information Flow 11.3.4 Summary ..... .
Part 4 Self-Help
Chapter 12 Issues
12.1 Science and Technology . . . . . . . 12.1.1 Research and Development 12.1.2 Assessment Procedures .. 12.1.3 Pollution Controls and Quality Controls
12.2 People: Personnel and Participants 12.2.1 Assessment Personnel 12.2.2 Case Participants
12.3 Social Organisation 12.3.1 Delays .. 12.3.2 Costs 12.3.3 Openness
12.4 Information Flow . 12.5 Social Demands ..
12.5.1 Native Rights 12.5.2 Media and Protest
12.6 Risk Planning 12.7 Case Histories
References .
Subject Index
Contents
270
270 272 272 273 278 282 284 285
285 285 287 289 289 291 292 294
296
296 296 298 299 300 300 302 303 303 304 305 306 307 307 308 309 310
311
327
