A CASE FOR THE INCLUSION OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY IN ADULT …eprints.qut.edu.au/16657/1/Carol_Anne_Engelbrecht_Thesis.pdf · 3.7.10 Presentation of Results 90 3.8 Limitations of

A CASE FOR THE INCLUSION OF EDUCATIONAL

GERONTOLOGY IN ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN

AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES

by

CAROL ANNE (CAPPY) ENGELBRECHT

M. Ed (Ad Voc Ed), B. Ed (APD), Dip. Ed.

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Learning and Professional Studies

Faculty of Education

QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

2008

A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education

iii

Keywords

Adult education; educational gerontology; ageing; social gerontology; older adults;

geragogy; older workers; age management; gerontology.


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v

Abstract

A case for the inclusion of educational gerontology in adult education programs

in Australian Universities.

At the intersection of adult education and social gerontology, and propelled by the

ageing phenomenon, educational gerontology has a critical place in the study of older

adult education. To contend with older learners’ needs, professional adult educators

require an enhanced preparation, and concomitance to a reinvigoration of current

adult learning programs to include the constructs of educational gerontology and the

geragogical imperative. Through survey and interviews, this research investigated

evidence of, and the capacity for, Australian Adult Education programs and Ageing

Research centres to meet this requirement. Results of this case study indicate a

paucity of evidence of educational gerontology in adult education programs, coupled

with significant potential for capacity development in this field through collaboration

with Ageing Research initiatives. The findings suggest an expansion of current

curriculum in adult education programs to include aspects of educational

gerontology, professional development of Adult Education academics in the

specialized area of educational gerontology, and broader adult education engagement

with external stakeholders and the ageing research community as a contribution to

social betterment.


vi

Acronyms ACE Adult and Community Education

AGHE Association for Gerontology in Higher Education

AMT Age Management Training

CAPS Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies

COTA Council of the Aged

DEST Department of Education, Science and Training

DEWR Department of Employment and Workplace Relations

HRD Human Resource Development

NARI National Ageing Research Institute

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OWLS Older Workers and Learners

RTO Registered Training Organisation

TAFE Technical and Further Education

VET Vocational Education and Training

WLP Workplace Learning & Performance Practitioners


vii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Background to the Study 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Australian Response to an Ageing Population 2

1.3 Focus on Later Life Adult Education 7

1.4 Purpose of the Study 9

1.5 Research Questions 9

1.6 Significance of the Study 10

1.7 Limitations of the Study 12

1.8 Structure of the Thesis 12

Chapter 2 Review of the Literature 13

2.1 Organisation of this Literature Review 13

2.2 Introduction 14

2.3 The Socio-political Context of an Ageing Australia 14

2.4 Social Theories of Ageing 17

2.5 Ageing and the Australian Workforce 20

2.5.1 Transitions to Retirement 23

2.5.2 Ageing and Organisational Learning and Development 26

2.6 Ageing and Australian Post-compulsory Education 30

2.6.1 The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitioners for an Ageing Society 31

Vocational Education and Training (VET) 31 Universities 35

2.6.2 Summary: Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian Population 41

2.7 Towards a Solution: The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitioners for an Ageing Population 42

2.7.1 Adult Education and the Older Adult Learner 44

2.7.2 Lifelong Learning 49

2.7.3 Life Course Theory 50

2.7.4 Geragogy 52

2.7.5 Widening Perspectives of Older Adult Education 55

2.8 Framework of Educational Gerontology 56

2.8.1 Introduction 56

2.8.2 Model of Educational Gerontology 59

2.9 Summary of Literature Review 62

Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology 66

3.1 Introduction 66

3.2 Rationale 66


viii

3.3 Research Setting 68

3.4 Research Participants 73

3.4.1 Participation 74

3.5 Procedure 76

3.6 Questionnaire Instrument 77

3.7 Conceptual Basis of the Questionnaire Items 78

3.7.1 Survey Questions 82

3.7.2 Data Collection 83

3.7.3 Units of Measurement 84

3.7.4 Telephone Interviews 85

3.7.5 Transcription 86

3.7.6 Analysis 87

3.7.7 Coding 87

3.7.8 Triangulation 88

3.7.9 Trustworthiness 90

3.7.10 Presentation of Results 90

3.8 Limitations of the Design 90

3.9 Summary 92

Chapter 4 Results and Interpretation 94

4.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter 94

4.2 Results and Interpretation Framework 95

PART ONE 97

4.3 Demographic Results 97

PART TWO 101

4.4 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 101

PART THREE 121

4.5 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 121

PART FOUR 149

4.6 Key Findings 149

4.6.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 149

4.6.2 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 150

4.6.3 Educational Gerontology Curriculum 150

Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations 152

5.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter 152

5.2 Conceptual Framework 153

5.3 Key Findings 156

5.4 Discussion 156

5.4.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 156

5.4.2 Summary 167

5.4.3 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 169


ix

5.4.4 Summary 180

5.5 The Wider Context 181

5.6 Advancing Educational Gerontology Curriculum 184

5.7 Conclusions 188

5.8 Significance of the Findings 190

5.8.1 Limitations of the Research 192

5.8.2 Recommendations for Future Work 193

References 195

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian

Population 42

Table 3.1 Education Schools/Faculties offering Adult Education Programs 68

Table 3.2 Australian Ageing Research centres 69

Table 3.3 Adult Education program response rate to survey and interview 76

Table 3.4 List of Participating Australian Ageing Research Centres by State 76

Table 3.5 Conceptual Basis of Survey Items Investigating Educational

Gerontology 80

Table 4.1 Range of Research Foci 98

Table 4.2 Perceived Benefits to Collaboration with Ageing Research Centres 145

Table 4.3 Perceived Benefits to Collaboration with Adult Education Programs 145

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian

Higher Education 60


Higher Education 70

Figure 3.2 Rate of Response by Research Location 75


Higher Education 96

Figure 4.2 Primary Research Focus of Ageing Research Centres 99

Figure 4.3 Purpose of Ageing Research University Affiliation 100


x

Figure 4.4 Level of Familiarity of Adult Education Academic with

Educational Gerontology 140

Figure 4.5 Level of Familiarity of Ageing Research Centre Director with

Educational Gerontology 140

Figure 5.1 Effects of Demographic Change on Education and Training to and

for the Older Adult 154

Figure 5.2 The Contribution of University Adult Education towards Education

to and for the Older Adult 155

Appendices

Appendix 1: Project introductory correspondence 210

Appendix 2: Research Protocols 211

Appendix 3: Consent Form 212

Appendix 4 (a): Sample Survey Instrument/Ageing Research Centre 213

Appendix 4 (b): Sample Survey Instrument/Faculty of Education 216

Appendix 5: Research Sample: Australian Ageing Research Centres 220

Appendix 6: Research Sample/Adult Education 222

Appendix 7: Sample NVivo Interview Transcript and Coding 223


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Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the

best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: …………………………………………………………………

Date: ……………………..27 July 2008…………………………………


xii

Acknowledgements

It is important to acknowledge that this doctoral study would not have been possible

without the ongoing emotional support and encouragement from my family, Johan,

Shilo and Romy, and my friends Marietjie, Chris, Liz, Richard and Elham. At the

theoretical level, I would like to thank Dr Tricia Fox for her initial direction, and

Professor Hitendra Pillay for providing highly effective strategic support and

supervision in the latter stages of this study. The Queensland University of

Technology’s Centre for Learning Innovation, led by Professor Carmel Diezmann,

provided significant administrative support throughout my candidature, and this is

gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to thank the participating Adult Education

Faculties and Ageing Research Centres for their contribution to my research.

This thesis is dedicated to Michael John Phillips: seafarer, judoka, optometrist,

inventor and father; and to his unwavering refusal to become old.


Chapter 1 1

Chapter 1 Background to the Study 1.1 Introduction

For much of human history demographic patterns have been fairly stable,

characterised by slow population growth and small changes in age structures, birth

rates and death rates (Bloom & Canning, 2006). Even periodic epidemics and

pandemics have had little bearing on population trends. Over the last 140 years

however, a demographic upheaval attributed to a combination of a reduction of

fertility rates and an increase in lifespan due to improved health, has occurred.

Falling fertility rates have a direct effect on the ability of a population to regenerate,

and this has been exacerbated by women giving birth at a later age (Ilmarinen, 2005)

and the lifestyle choices of one-or two-children families. Consequently, the balance

in population has shifted from young to old. For example, the median age in

Australia is expected to reach 46 years by 2051 (Access Economics, 2001) and at the

same time, one in every 5 people in the United States of America (USA) will be over

the age of 65 years (Gardyn, 2000), while China will have one-third of its population

aged over 60. Population ageing is therefore a global phenomenon for which both

developed and less developed countries are formulating and developing strategies for

survival (Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 17).

In tandem with the ageing population, the extended lifespan has been

accompanied by an increase in the number of years that people have with good

functional and unrestricted capacity, with resource implications for the worker-

dependant ratio (the number of workers in a family relative to their dependants), and

economic prosperity (Bloom & Canning, 2006). These authors admit that while the

economic implications of this phenomenon are undeniable, there are additional

lifecycle dimensions to demographic change such as educational activities,

retirement patterns, and savings decisions which will alter as the ratio of workers to

dependants also changes. Adult education specialists working within the theory of

educating older adult learners could help ensure that older learners make use of

opportunities that different life situations, such as transitions to retirement, or career

changes can offer (Schneider, 2003). Therefore, to address the predicted education

and training needs associated with an ageing demographic, this study introduces the

specialist area of study known as educational gerontology as a potential support

mechanism for the holistic development of older adults as individuals and as ongoing


Chapter 1 2

participants in workplaces, institutions and communities. To identify Australia’s

readiness for accommodating a specialised form of older adult education known as

educational gerontology, this study examines whether Australian universities have

the potential for, and capacity to, apply educational gerontology constructs through

established adult education programs.

1.2 The Australian Response to an Ageing Population

The political response to the ageing Australian population includes the “National

Strategy for an Ageing Australia” issued by the Department of Health and Ageing

(2002), and the Productivity Commission’s (2005) report “Economic Implications of

an Ageing Australia.” From an economic perspective, reports have been published to

prepare entrepreneurs in the retail and leisure industry sectors for the older

consumer’s “silver dollar” (Access Economics, 2001). For business, scope for more

flexible working arrangements for older workers has been provided in the 1996

Australian Workplace Relations Act and applied by the Department of Employment

and Workplace Relations (DEWR). The 2004-2005 federal budget allocated $12.1

million dollars to support the Mature Age Employment and Workplace Strategy,

designed to increase workforce participation by mature aged Australians and

addresses both labour supply and employer demand (Department of Employment and

Workplace Relations [DEWR], 2007).

Concepts of “old” have become more significant as life expectancy increases

alongside work participation. Age cohorts used in the forthcoming Australian Bureau

of Statistics Census Thematic “Ageing In Australia” (ABS Cat No 2048.0: due for

release in 2008) will include revised age classifications with “younger old”

representing persons aged 65-74 years, and the “very old” as those aged 85 years and

over. Persons aged over 75 years are classified in the “old” group. The “younger

old” classification dovetails neatly with the Australian pension age of 60 years,

which has been amended in recognition of the potential role that post-retirement

people might play in contributing to the economy (Australian Bureau of Statistics

[ABS], 2003).

The National Reform Agenda formulated for meeting predicted Australian

skill shortages, has resulted in government reports such as “Skilling Australia – New

Directions for Vocational Education and Training” issued by the Department of

Education, Science and Training (Department of Education, Science and Training


Chapter 1 3

[DEST], 2005) which was supported by the 2005-2006 federal budget in a policy

document titled “Backing Australia’s Skills: Reinvigorating the Vocational Training

and Education System.” While this publication is developed for a generalised

audience, the $1 billion directed to initiatives in career education, training for skills

excellence, scholarships, residential support, and support for general workplace

preparation (Choy, Haukka & Keyes, 2006) will inevitably have some spin-off

benefits for the “younger old”’ Australian who might experience career transitions,

or a return to work after retrenchment or retirement. For the adult education sector,

Adult Learning Australia published a policy briefing paper titled “Adult learning and

Australia’s ageing population” (McIntyre, 2005), which synthesises these varied

policies and translates them into a formula for older adult learners. McIntyre states:

The educational component of this policy meshes with other political agendas

for change to industrial relations law, retirement and superannuation policies,

welfare-to-work reform and the role of employment services and changed

Federal-State arrangements for the funding of vocational education and

training. (p. 7)

Demographic data supports the prediction that increasing numbers of older

people will require education and training in a wide range of content areas, to enable

them to enjoy a full and active life (Calder, 1993). The National Ageing Research

Institute (NARI) defines active ageing as “a process of optimising opportunities for

physical, social and mental wellbeing throughout the life course in order to extend

life expectancy” (p. 7).

Field and Leicester (2000) set a significant benchmark in respect of education

for the older person, by contending that adult and lifelong learning are fundamental

to successful ageing. Moving from active ageing, NARI defines successful ageing as

“one’s ability to maintain a physically healthy state, mental and physical functioning

and social engagement” (p. 7).

Ilmarinen (2005) asserts that the ageing population will require many

professional services, and these may have to be staffed by older people themselves

for others in their age group. Similarly, academics in higher education will need to

be prepared for a changing student profile as greater numbers of older adult students

participate in education. From a different perspective, undergraduate students will

need specific preparation for an ageing population, particularly those who will be


Chapter 1 4

working in the social and health sciences, as new graduates will in turn require skills

in managing older clients (Glista & Petersons, 2003). In the private sector,

workplace trainers, supervisors and managers will require skills in working with

older adults, older workers, and older learners. This is especially relevant in

situations where aged-specific cognitive and instructional strategies apply, and where

training interventions might be daunting for the older individual as they encounter

technological advancements and other workplace changes. This situation is not

limited to vocationally-oriented learning. As Chappell, Hawke, Rhodes and Solomon

(2003) note, the ordinary citizen can also benefit through skilful presentation and

design of community education projects, with the added benefit of reducing negative

stereotyping and ageism in society. Training quality for older learners is a critical

issue in light of the increasing skill shortages emerging both nationally and

internationally (Jorgensen, 2004); and if not advanced, the combination of these two

factors has the potential to derail the government’s Mature Age Employment and

Workplace Strategy (DEWR, 2007).

The impact of an “Ageing Australia” policy document which highlights the

current and potential increase in numbers pursuing training and education is negated

to a significant extent by a paucity of evidence of a specific policy framework for

establishing education and training standards relevant to older Australian learners,

irrespective of their learning setting. It appears that there exists a lack of coincident

policy directive to establish professional benchmarks for older adult learning within

agencies responsible for a variety of Australian learners. The current adult learning

policies are targeted at the younger adults with little regard for older adults who,

while being adults, are a very different cohort (Settersten, 2003). These shortcomings

allow for an assertion that despite strategies promoting healthy, successful or active

ageing, there is currently a lack of fluency in translating these policies into quality

standards relevant to the education and training needs of older people. In a report

commissioned by the now defunct Australian National Training Authority

(Australian National Training Authority [ANTA], n.d.), it was revealed that there

was no specific accreditation for providers of training to older people, nor was there

an established standard for good practice of training older workers (Cameron, 2004).

Some broader practice standards are beginning to emerge, with accredited workplace

trainers offered the opportunity to attend one-day seminars on Age Management

developed by the Department of Employment and Workplace Relations; private


Chapter 1 5

sector seminars offered by management consulting firms such as the Australian

Institute of Management (AIM); and mature-age workplace and employment services

offered through private organisations. Training quality issues are exacerbated by

inconsistencies in recognition of prior learning practices which are problematic for

older learners with diverse experiences (Fox, 2005; Gelade, Batts & Gerber, 2003).

It could be argued that there is a causal link between training quality standards and

the low older adult training participation rate in Australia, as education and training

participation rates fall dramatically for the individual who is aged 54 and older

(Chappell, Hawke et al., 2003). As a result of this biased approach towards younger

adults, older adults are denied the opportunity for a third age of learning, in which

fuller autonomy and self-fulfillment is possible due to the relinquishment of the

pressure of family and as career obligations ease (Findsen, 2003). This bias also

obfuscates one of the principal outcomes in the Commonwealth Government’s

National Strategy for an Ageing Australia, namely the “achievement of independence

and self-provision” (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002, p. 3). The current

approach suggests firstly that achieving independence and self-provision is the

domain of younger adults, and secondly that these objectives are achievable solely

through productivity-driven approaches.

The role of education and training quality gains further significance when

seen in the context of lifelong learning in which learning is seen as encouraging

education for citizenship (political); encouraging wider participation (social);

emphasising education’s relevance to economic prosperity (vocational); and

recognising the importance of self-determination and personal development (liberal)

(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2004). Given

that our life course consists of “multiple learning points as we age” (Settersten,

2003), lifelong learning is integral to successful and active ageing.

Australian universities are irrevocably linked to the ageing phenomenon due

to their recognition of lifelong learning and their role as social change agent

(Anderson, 1999). Reasoning behind this statement is that education faculties within

Australian universities who provide adult education programs have the infrastructure

to systematically prepare for the older population from the existing platform of adult

education. Appreciating that adult learning draws from several fields ranging from

adult basic education, to human resource development, and from educational

gerontology to continuing professional education (Merriam, 2004), higher education


Chapter 1 6

is a suitable conduit to achieving professional skills required by each of these areas.

Theoretically, adult education is based on the facilitation of learning, originally

formulated on Knowles’ (1980) principles of adult learning and subsequently refined

by Brookfield (1986) and Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) which address

motivation, self-direction and content relevance in adult learning. While interest

initially centered on the humanist goals of personal growth and self-development in

adult learning, more recently it has shifted away from the individual, to focus on the

socio-political context of adult education, where according to Merriam (2004)

assumptions about the conditions that shape the learning context are critically

questioned. Merriam (2004) states that, in a critical orientation to adult learning,

“diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is challenged, inclusion is a goal, and

emancipation from oppressive social structures makes possible a context in which

learning can thrive” (p. 213).

Clearly adult learning is a rich and complex field, and with emerging issues

of “global perspectives of spirituality in the service of protecting our planet”

(Merriam, 2004, p. 215), it is drawing attention to the interconnectedness of

humanity and the spiritual in learning experiences. It is possible that this perspective

might incorporate (and re-emphasise) one specific adult learning theory for learning

in later life: transformational learning (Mezirow, 1981) leading to self-actualisation.

This is because Merriam (2004) describes transformational learning as the mental

construction of experience, inner meaning and reflection. Recent research into the

older adult learners’ search for ontological and existential meaning indicates that

reflexivity enables learners to “devise answers that help shape the experience and

influence important milestones” (Russell, 2007, p. 364). Mezirow (cited in Russell,

2007) believes that transformational learning takes place with a combination of

factors that can include “trigger events or disorienting experiences that can be sudden

or occur over time, engagement with other people for the purposes of confirmation

and affirmation, and a change in perspective” (p. 366).

An example of a trigger event is retirement, because this experience is

acknowledged as a significant marker of one’s life course (Walker, 1996). However,

the challenge of confronting one’s mortality while transitioning out of highly-

delineated social roles such as employment has the potential to erode self-worth

(Tougas, Lagace, De La Sablonneire & Kocum, 2004), impacting on the affective

domain of any future adult learning that might be undertaken. This domain includes


Chapter 1 7

emotions, feelings, values and senses (Russell, 2007) and makes the experience

unique to each learner. Given that the socio-cultural context is vital to understanding

the lived experiences of adult learners, the relevance of multidisciplinary concepts to

learning later in life is starting to strengthen, necessitating an extension of established

adult education programs to adequately respond to an ageing demographic.

1.3 Focus on Later Life Adult Education

The required focus on later life learners necessitates a convergence of pedagogical,

philosophical, physiological and sociological domains. Specifically, an extension of

adult education for later life Australians will require wider interdisciplinary input,

and an orientation that takes into account both the biological condition of the ageing

learner, the sociological issues (setting, context, relationships) in which the learning

occurs, and the psychological framework of the older individual. This integrated

approach is termed as a biopsychosocial orientation (Whitbourne, 2001). Much of

the new knowledge on the adult learner already comes from multi-disciplinary fields

within and beyond education and include: educational anthropology, educational

psychology, educational gerontology, industrial psychology, sociology, training and

women’s studies (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007). For later life learners however, this

does not go far enough in providing a more robust platform for developing/

maintaining learning capacities, and generating advocacy for a more specialised

educational appreciation based on geragogy, which is the process of teaching older

adults (John, 1988). Accumulated personal experience, social class, gender, ethnicity,

geographical location and ability (Findsen, 2003) affects older adults in much the

same ways as these issues affect younger adults. However, it is argued that where

these factors are juxtaposed with physical changes, self-identity erosion and

changing social roles, the impact of rapidly changing contexts and workplace settings

(Hodkinson, Ford, Hawthorn & Hodkinson, 2007) and the impending end of life, this

combination of factors warrants specific educational appreciation for the older adult.

Appreciating that the emphasis on cumulative advantage does not in itself create

difference between older adults and adults, Settersten (2003), provides several

commonalities of old age that sets this cohort apart from general adults. These

include:

� The presence of normative decline in physical and cognitive capacities;


Chapter 1 8

� Increased prospects of health conditions and the resulting concern reflected in

individuals’ self-definitions;

� Diminishing time left to live and the need to contend with one’s mortality;

� Bereavement associated with deaths of parents, spouses and friends;

� More restricted but intense social relationships and networks;

� Being perceived or treated by others in ageist ways;

� Increased interiority, desire for integrity, and search for meaning in life; and

� Greater acceptance of things that cannot be controlled in life, coupled with

greater fear of losing control over one’s life (p. 175).

Educational gerontology consolidates the concept of difference of older

people by supporting engagement specifically with older adult learners (Engelbrecht,

2006; Findsen, 2003). This is due to the fact that educational gerontology is

concerned with learning beyond andragogy (adult learning), and focuses specifically

on the process of geragogy in which the processes of older adult learning are the

focus. Geragogy is about encompassing the strategies employed in teaching older

adults (Formosa, 2002), and is premised on the fact that as one ages, the power-load

margin shifts in response to altering physical, social, mental, economic and personal

skill levels and the load factors such as career and self-concept experienced in later

life (Hiemstra, 2002). It is an approach supplemented by the biopsychosocial

framework of social gerontology (Walker, 1996) which is concerned with the social

policy implications of demographic change (Powell, 2001). Moreover, it views the

individual learner in their unique social, emotional and intellectual context (Withnall

& Percy, 1994). Specifically, educational gerontology is concerned with the study

and practise of instructional endeavours for a general or specific public about ageing

and older people (Glendenning, 2001). It is applied through education for older

adults exclusively, through public education about ageing, and through the education

of professionals and paraprofessionals in the field of ageing (Berdes, Zych &

Dawson, 1992). Educational gerontology has three distinct, yet inter-related aspects:

� educational activities about ageing and older people (gerontology) to a wider

public;

� educational activities (programs) designed for persons 45 years and older; and

� educational preparation for those intending to work in professional or

paraprofessional capacities within the aged sector (Walker, 1996, p. 9).


Chapter 1 9

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The impact of an Australian ageing population and the contribution of the study of

educational gerontology in meeting social issues associated with the changing

demographic provided the impetus for this study. It has been noted that there is no

specific policy framework for accommodating training concepts and processes

specific to older adult learners. As an initial strategy to address this shortcoming, the

purpose of this research is to examine activities in Australian university Adult

Education programs and Ageing Research Centres to determine whether

complementarities exists between the two entities in terms of adult education

knowledge and how this extends to gerontology content knowledge. This information

is considered vital for capacity-building to meet the learning needs of older

Australians. Details of the study will not only examine the nexus between the two

disciplines of adult education and gerontology gleaned from the Centres of Ageing

Research and Australia adult education academics, but will also analyse the

feasibility of specialized study in educational gerontology.

1.5 Research Questions

Despite the existence of Education Faculties offering adult education programs and

university-affiliated Ageing Research centres that focus exclusively on the aged

sector, it is not clear whether traditional adult education programs articulate with

these centres in any way, or whether their programs translate into the paradigm of

educational gerontology. This is an important issue, as the literature suggests that

these two university domains are potentially essential stakeholders in the learning

and development of older adults. Also, in the context of workplace skill shortages,

social imperatives associated with successful ageing, moral sensitivities linked to

equity and active citizenship, and the overarching humanistic orientation of this

study, this research is both valuable and timely for examining the need for the

professional development of those working with older learners. As a result the

research questions in this study include:

� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in Australian

university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres?


Chapter 1 10

� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application of

educational gerontology principles?

� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the development of

curriculum content that extends current adult learning concepts for those

preparing to work in the aged sector?

1.6 Significance of the Study

Considering the rapidly changing demographic indicating an ageing population

(OECD, 2004), this study is timely and significant. Globally, governments are

making large investments in addressing the perceive risk to labour shortage but the

same cannot be said about the investment in education relative to social and

wellbeing issues of older adults. Details and information from this research will

inform greater understanding of the demographic imperative to improve the learning

experiences and opportunities of the older person in Australia, consistent with Field

and Leicester’s (2000) assertion that adult and lifelong learning are regarded as

fundamental to successful ageing. Reaching an older age does not mean the end of

growth, a view reiterated by Settersten (2003) when he states that “the lives of old

people share the unfinished quality of never being or feeling fully made, of still being

conditioned by longings and strivings, even – or especially – in the face of a more

limited time horizon” (p. 176).

This study also extends the understanding of the educational needs and

processes to support older adult learners. There has been a rapid expansion of

knowledge about ageing, and dissemination of this information is necessary to

prepare and update those currently working in the aged sector (Glista & Petersons,

2003). From an educational perspective, growing interdisciplinary knowledge about

older learners from gerontology, sociology and education, necessitates more

integrated programs about older adult learners’ development for utilization in

curriculum content and design. In addition, incorporating geragogical strategies into

current practices has the potential to improve quality standards in the professional

preparation of those entering the older adult learning and community sectors,

including those from other faculties. Geragogical strategies include those proposed

by Formosa (2002) as a process specifically committed to the transformation of

ageism, to the encouragement of empowerment through education, and which


Chapter 1 11

embraces non-traditional classroom techniques such as Socratic dialogue, structured

reminiscence and critical expression, in fostering empowerment in the older adult

learner or worker. A deeper understanding of the older adult learner will also be of

benefit to academics as the profile of students enrolled in university programs alters

to reflect population age changes.

The multidisciplinary nature of educational gerontology, drawn from

sociology, gerontology and andragogy, enables this study to encourage greater

collaboration across disciplines capable of producing a rich body of synthesised

knowledge. The results of this study will contribute to developing an informed view

of ageism, a situation in which older citizens are stereotyped and disadvantaged on

the basis of chronological age (T.D Nelson, 2002), by advocating for a specialised

approach to the development of older adults as contributing members of society.

With an overarching goal of empowerment for the older adult, this research will

assist in negating prevailing declinist and disengagement theoretical models of old

age (Powell, 2001; Thomas, 2004) and encourage academics and practitioners to

adopt an active ageing perspective. Results of the study can identify practical

education and training solutions to meeting economic demands particularly where

older Australians in the 45 to 65 years and older age bracket are expected to return

to, or remain in, work in greater numbers (ABS, 2003). For example, in a report on

training disadvantaged older workers (classified by Gelade et al. (2003) as being over

the age of 45, and employed for at least two weeks in their lifetime due to various

challenges) have enormous potential for learning. They state that “older people have

skills that are not recognised as transferable, but effective training can draw out such

skills and relate them to new learning” (p. 22).

Interest in the development of older adult workers has increased due to the

need to offset the skills shortage and declining numbers of younger employees, a

situation likely to increase the need for workplace re-training for the older employee

(Sheen, 2003) and considered a vital component in stabilising the economy

(Jorgensen, 2004). Finally, this study will advance educational gerontology as a

specialised extension to the education of older adults, leading to further research into

the potential applications of this area in the public arena.


Chapter 1 12

1.7 Limitations of the Study

This research is limited to Australian universities that provide Adult Education

programs and to University-affiliated centres focused on Ageing Research. The

findings will therefore be subject to the influences, policies, regulations, personnel

and political context of universities as organisations intent on both research and

teaching. Consequently, the insights and findings will only be applicable to

organisational units who participated in this study.

Limitation is also acknowledged in the methodology undertaken for this

research in that, while interview and surveys yield timely and rich data, the logistics

of accessing participants located across Australia was challenging requiring the

adoption of telephone interviews. The researcher acknowledges that the reliance on

telephonic communication, through which the nuances of administrative culture and

behavioural signals may be overlooked, has the potential to distort meaning. To

mitigate this limitation, the researcher triangulated the survey data with the interview

responses to increase its conformity.

1.8 Structure of the Thesis

Chapter two contains a review of the literature related to the socio-political setting of

an ageing Australian population, and a consideration of particular educational aspects

relevant to and for older adults. This chapter also introduces a model of the specialist

area of educational gerontology as a proposed solution to the educational challenges

identified, together with a template of typical activities associated with the practical

application of this field. Through a synthesis of the literature on educational

gerontology, the proposed model and template, the chapter concludes with a

formulation of three research questions.

Chapter three describes the design of the research, including sampling,

development of the data collection methods, and analytical framework.

Chapter four presents the results of the surveys and interviews in a tabular

format to enable comparison across both types of research settings, according to each

individual element associated with educational gerontology, and cross-referenced to

each of the research questions.

Chapter five contains a discussion of the findings, leading to the presentation

of the conclusions, limitations of the study and opportunities for further research.


Chapter 2 13

Chapter 2 Review of the Literature

2.1 Organisation of this Literature Review

To adequately address the complexity of issues associated with the development of

educational gerontology curriculum awareness and inclusion, it is necessary to

analyse concepts from a variety of perspectives, emanating from social, educational

and institutional domains. Brady (1990) describes this as a situational analysis, a

process in which both internal and external factors are analysed to determine

justification for curriculum innovations and to determine where new content might

rest. Internal factors include the abilities and aptitudes of individuals, the particular

values, strengths and capacities of the educators, the political ethos, structure and

relationships of the education institutions, material resources, and perceived

shortcomings in the existing curriculum (Brady, 1990). External factors affecting

innovative curriculum include cultural, political and social changes and expectations,

changing educational systems and policies, the changing nature of the subject matter,

the potential contribution by institutions, and flow of resources (Brady, 1990). This

review of literature is organised around the theme of situational analysis.

Firstly, the literature review provides an overview of the Australian socio-

political context within which an educational gerontology initiative might reside,

including coverage of recent policy documents, research reports and legislation

pertinent to the ageing demographic. This is followed by a description of established

sociological theories of ageing to provide a link to understanding the concepts

underlying Australia’s political response. From this sociological perspective, the

chapter then analyses emerging workforce issues such as retirement and ageism,

followed by an assessment of potential institutional platforms for the delivery of

educational gerontology programs to address these challenges. Having generated a

potential delivery mechanism, this review then discusses the extension of adult

education theory to include a more specific focus on empowering the older adult

learner, thereby generating a platform for the introduction of educational gerontology

as an innovative area of study and research. These details then set the stage for an

enquiry into Australia’s capacity to embrace such an innovation in response to

significant demographic change.


Chapter 2 14

2.2 Introduction

This research focuses on older adult learners, a specialised field which is grounded in

the discipline of social gerontology (Withnall & Percy, 1994) and more recently,

applied through practice underpinned by educational gerontology (Engelbrecht,

2006; Merriam, 2004). The overarching concept to this study is that ageing, unlike

previous conceptualizations of it being a purely physiological event, is now viewed

from a biopsychosocial perspective, which comprises a view of development as a

complex interaction of biological, psychosocial and social processes (Whitbourne,

2001). Underpinned by a human development focus, and the implications of

educational challenges associated with successful and active ageing and maintaining

older adults in the workplace, this study is primarily focused on:

� understanding the nature and demand for specialised knowledge and skills

necessary for preparing practitioners intending to work in and for the aged

sector;

� upskilling those who currently hold training and development positions

within industry; and

� developing curriculum for university programs such as workplace training

and development degrees.

2.3 The Socio-political Context of an Ageing Austra lia

An increased awareness of the impact of an ageing Australian population emerged

around 2000 when a range of demographic-based reports were published indicating

that the current Australian population was expected to live almost ten years longer

than similar research indicators from the 1960s (ABS, 2005). In addition, of

particular interest to industry stakeholders, was the prediction that between 1998 and

2016 in Australia, only 20% of the labour force growth would be represented by the

20-44 years old age group. The economic impact of these demographics was

reiterated by findings from the Federal Government Treasurer’s 2002 report The

Intergenerational Report, 2002–2003 (Commonwealth of Australia Federal

Treasurer’s Report, 2002). This report outlined the likely consequences of a

changing age structure in lowering participation in the workforce and thereby

slowing economic growth (McIntyre, 2005, p. 8). More recently, Federal

Government budget allocations for the 2005-2006 financial years were directed to

support the “Skilling Australia” agenda. This is a policy designed to reduce the skills


Chapter 2 15

deficit and meet industry labour force demands, with the allocation of over $1 billion

dollars to a variety of initiatives addressing skill development. Economic responses

were not the only indicators of the need for a national response to the skills shortage.

Also advanced was the need to increase research and knowledge of the ageing

phenomenon, and it was identified as a major research area. This revised focus can

be evidenced in the increase in Australian Research Council and National Health and

Medical Research council 2004 funding associated with the ageing workforce and is

exemplified in 2005 projects such as the Ageing Well, Ageing Productively Research

theme. These interdisciplinary projects support and reinforce the valuable

contribution that universities might make to the social and economic changes

underway, and which are relevant to an ageing population. Finally, the 2006 Federal

budget introduced sweeping changes to superannuation rules that enable, and

encourage, older workers to pay less tax on retirement if they extend their working

lives to 60 years of age (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006).

Access Economics (2001) stressed the possibility of rising health care

expenditure unless extensions to workforce participation and better utilisation of the

“silver dollar” were implemented. As an outcome of these financial predictions,

strategic document reports were published by the Federal Government in which

specific goals necessary for providing opportunities for, and removing barriers to,

participation in society for older people including older adult workers were stated

(Access Economics, 2001). Some of these reports included the National Strategy for

an Ageing Australia in 2001, which outlined several education and training

requirements for the nation. These include a better-utilised workforce, more

inclusive recruitment practices, an improvement in the general attitudinal approach

of employers towards older employees, more opportunities for training and

professional development of older workers, removal of real and perceived barriers to

social participation, and a general focus on service and infrastructure such as housing

and health care.

In 2003, an address to the Economic and Social Outlook Conference focused

on specific strategies for “Keeping Older Workers in Work” (Bishop, 2003). It noted

that Australia was still lagging behind in the participation rates of mature age

workers despite government policy being introduced to support extended working

lives. This address identified that one out of every three retired members of the

National Seniors Association wanted to return to work in some capacity, indicating a


Chapter 2 16

rich resource of untapped skills in Australia and reiterated an earlier report by the

ABS that stated that, despite the majority of growth being identified in the older age

brackets, it had been found that the highest rate of job-seeker discouragement was

found to be in the 55-64 age group, particularly from the declining industry sectors

such as manufacturing and mining (ABS, 2003). This report also highlighted

barriers to participation for older workers and the negative outcomes from

employment discouragement for those over 55 years of age, including depression,

loneliness, isolation and illness. This reinforced the linkage between productivity and

good health, with employers urged to integrate health initiatives into Human

Resource practices. Similarly, the link between education and mental health,

longevity, well-being and successful ageing is well documented (Herzog & House,

1991; Mirowski & Ross, 2005; Walker, 1996). In fact, Mirowski and Ross (2005)

assert that

the health-related consequences of education cumulate on many levels, from

the socioeconomic (employment, job quality, earnings, income and wealth)

and behavioural (habits such as smoking and exercising, beliefs such as

perceived control over one’ personal life, personal relationships) to the

physiological (blood pressure, cholesterol levels, aerobic capacity),

anatomical (body fat, joint deterioration, arterial fatty plaque) and perhaps

even intracellular (insulin resistance, free radical damage). (p. 27)

Successful ageing is described in terms usually reflecting the academic

discipline of the investigator, but current definitions often overlap with concepts of

healthy ageing, positive ageing, productive ageing, active ageing and ageing well

(Bowling, 2007, p. 264). In a search of empirical reports on this topic, Bowling

(2007) found that when the studies adopted a social functioning stance, numerous

associations appeared between activity (social and productive), multiple roles and

self-perceived competence, efficacy, better health and functioning, autonomy,

enhanced emotional well-being and life satisfaction in old age (p. 267). Consistent

with this multiplicity of roles, Ilmarinen (2005) introduced the term “worklife,” as an

indicator of a more contemporary integrated view of a person’s daily activities,

where work and learning are acknowledged as consisting of a major part of one’s

social experience. This integrative orientation suggests that, to be an effective


Chapter 2 17

contributor to the advancement of older adults, the political perspectives on ageing

must be viewed against an understanding of the social theories of ageing.

2.4 Social Theories of Ageing

Understanding the ways in which social theory has influenced our understanding of

ageing over the last thirty years is useful because it enhances our ability to scrutinise

emerging social gerontology theories and provides an insight into the likely

consequences of social policy for older adults (Powell, 2001). It also frames this

research study because social gerontology is naturally multidisciplinary and cuts

across and through human and social sciences, rendering it a principal contributor to

theory surrounding old age (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002; Whitbourne, 2001).

The first theoretical construct in understanding society’s perspective on

ageing is functionalism, first postulated as a solution in the post war era as an

antidote to the shortage of younger workers in the USA and United Kingdom.

Powerful forces, emanating from the State and applied through a political and

economic conceptual platform, created the notion of an ageing population becoming

a social problem (Powell, 2001) unless society had certain functions to maintain its

well-being. Functions were required in both employment and in one’s personal life,

but these functions were largely politically created for socio-economic reasons.

Walker (2005) while describing this theoretical approach as “accommodating a

growing body of social gerontology research” (p. 816) admits that it neglects the

issues of gender, and “overlooks entirely agency or purposive individual human

action” (p. 816). Functionalism therefore has the potential to homogenise older

adults and makes them “helpless pawns of what were assumed to be inevitable

biological processes” (Walker, 2005), or as Townsend (1981) suggests “acquiescent

functionalism” (p. 6). In such an orientation, the causes of problems with ageing are

“attributed to difficulties in individual adjustment to ageing, retirement or physical

decrescence, all the while acquiescing to the states, the economy and inequality”

(p. 6).

Out of functionalism emerged both disengagement and activity theory, where

older adults were intended to gradually disengage from work roles and prepare for

the ultimate disengagement: death (Powell, 2001). Retirement, or transition as it has

recently been termed, is an illustration of a disengagement process. Walker (1996)

states that retirement is “an event, period and social institution . . . [that comprises a]


Chapter 2 18

social character and image with which the individual will need to interact, raising

issues of identity, activity, power and purpose” (p. 24). Activity theory is the

counterpoint to disengagement, since it claims a “successful old age can be achieved

by maintaining roles and relationships” (Powell, 2001, p. 2). In the 1950s,

advocating activity was deemed an ethical and academic response to disengagement

and effectively recast retirement as “joyous and mobile” (Powell, 2001, p. 2).

Problems exist with activity theory in that it neglects issues such as power, inequality

and conflict between age groups. For example, this approach might impose on the

older person a choice—to either be active or to disengage—and if activity is chosen

then intergenerational issues might arise as they enter settings dominated by other

age groups, such as in the workplace. Further complications in this typical scenario

arise when factors such as race, class and gender are included (Phillipson & Biggs,

1998) because older adults are not homogenous (Bowling, 2007).

As a further extension of functionalism, a political economy of old age

emerged, in which the capitalist complexity of modern society was used to explain

how old age was constructed to foster the needs of the economy. Unfortunately, this

theoretical line creates a platform for legitimising “burden” groups, particularly

where the concepts such as rising costs of health care, and superannuation shortfalls

are concerned (Powell, 2001). Ironically, the terms “burden” and “asset” increase in

profile when older adult learners are linked to the state of the economy and, as

Phillipson (1998) suggests, in times of economic hardship older adults are regarded

as outcasts not required in the workforce, a view that society conveniently reverses in

times of economic largesse.

Phillipson and Biggs (1998) describe how these political economy

perspectives continued to proliferate in the 1990s, augmented by scholarly

contributions towards a more humanistic perspective. They state that, collectively,

“these intellectual trends may be seen as illustrating the emergence of a critical as

opposed to a traditional gerontology” (p. 12). In critical gerontology, which has

Marxist theoretical origins, an awareness of the structural pressures and constraints

affecting older adults exists, together with concern over the absence of meaning in

their lives. This arose because of work such as that of Townsend (1981) who

identified a “structured dependency that was embedded in institutional ageism” (p.

23), and illustrated through concepts of retirement, pension status, institutional

residences and passive forms of community care. Concerns of this nature generated


Chapter 2 19

a focus on empowering older adults through the transformation of society, or the

development of new rituals and symbols to facilitate changes through the life course

(Phillipson & Biggs, 1998). Examples of socially-instituted rituals include

education, work, and retirement (Walker, 1996). It is therefore interesting to

consider how, in the light of existing social theories, ageing is being socially

constructed in Australia, how education and training is being marketed to this cohort,

and how closely industry is aligned to current economic and political objectives.

Specifically, it is useful to consider the following current social indicators in

Australia: older adults are being urged to stay in work for longer, in different careers

and in different capacities on a part-time or casual basis “to alleviate skill shortages

and the economic social and political pressures of supporting increasing numbers of

old people” (Lear, 2004, p. 203). The concept of active ageing is being promoted

through policy documents (World Health Organisation, 2002); workplaces are being

populated by increasingly intergenerational teams (Hankin, 2005) in which conflict

and tensions are emerging (Heath, 2006); participation rates in education and training

have been shown to decline dramatically after the age of 55 (OECD, 2004); and for

those in, or wishing to re-enter the workplace, ageism prevails in some areas of

human resource development practices (Encel & Studencki, 2004).

A more popular social theory of ageing has been continuity theory (Bowling,

2007). It holds that people who age successfully are those that carry forward their

values, lifestyles and relationships from middle to later life. According to Atchley

(cited in Bowling, 2007) it is important for the older adults to adjust and adapt to the

challenges of ageing by substituting and redistributing activities. Such a perspective

is consistent with lifespan theory, which suggest that changes occur gradually over

the years and that many psychological and social characteristics are stable across the

lifespan. However, to focus solely on a sociological basis to determine successful

ageing neglects the psychological basis of motivation and self-efficacy, both critical

to developing a sense of personal mastery or empowerment. To address this,

Bowling, (2007) asserts that a developmental model of successful ageing is more

suitable, as it is related to development over the life course. This author states that

six criteria are integral to meeting the challenges in older age. These include

“positive interactions with others; a sense of purpose; autonomy; self-acceptance;

personal growth; and environmental fit” (Bowling, 2007, p. 270). Clearly, this

presents engagement through work as one opportunity to achieve all the criteria


Chapter 2 20

underpinning successful ageing. However, the ideal model of successful ageing is a

multi-disciplinary one that accommodates a range of sensitivities to life events such

as work and retirement (Bowling, 2007), so it is timely therefore to springboard from

this theoretical stance on successful ageing to analyse some of the workforce issues

associated with an ageing Australia.

2.5 Ageing and the Australian Workforce

There are numerous definitions of an older worker. However, Findsen (2003) states

that “there is no single definition of adult and there is no corresponding argument on

who is an older adult” (p. 1), acknowledging that each culture has its own markers of

determining who is to be labelled “older.” Interestingly, one of the most recent

discussions regarding a definition of older worker is provided by Moseley and

Dessinger (2007) who argue that this definition is expanding. They state that

“research on life and workplace trends, the normal ageing process, and the influence

of perceptions from the workplace all confirm that the age span of Older Workers

and Learners (OWLS) is expanding – OWLS are getting younger and older” (p. 7).

For the purposes of this study, an older worker is 55 years and older, because

this is an age around which crucial decisions regarding the role of paid work and

impending retirement are made, particularly in Western societies, and which signals

transition into older adult. In addition, the largest segment of the global OWL

population is currently aged fifty-five plus (Mosely & Dessinger, 2007) making this

age more significant as a benchmark.

Workers over the age of 65 currently comprise one third of the labour force in

Australia, with higher proportions in the education, agriculture, forestry and fishing,

health and community services, electricity, gas and water supply and storage

industries (ABS, 2005). In another ABS report on older workers and methods of

sustaining the future labour force, it is predicted that the greatest increase in

workforce participation is expected to occur in the female 50 – 59 age group (ABS,

2003), a phenomenon linked to changes to superannuation taxes dependant on

retirement age. While the current focus maybe on 45 years and older, as this aging

phenomenon keeps progressing, this age group will also slide and soon become the

55 plus age bracket.


Chapter 2 21

Given the objective to extend the working lives of older Australians, Sheen (2003)

from the National Council of The Ageing (COTA) reported on a series of strategic

ageing workshops to determine policies and programs necessary to overcome

barriers to full participation. These barriers included ongoing negative attitudes

towards older workers, poor access to training and education, legal barriers relevant

to discrimination, and financial disincentives. Recommendations from this report

included the establishment of employment services for mature age people, the

establishment of an advocacy body for older workers, the development of education

programs such as “Transition to Work,” and the establishment of stronger links with

employer groups to foster better business practices in regard to Australia’s ageing

workforce (p. 8).

As workers age, there is a reduction in participation in physically demanding

and manual jobs which has been exacerbated by technological advancement (OECD,

2004). This form of redundancy may have precipitated involuntary retirement if

these workers do not have readily transferable skills and education for other

occupations. OECD statistics support this assertion by stating that 40% of older

workers have not completed upper secondary school and only 20% have a tertiary

education (OECD, 2004). Unfortunately, participation rates in education and

training suffer a further decline after the age of 55 (OECD, 2004). Australian

workplace practices are not exempt from this phenomenon, evidenced by the Hudson

report titled “The Ageing Population: Implications for The Australian Workforce”

(Jorgensen, 2004) in which organizational management practices are shown to

require a more sophisticated and inclusive approach to cater for the changing worker

profile. Drawing from the significant contribution of social gerontologist Matilda

White Riley (Riley, Kahn, & Foner, 1994), Findsen (2003) describes this workplace

phenomenon in a sociological framework, referring to it as “structural lag” (p. 3)

where there is a “mismatch or imbalance between the transformation of the ageing

process from birth to death and the role, opportunities or places in the social structure

that could foster and reward people at the various stages of their lives” (p. 3).

Essentially, age structures lag behind changes in people’s lives, resulting in a

dialectic whereby social structures, norms, organisations and institutions have failed

to keep pace with what people actually do in their lives (Findsen, 2003, p. 3).

Seen within the paradigm of productive ageing where education and training

outcomes are linked to economic value, Walker (1996) wrote “issues like updating


Chapter 2 22

knowledge, retraining for new endeavours, or achievement of untapped potential will

become paramount for some older Australians” (p. 25). This is not to deny the

complementarities between individual productive employment and individual health

and well-being. Clearly, work is considered generally beneficial to overall health.

The nature of the work however needs to be individually appropriate, a finding

supported by Herzog and House (1991) through their research examining the impact

of paid work and retirement on physical and mental health in older workers. They

state that “the more choice people have about whether to work, and the more choice

employed people have about their work schedules, the better will be their physical

and psychological health and well-being” (p. 4).

In essence, Herzog and House (1991) caution over applying a broad

employment-as-activity strategy without consideration of a wider range of issues.

They comment that “it is not just whether older adults are productively active, but

whether they are active at the level and in the form that they would like to be” (p. 4).

During this extended working phase, the older adults are likely to encounter

technology advances, changes in job design, alteration and adaptation to physical and

intellectual capabilities, changes in personal relationships, and will be entering new

social groups and recreational pursuits as the transition to full retirement unfolds

(Walker, 1996). According to Herzog and House (1991), the adaptation strategies

undertaken by older workers

…portray older individuals as actively choosing and adjusting behaviours and

aspirations in order to maintain a sense of competence in a changing

environment and a changing body, and that choices are made in accord with

individual preferences and long-standing orientations. (p. 4)

Clearly, rigid environments in which only certain forms and levels of

productive behaviours are accepted, as retirement approaches, are likely to impair

older worker’s adaptive capabilities, their psychological health, and the process of

ageing well. This raises the question of how transitionary arrangements out of full

time employment and into retirement might facilitate - and support - continuity and

adaptation in the process of ageing successfully.


Chapter 2 23

2.5.1 Transitions to Retirement

Walker (1996) has suggested that retirement is more subject to change in response to

social forces as it is essentially a socially-created phase of our lives. However,

retirement is no longer characterised by a negative state—an absence of employment.

Rather it is viewed as an evolution “from an event to a transition” (Moseley &

Dessinger, 2007, p. 51), seen as life after full-time work, embracing a more self-

directed focus, and reflected in a diversity of activity limited only by personal

resources (Walker, 1996). Transition employment, which is increasingly being

adopted in Australia, is described as employment leading to or immediately after

official retirement from full-time work (Pillay, Fox, Kelly & Tones, 2006). It may

involve a lifestyle interspersed with periods of leisure and learning, and work

interspersed with periods of flexible working arrangements such as part-time,

seasonal, occasional, and project work (Stein, 2000). Termed “bridge employment”

(Stein, 2000, p. 2) due to its partial retirement mode, it allows older workers to

practice retirement to fill specific labour marker shortages, or to try a variety of

occupational positions. Either way, this dynamic phase involves “education and job

design as a means by which the older segment of the community can enter, re-enter,

and advance in the workplace” (p. 4).

In an Australian study investigating the transitional employment options of

older workers, Pillay, Fox et al. (2006) found that the majority of older workers are

amenable to participating in transitional employment involving part-time work.

Findsen (2003) states that employers however have needed to confront the

idea that older workers do not need (re)training because of the assumption that they

have “less time left with the company, or are less capable of learning” (p. 11),

particularly where it relates to cost benefits of the training investment. Bishop

(2003) states that older workers can be successfully trained and retrained, and this is

supported by empirical findings (Roberson, 2003; Schneider, 2003) which further

disprove this myth. In addition, research by Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) indicates

that older workers are less likely to want to retire early, preferring to be trained in

alternative jobs that are possibly less physically demanding. They assert that this

result indicates a preference for training in new work roles rather than participating

in “ongoing training in current jobs some of which are approaching obsolescence”

(p. 301). Critically, this research indicates that older workers are amenable to

change, and express a genuine interest in further learning and job redesign.


Chapter 2 24

It follows then that Australian workplaces will require the adoption of more

contemporary human resource development (HRD) practices to manage the expected

diversity in post-retirement employees. This is consistent with the view that, in an

ageing population, new work roles will often have to be learnt in post-retirement

(Jarvis, 2001). Moseley and Dessinger (2007) state that workplace learning and

performance practitioners (WLP) need to “maximize the learning and performance

potential of Older Workers and Learners” (p. 11) by expanding education and

training efforts to meet their needs. This is a reiteration of an earlier view of Bishop

(2003) who states that adult and vocational training practices need to adjust to the

changing demographic, with Roberson (2003) in agreement that workplace educators

are required to adapt strategies to meet the needs of older learners in workforce

development.

Some organisations will require a significant shift in attitudes towards older

workers, a view supported by Encel and Studencki (2004) who revealed a high

incidence of workplace ageism and ongoing age discrimination in Human Resources

and recruitment practices across Australia. While research findings from Pillay,

Kelly and Tones (2006) indicate that older Australian workers perceive more

organisational support than younger workers, this finding is limited to public sector

workplaces where competition may be regarded as less fierce than in the private

sector or in small business. It is argued that business competition leads to increased

emphasis on productivity, technological knowledge, and adaptability, and the older

worker may consequently be less attractive to employers in this regard.

Understanding ageism, and its origins, can assist in developing pathways to avoid

this damaging practice.

Ageism

Ageism is defined as “a set of beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that

denigrate individuals or groups, based on their chronological age” (Whitbourne,

2001, p. 14). Originating from myths and folklore (Thornton, 2002) through

pressure from society in response to significant historical events, and from politics

and the execution of power and control (Powell, 2001), ageism has devastating

consequences for older Australians. Ageist practices produce unfavourable

outcomes and work to displace older people from their communities, and place them

in situations of being undervalued, unproductive, less capable and dependant


Chapter 2 25

(Palmore, 1998). The prevailing perception of older people is one of unfavourable

comparison to younger people. Tougas, Legace, De La Sablonniere & Kocum,

2004) report on the feeling of discontent experienced when invidious comparisons

are made with younger individuals, and conclude that this experience erodes self-

identity and damages a positive self-concept. Seen from a continuity perspective,

negative experiences in the workforce negatively affect people in their retirement

years, which can exaggerate health problems, loneliness and financial difficulties

(Weaver, 1999). Calder (1993) regards this as a serious obstacle in enabling the vast

potential of human worth to be put to use for individual betterment. Ageism is also

prevalent overseas. Ilmarinen (2005) documents research findings that identify the

contradiction between adult education and worklife in the European Union, where at

the same time that the importance of experience-based knowledge has increased, the

appreciation of the most experienced group of employees has decreased (p. 223). In

contemporary society negative perceptions of older people appear to be reinforced

through policies that stage-manage the withdrawal from productive roles by

extending working lives, through everyday language constructs that portray older

people as feeble or burdensome, and through over-medicalisation of the ageing

process (Thornton, 2002).

From an Australian perspective, Encel and Studencki (2004) confirm from

their research that ageism prevails in workplaces. In investigating older workers

success in the job market, it was found that “mature Australian workers experience

systematic discrimination by employers based on their age . . . [and that there are]

few success stories regarding positive policies to address this situation” (p. 34). Reio

and Sanders-Reio (1999) confirm the challenges inherent in the workplace by

describing the most obvious and serious form of ageism as being in the area of

employment: from hiring and promotions, to firing and compulsory retirement.

While Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) have found that Australian older workers in

local governments perceive the existence of organisational support, this study does

not examine employment exits or re-entry experiences of older employees in this

setting. Age discrimination and other barriers associated with entry into the

workforce by older adults are therefore at odds with recent superannuation legislation

that encourages workers to stay employed until reaching the age of 60 by offering tax

incentives. Extended working lives might create increased opportunities for


Chapter 2 26

unpleasant experiences for those electing to remain in the workforce. In a personal

communication with this researcher, Olsberg stated:

Australia is a totally youth-oriented society, and lots of the difficulties are

about that focus on the primacy and the value of a youth orientation. At one

level of the spectrum, a denigration of the old, and at the other, an invisibility.

(Personal Communication, 16 September 2006).

Because Bennington (2001) reported a high degree of naivety amongst older

Australian adults regarding age discrimination at the recruitment phase of

employment, education and training is seen as having a vital role to play in preparing

consumers and educators to think differently about ageing (Weaver, 1999); in

retraining, in adjusting to technological change (Powell, 1998), and in reducing

ageism (T.D Nelson, 2002; Thornton, 2002). Seen from this equity perspective, and

given the political emphasis on productivity after traditional retirement patterns, the

role of the organisation in fostering training and development to overcome potential

workplace ageism is therefore becoming more significant. Consequently, exactly

how organisational professionals apply their skills to overcome these workplace

learning and development challenges requires some clarification.

2.5.2 Ageing and Organisational Learning and Develo pment

Human Resource Development (HRD) has been expanding its legitimacy relative to

the fields of adult education, vocational education and management and

organisational sciences (Kuchinke, 2000). Moseley and Dessinger describe those

responsible for workplace learning as “workplace learning and performance

practitioners” (WLP) (p. 12). Regarded as an applied field, the HRD professional has

been described as an “organisational problem-solver, change agent, designer,

empowerer, and developer of human capital” (Kuchinke, 2000, p. 3). Another

description of WLP practitioners includes “manager, analyst, intervention selector,

intervention designer and developer, intervention implementer, change leader, and

evaluator” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 12).

Primarily regarded as person-centered, in which the individual’s needs and

goals are emphasised, the activities of the HRD professional have been described as

largely influenced by production-centered forces, where organisational roles require

competence and where performance increases are defined by the organisation


Chapter 2 27

(Kuchinke, 2000) in a competitive marketplace. Due to international competition

and the effects of the knowledge economy, Moseley and Dessinger assert that

“training older learners will become a fundamental component of organisational

effectiveness over the next three decades” (p. 11).

Organisations that learn how to train older workers effectively could “stand to

gain a significant competitive advantage over those that ignore these demographic

trends” (Callahan, Kiker & Cross, 2003, p. 664). For organisations concerned with

knowledge management amidst high retirement rates, there is the added imperative

to effectively marshal the accumulated experience of older adults as trainers and

mentors, a skill-harnessing strategy requiring an essential knowledge of older

learners by the workplace practitioner (Findsen, 2003), particularly in the pre-

retirement phase where individual needs have overtaken regular retirement patterns.

As Ilmarinen (2005) states, “turning experience into knowledge and competence,

requires more information about the processes through which experiences create

additional value rather than negative facilitation” (p. 224).

The proliferation of short seminars such as “Age Management” as developed

by Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR) and offered to

HRD practitioners through agencies such as the Australian Institute of Management

(http://www.aim.com.au) is therefore not surprising.

The economic rationale underpinning HRD activities is rejected by Bierema,

Runona, Watkins, Cseh & Ellinger (2004) who identified a number of myths that

portray HRD professionals as being behaviourally- and performance-focused. Of

these, the myth that “HRD is synonymous with capitalism and human capital theory

exclusively” (p. 21) is of concern, because such an approach has the potential to

further undermine empowering training and development practices more suitable for

older workers and learners. Pillay, Boulton-Lewis and Wilss (2003), in setting the

stage for an investigation into the older employee’s conceptions of work and learning

in the workplace, describe the creation of learning organisations and learning

factories as being indicators of the “new capitalism” (p. 1). The factors inherent in

such a stance include: productivity that is increasingly dependant upon science and

technology; increasing priority on quality of information and management; a shift

from product manufacturing to information processing; a shift from mass production

to adaptable specialisation; increased innovation and adaptation to change; a global

market; and rapid developments in technology (Pillay et al., 2003). In such a fast-


Chapter 2 28

changing organisational environment, it is argued that productivity-centered training

will continue to dominate as a solution to retaining existing employees due to the

shortage of employment applicants skilled in the new capitalist environment.

However, embedding a “culture of retention” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 60) in

the organisation can place obligations on the individual older worker to stay in

employment should they wish to leave. Incumbent HRD and WLP professionals are

therefore facing a tough task to overcome obstacles at individual and organisational

levels as the workforce changes, a view reiterated by Hankin (2005) who reminds us

that future associated challenges include generational diversity and employees with

changing expectations such as personal growth, empowerment and life balance.

Admittedly, HRD and WLP practices encompass more than just training

interventions (Bierema et al., 2004; Moseley & Dessinger, 2007) but it remains

questionable whether more reflective emancipative processes, more suitable to older

workers but that might take longer to complete, would be adopted especially for

older workplace cohorts. This is consistent with the view of Baumgartner, Lee,

Birden and Flowers (2003) who assert that the problems of universality are likely to

be more prominent in HRD and WLP than in generalised adult education settings, as

individualised self-direction and internal motivation are traditionally discouraged

amongst learners from marginalised groups.

Intergenerational learning practices and strategies are also expected to

become critically important with workplace teams comprising diversity in age,

experience and expectations (Hankin, 2005). It must be noted that these challenges

will test traditional management practices as the diversity of the organization

increases, a fact stressed by Ryan Heath (2006) author of “Please just F*off it’s our

turn now: Holding Baby Boomers to Account.” Controversial in its content, the

essential message conveyed in this popularised Australian publication is that young

“twenty-somethings” approach work opportunities in a far more adaptable and

technology-sophisticated way than a “Boomer Manager, who will normally have to

see and grip something to understand it” (Heath, 2006, p. 10). While Heath (2006) is

clearly over-generalising, the publication does reflect a growing tension between

generations in the workplace. Increased tension of this nature was first predicted

during the post war era, particularly where older adults were often regarded as a

social burden (Powell, 2001). This may in fact be exacerbated as older cohorts gain

further political power as the population ages. While training younger and older


Chapter 2 29

adults together may in some situations be appropriate and beneficial, the instructor

should organise the training beyond the terms of younger people (Ilmarinen, 2005,

p. 226).

Other factors such as job type, job complexity, learning culture, stereotyping

and the construction of meaning by the older adults (Hodkinson et al., 2007) can also

impact on the success of training interventions. The learning context, Hodkinson et

al. (2007) assert, is not just the workplace but “a combination of formal and informal

learning participation and part of a generative social practice” (p. 16). For example,

in a challenge to the universal approach to workplace learning, De Long (2004)

advocates the use of a storytelling technique in “creating the right environment and

mechanisms for sharing knowledge” (p. 101). Considered a natural behaviour, and a

fact of organisational life, he states that “stories can be effective for transferring both

implicit knowledge about how things get done, as well as deeper tacit knowledge that

reflects the values shaping behaviours” (p. 102).

While the risk exists that such processes might be considered unreliable,

especially in the analysis-versus-narrative debate, and may be more time-consuming

in the productive workplace paradigm, De Long (2004) defends this applicability of

the strategy by describing how NASA, IBM and the World Bank have effectively

used the technique, albeit through sophisticated case studies and a high level of

analysis.

The challenges noted in consideration of the older worker and learner can be

mollified by developing skills in those practitioners charged with developing the

older person through training and education. While these practitioners emanate from

various disciplines such as training, human resources, quality, and human

performance technology, Moseley and Dessinger (2007) state that “they are

champions or advocates of learning and performance and masters of practical

workplace-based learning and performance interventions and change strategies”

(p. 12). Achieving such a level of professionalism in workplace learning and

performance practitioners automatically assumes some measure of post-compulsory

qualifications awarded at the institutional level. What is not yet clear, however, is

how these current post-compulsory offerings are aligned with the needs of an ageing

population.


Chapter 2 30

2.6 Ageing and Australian Post-compulsory Education

Bloom and Canning (2006) assert that lifecycle dimensions to demographic change

will extend to include formal educational activities which will inevitably alter as the

ratio of workers to dependants also changes. This section provides a broad overview

of the existing post-compulsory educational domains available for the development

of knowledge and skills of education and training practitioners relevant to an ageing

population. Withnall and Percy (1994) predicted that “in future we shall need to

develop different perspectives and approaches as successive cohorts of people reach

later adulthood with different life and educational experiences, changing social

values, different priorities and possibly different patterns of behaviour” (p. 22).

Given the demographics indicating that Australia’s population is ageing, it

has been determined that Australia is “suddenly facing a significant people-

development challenge” (Engelbrecht, 2006). Also termed human development, it is

defined here as development of human potential in older adults, through education

and training, irrespective of the setting. It introduces educational activities that are

specific to and for older people and which reflects a convergence of two disciplines:

adult education and gerontology. Collectively, this creates the platform for the

emergence of educational gerontology as a specialised subset of adult education.

With some foresight, Glendenning (2001) predicted the emergence of educational

gerontology as an academic research area focused specifically on education for older

adults, and acknowledged the potential solution this presents to the human

development challenges identified earlier. This view is shared by Weaver (1999)

who considers that education is well placed to respond to social forces associated

with the ageing demographic. Reinforcement of this educational and academic

imperative is provided by Thornton (2002) who states that

…academic and policy studies are seriously needed about education of, and

for, an ageing population, and about change in social institutions to minimize

institutional lag while maximizing sense of community. Studies in

educational gerontology and “critical gerontology” must be included in multi-

disciplinary studies about ageing. (p. 311)

In Australia, these human-development challenges can potentially be met

across three established post-compulsory educational domains: through the national

Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector, through universities concerned

with preparing adult educators, and through private training providers—despite the


Chapter 2 31

statement that “the sectorisation of Australia’s education and training system and its

Federal-State division of funding responsibilities have created obstacles to widening

lifelong learning opportunities” (McIntyre, 2005, p. 19).

However, there is growing recognition of the relevance of adult learning and

lifelong learning amongst all of the various educational domains, and scope certainly

exists for meeting the education and learning needs of a broad range of older people.

This is a justifiable perspective, appreciative of the view that lifelong learning is

characterised by multiple entry points of learning and acknowledged as inevitably

part of the life course (Settersten, 2003). However, irrespective of the nature of each

post-compulsory education sector, the common thread across all of these domains is

the need for a thorough preparation of practitioners, intent on occupying a variety of

educational and training roles, to foster the achievement of full human potential of

older adults across a range of contexts. Given the critical role of the skilled

practitioner in the achievement of empowerment in older adults, a consideration of

where this practitioner preparation might be optimally achieved warrants further

consideration.

2.6.1 The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitione rs for an Ageing Society

The professional preparation of adult educators, or workplace learning and

performance practitioners (WLPs) (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 12) can occur

within three domains in Australia. These include Vocational Education and Training

(VET), universities, and private sector organisations.

Vocational Education and Training (VET)

Vocational Education and Training (VET) have established a fundamentally central

position in the provision of vocationally-relevant programs to the general Australian

learner population (Choy et al., 2006). Providers under the VET paradigm include

Technical and Further Education Institutes (TAFE) and include Adult and

Community Education (ACE) programs, Registered Training Organisations (RTOs),

private providers such as the Australian Institute for Care Development, church

groups such as the Uniting Church of Australia (Browne & Russell, 1996) and

community learning through associations such as the Association of Independent

Retirees. Chappell, Hawke et al. (2003) undertook a major study to define the


Chapter 2 32

conceptual framework for better understanding the issues surrounding older adults,

and to identify future areas of research that would be of greatest benefit to policy

makers, VET practitioners and the Australian community. One of the key

recommendations emanating from this report is that “VET must look to adapt all

aspects of its provision in order to produce policies and practices that acknowledge,

support and value older worker’s participation in education and training” (p. 4).

The Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR) response

to these recommendations can be linked to the 2005 Mature Age Employment and

Workplace Strategy, which includes a variety of VET-linked programmes including

Jobwise Workshops, Jobwise Self-Help groups, Wise Workforce, and a range of co-

operative industry initiatives under the Mature Age Industry Strategy to improve

recruitment and retention measures for mature age job seekers and workers. The

Jobwise online portal provides information for both employers and mature age job

seekers, and lists Mature Age Employer Champions, and a Mature Age Employment

Practical Guide (see http://www.jobwise.gov.au). Finally, Age Management

Training (AMT) has recently been developed to provide practical solutions to

maintain an aged balanced workforce (DEWR, 2007) where over 230 VET trainers

have been accredited to deliver AMT courses to their clients.

Programmatically, there exist some challenges for VET and the increasing

numbers of older adults. For example, in a systematic review of research into

mature-aged and skill development activities in the VET sector, Thomson, Dawe,

Anlezark and Bowman (2005) determined that while policymakers in VET should

continue to encourage skills development for the mature-aged as a means of

improving their productivity and longevity in the labour market, they “need to be

mindful that skill development activities alone are not likely to be sufficient” (p. 7).

They reason that recognition that more individualised tailoring of skill development

activities are required due to diverse learner circumstances; that a better

understanding of skill development particulars are needed to determine which

strategies work best with which group; and that organisational culture, including the

context of learning, was ultimately responsible for an increase in productivity and a

“more engaged, better skilled and more-co-operative workforce” (p. 18). This is an

argument supported by recent research into career aspirations of older workers

conducted by Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) whose findings confirm that “a one size

fits all training programme will not benefit all older workers because patterns of


Chapter 2 33

learning preferences and attitudes, and flexible work options varied according to

education level, gender and job type amongst older workers” (p. 304).

In addition, Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) confirm the crucial role of the

organisational culture in fostering a positive approach to learning, by stating “older

workers perceived their workplace to be more supportive compared to their younger

peers” (p. 304) with the conclusion that this provided a direct link to older workers in

this workplace being “open to change” and interested in further learning (p. 304). It

is Thomson et al. (2005) who provide the final word on the readiness of the VET

sector, where they state that “many other factors may influence an individual’s

choice to undertake education and training or take early retirement [and that]

integrative strategies, not just skill development activities, are needed to improve

productivity or attachment to the labour market of the mature-aged” (p. 18). The

strategies identified by Thomson et al. (2005) include integrating across social,

political and educational areas by “changing social attitudes and behaviours towards

older workers, addressing political disincentives to work, and tailoring skill

development activities for the mature-aged to suit their circumstances” (p. 7).

Given that integration across disciplines is therefore a key factor in managing

an older adult cohort, it is also doubtful whether VET, as an educational domain, is

yet able to adequately respond to the ageing population. This is due to recurring

policy re-arrangements and programs weighted towards vocationally-based education

and training, where assessment is based on pre-identified competencies. In an

overview of the British national training system, Roodhouse (2004) acknowledged

that competence assessments instigate an over-emphasis on the standard of

competence, and encourage lack of concern regarding socio-political issues.

Roodhouse (2004) states: “It is suggested that the content of standards fosters a

suffocating assessment experience devoid of critical engagement with the social and

political issues which determine much professional activity” (p. 30).

Therefore, a highly systemised training curricula does not adapt well to

changing social contexts, particularly where the stakeholders are themselves

dynamically part of the change. Systemised training programs are “still perceived to

be mechanistic, reductionist, tedious to complete and not developmental”

(Roodhouse, 2004, p. 33). Consequently, a prescriptive vocational training

curriculum is potentially harmful to older adults as it does not foster the required

interdisciplinary collaboration between adult education and social gerontology. It is


Chapter 2 34

argued therefore that VET programs are potentially diametrically opposed to the

theory of critical gerontology, where older adult learners are encouraged to “engage

in free thought” and where teaching older adults involves “the application of specific

principles and techniques that enable people to make personal change” (Cusack,

1999, p. 22) and achieve empowerment.

Appreciating that there are mainstream providers who have provided a token

level of educational support, the harsh reality is that “there are still more agencies

that have neglected older adults’ learning needs” (Findsen, 2003, p. 10). Despite the

Council of Australian Governments’ commitment to developing skills through the

National Reform Agenda (COAG, 2006), (which includes human capital and

competition and regulatory reforms), and the recent DEWR accreditation under the

auspices of Age Management Training Strategy (DEWR, 2007), there appears to be

no clear framework relevant to professional development in preparing for older

adults for these organizations to follow, a view supported by Choy et al. (2006) in

their analysis of the role of Adult and Community Education (ACE), a subset of

TAFE programs. In discussion of the urgent need for skilled workers and the need

for Australia to find pathways and opportunities for positive economic outcomes,

they readily admit that “the current arrangements under ACE are limited in meeting

the expanding needs in these areas” (p. 10).

This is an important omission as Cameron (2004) notes that no formal quality

indicators have been presented for the good practice of training older adults in VET.

Ilmarinen (2005) encapsulates the challenge in a global setting by stating:

Current practices and principles of adult education in worklife do not

encourage and support ageing adults to participate in training. Training has

usually been directed towards young adults and those with good basic

education. Therefore, the ageing workforce is a major challenge to adult

education instructors. Both the development of methods supporting the

learning of ageing people and changes in attitudes of adult education

instructors are required. (p. 224)

Development of ageing-relevant skills among incumbent and intending adult

educators is therefore emerging as an issue. Calder (1993) specifically targeted adult

educators when she called for a professional infrastructure to “bark, broker and boost


Chapter 2 35

education for older learners” (p. 12). Findsen (2003) reminds us of the imperative to

professionalise older adult education by stating that

…educational programs less often relate to fostering vocational skills (though

this might change with the growing need of retired adults to find further

income); still less are they concerned with developing critical capacities of

elders to challenge the social order. (p. 8)

In terms of professionalisation therefore, it appears that, as yet, there is little

specific training undertaken by VET adult educators and trainers in preparation for

this burgeoning audience, nor is there an established standard for good practice of

training older workers (Cameron, 2004) which has the potential to weaken

professional preparation generally.

Further questions of quality for older adults in the VET sector continue,

highlighted by a report by Gelade et al. (2003) that detailed good practice for training

disadvantaged unemployed older Australians, identifying a low incidence of training

programmes “specifically for mature learners” (p. 8). Gelade et al. (2003) suggest

that “it indicates that there is room for expansion of programmes to this target group”

(p. viii). While these recommendations seem comprehensive, there exists no clear

concept of exactly how VET might foster standards of good practice in education and

training relevant to older adults. The solution may well be found in the adoption of

educational gerontology principles. It is argued that educational gerontology

provides the interdisciplinary platform required for an integrative (and more holistic)

approach to older adult learning, includes research activities both to and for older

adults, and suggests a more adaptable range of skills not yet covered by the

qualifications framework underpinning VET. Universities, then, appear to offer the

disciplinary capabilities associated with the integrative requirements of educational

gerontology. It is not clear however, whether their current institutional arrangements

are aligned with the needs of an ageing demographic and the associated social

changes.

Universities

Higher education, especially in universities generally, has been experiencing massive

reform and change (Kazar, 2001). Since 2002 and the publication of “Higher


Chapter 2 36

Education at the Crossroads” (DEST, 2002), Australian universities have been under

intense scrutiny in an effort to sustain competitiveness and respond to pressures

associated with globalisation and the knowledge economy. However, a more recent

perspective on the role of universities is provided by Winter, Wiseman and Muirhead

(2006) who describe their primary function as “sites of citizenship” (p. 212) and

social change agents where the emergence of a knowledge economy has placed new

pressures on universities to cater for the needs of lifelong learners. Quite possibly,

this signals the need for a re-emphasis on the humanities, a contemporary version of

the liberal model of universities where knowledge is created for the intrinsic value of

humans in order to understand both themselves and the world (Hammersley, 1992).

If the goal of self-empowerment of the older adults is genuinely sought, and if

critical gerontology is adopted as an overarching philosophical stance to ageing, then

liberal Universities are important, due to the fact that such an approach is “relatively

unconstrained by extraneous demands, such as those deriving from the political

interests of the state or of powerful religious groups or economic groups in society”

(p. 168).

It is argued that by contributing to the concept and practice of lifelong

learning for older people, universities automatically accept the value of the older

learner, and by implication must widen their charter to include broader sociological

issues such as community development. This is consistent with the view that

universities should be “a campus that is newly-committed to serving the communities

and constituencies that surround and support it” (Ward, 2003, p. 15). Therefore, this

requires universities to move beyond a purely functionalist role where education is

assessed on functional outcomes (e.g. reproductive or economically-driven) as

dictated by democratic capitalism (Kempner & Taylor, 1998) and into a role of

promoting “active citizenry” (p. 301). In such an approach, the value of higher

education is to be found in how well it facilitates students to function within a

democratic society, particularly where those students might positively influence

“individuals who do not share the dominant culture or who are not active participants

in the private market sector of the global economy” (p. 302). It is argued in this

study that older adults fit this category based on ongoing ageism and socio-political

manoeuvres that erode power in older adults. There is some irony in noting that, in a

discussion paper issued by DEST (2002), one of the purposes of higher education is


Chapter 2 37

described as “fulfilling significant functions in our society” (DEST, 2002, p. 1) with

the requirements that

…institutions should add value to and enrich Australian society, culture and

the economy. There is an expectation that in their role as caretakers, creators

and transmitters of knowledge, higher education institutions will add value to

individuals and to the society in which they are a part. (p. 2)

This is a significant social role. Seen within the context of an ageing society,

it is argued that this requirement is consistent with the goals of social gerontology

where older adults are viewed within their unique social context. Institutions do not

operate in a vacuum—they need to respond to dynamic social change and reflect the

values of the community in which they operate. Therefore, there is an expectation

that institutions will be equitable, responsive, diverse, and innovative as they face

new and changing environments (DEST, 2002, p. 2).

Ward (2003), in sketching the roles that faculty might perform in areas

outside of the traditional university domains, states that it is not only external forces

that will generate pressure to reconsider its position in society. Specifically,

concerns about curriculum and faculty work, in addition to changes in public

support, have led to a “questioning of the insular and autonomous nature of higher

education” (p. 15). Having such a clear focus could be highly advantageous in terms

of preparation and resource capacity, but it earmarks universities as having the

primary task of “the efficient provision of training for potential recruits to those

occupations deemed to require a high level of knowledge and skills” (Hammersley,

1992, p. 171).

In this approach, academic endeavours are regarded as of value only to the

extent that they solve practical problems expressed by those in industry. It could be

argued that such a political economy approach to curriculum will ultimately

overshadow empowerment of the individual, particularly in light of pressures

regarding university investment in human capital. In this market orientation where

calls for accountability and productivity are becoming louder, it becomes further

complicated by a new vision for universities where faculty engagement is typified by

redesigned and re-envisioned teaching, and by service functions that are

sympathetically and productively involved with the communities that campuses serve

(Ward, 2003). The fiscal reality is that links to industry are integral to narrowing the


Chapter 2 38

gap between workplace needs and university educational programs, particularly

where it is obvious how professional skills gained at university can readily be

deployed in the re-training of older adults. This however introduces a tension

between fostering individual empowerment in older adults and meeting industry

demands. Australian universities have recently been made more aware of these

competing priorities and their role in the formation of human capital. From this

perspective, academic entrepreneurialism and community service are seen as integral

to the development of human capital which is defined by Gunesakara (2004) as “the

value of incomes that stem from education, training and other investments in human

development” (p. 2).

Investments in human capital yield returns at different levels, firstly

individually, then socially which will result in a higher national (or regional)

economic growth rate, and thirdly, an organisation-specific rate of return evidenced

by trade results and organisational expansion. Universities clearly occupy a central

role in the development of human capital as providers of education in shaping the

skills base of regional and local economies (Winter et al., 2006) and as enablers of

regional economic and social development (Gunasekara, 2004). However, it has

been noted that productivity issues constitute only one element for consideration in

developing the older Australian learner, and sociological issues relevant to individual

growth and self-realisation of the older individual are now becoming acknowledged

as integral to social advancement generally. As Wahrendorf, von dem Knesebeck and

Siegrist (2006) assert, social engagement is associated with more favourable well-

being and health outcomes. In addition, the frequency of productive and leisure

activities improves physical health and reduces the risk of depression in older people

(Herzog & House, 1991). To locate the concept of social productivity in a

theoretical framework, Wahrendorf et al. (2006) regard reciprocity as fundamental to

well-being in that the meaning of the activity for the provider is linked to the value

placed upon that activity by the recipient. They assert that

socially productive efforts that are reciprocated by adequate return offers

unique opportunities of experiencing social recognition or other types of

reward. Recurrent experience of social recognition was shown to enhance

self-esteem and associated positive emotions processed by the brain reward

system. (p. 68)


Chapter 2 39

It is important then that Australia’s response to an ageing demographic

involve a reconsideration of the intrinsic value of knowledge to older adults, its

potential to transform and improve, and its influence beyond the individual. As

Hammersley (1992) warns, “we should be suspicious of arguments that promote

ideals on the grounds that they alone are politically realistic” (p. 173). What is

needed in an ageing society therefore, is a re-conceptualisation of the role of the

university, where a more hybridised model of human development, ageing research

and skill development is achieved.

Considering the growth of ageing communities across Australia, it is useful to

look abroad for examples of how universities are attending to the needs of an ageing

population. In the USA, higher education institutions have been regarded as

gatekeepers to educational issues for the older person. For example, publications

issued from the Association for Gerontology Education in Higher Education (AGHE)

are premised on an overarching mission to “advance gerontology as a field of study

in institutions of higher education” (www.aghe.org). Since 1950, recommendations

from the White House include the need for those working with older people to

understand growth through the lifecycle with emphasis on the later stages (Friedsam

& Martin, 1980). Higher education was integral to this outcome due to the

multidisciplinary sources of knowledge about ageing and the impact on professional

personnel. In another more visionary paper outlining how older American citizens

might engage with university campuses in the future, Kressley and Huebschmann

(2002) sketch a picture of a 21st century campus that integrates retirement living with

ongoing mental stimulation through access to the educational programs and

intergenerational interaction. They assert that, as universities have “traditionally

been agents of change, they are the right organisations to give new meaning to

retirement” (p. 846). Since this time, a multitude of gerontology programs have

proliferated across universities in the United States, and the Osher Institutes of

Lifelong Learning are now located at numerous Universities. There remains,

however, scant evidence to indicate that an intersection between adult education and

social gerontology disciplines as an area of study has gained momentum. A

disciplinary synthesis of this nature, it is argued, is therefore both innovative and

potentially useful as a University platform for responding to an ageing and changing

world.


Chapter 2 40

Social Gerontology as an University Discipline

Social gerontology has emerged as a result of the need to study the impact of ageing

processes on the individual. Considering that gerontologists study ageing by focusing

on four processes: chronological ageing, biological ageing, psychological ageing,

and social ageing, it is important to understand how social gerontology is different.

Social gerontology is interested in “how the older population and the diversity of

ageing experiences both affect, and are affected by the social structure” (Hooyman &

Kiyak, 2002, p. 5). For example, social gerontology is interested in the social

implications of ageing including health care, the workplace, and policy. Changes in

the socio-political structure inevitably affect characteristics of the older population

which in turn “affect civic engagement initiatives” (p. 5). These initiatives might

impact on higher education, health promotion programs, and retirement planning,

with the overarching purpose of helping future generations be better educated,

healthier, economically more secure and socially engaged than the current

generation. The relationship between these initiatives and adult education is the key

to achieving these social objectives.

Given that this intersection between adult education and social gerontology

assumes a more specialised multidisciplinary approach, it is argued that Australian

universities have a critical role to play in the promotion of educational gerontology

due to existing theoretical understandings of adult education, educational

gerontology and social science. The potential also exists to re-incorporate the

humanities into programs that are charged with individual betterment and social

advancement. This is not to deny the role of scientific study. University Ageing

Research centres are potentially major influences in providing empirical findings that

progress the study and practice of educational gerontology as a specialist area to

accommodate the needs of an ageing population. Also, adult education programs

have the means to apply ageing-related content to developing the skills of adult

education practitioners, and to establish a benchmark for quality needed for this

segment of the population.

While Cameron (2004) has proposed five key areas of good practice for

vocational training, including (i) positive early experiences, (ii) negotiation with

learners regarding content, format and timing of training experiences, (iii) the

involvement of social factors and a focus on learner interests to motivate learners,

(iv) an adult learning approach (andragogy), and (v) organizational innovation and


Chapter 2 41

flexibility, it is Findsen (2003) who goes much further in the context of professional

responses to an ageing population. He articulates some penetrating questions for

adult education providers and agencies to answer, including:

� What do you know about the life patterns and learning opportunities for

older adults in your vicinity?

� What is the responsibility of your agency to help meeting the learning

needs of older adults?

� What do you really know about the older adult clientele attending your

programmes?

� Are any older adults involved in helping plan your provision?

� Does the existing programme reflect interests and needs of older adults in

your community?

� Have any programmes been planned in association with agencies which

work more closely with older people?

� Are there any statements of policy developed by your organisation about

the learning needs of older adults? (p. 10)

From these questions it is clear that the spotlight is turning to the adequate

preparation of adult learning practitioners in order to respond to the challenges of an

ageing population. To achieve this, resources and capacities developed for a range of

age-friendly educational activities will need to be drawn from across disciplines and

customized for the variety of audiences anticipated. These audiences include

incumbent human resource professionals, post-retirement workers, older students

returning to education and training settings, professionals currently engaged in the

human services, and undergraduates preparing to work in the aged sector. Elements

essential for meeting these challenges include contemporary curriculum content that

considers critical geragogy processes underpinning the effective application of

methods, environments and learning schedules suitable for ageing learners

(Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 227).

2.6.2 Summary: Education and Training Challenges o f an Ageing

Australian Population

Drawn from the previous literature on organisational learning and development, and

the role of Universities as an institution capable of infusing elements of social


Chapter 2 42

gerontology into adult education, current challenges appear to exist in current human

resource (workplace) practices, in the institutional response to an ageing

demographic, and in the availability of curriculum underpinning holistic education

for the older Australian. Each of these educational challenges is depicted in Table

2.1, Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian Population.

Table 2.1

Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Aust ralian Population

2.7 Towards a Solution: The Preparation of Adult Le arning

Practitioners for an Ageing Population

Anderson (1999) stated that United States employers, health and social service

providers and the general public are increasingly turning to institutions of higher

education in the expectation of educating students about the processes of ageing, and


Chapter 2 43

to supply employers with a trained workforce (p. 571). However, current aged-

related programs in Australian higher education are largely concentrated in the

content fields of sociology, gerontology, and originate from the geriatric (medical)

discipline (Howe, 1990; Wendt & Peterson, 1993). While originally consisting of

physical, chemical and biological knowledge, the recognition that ageing is not just a

biological event has enabled its expansion to include sub-groups such as behavioural

gerontology (the psychological study of adult development and ageing), applied

gerontology (areas of intervention such as nursing and usually associated with the

cumulative effects of ageing) and social gerontology (where the individual is viewed

in their unique social, emotional and intellectual context) (Withnall & Percy, 1994).

As the practice of gerontology expands, some tension between disciplines is

also predicted (Maddox, 1988) as the power of the geriatric professions is challenged

during the development of inter-disciplinary programs. However, Bass and Ferraro

(2000) are convincing in their argument that an “integrated and emergent approach”

underpinned by vision and persistence is required for the evolution of gerontology

education and educational gerontology. Other power struggles, such as those

between adult education and HRD (Bierema et al., 2004), and between TAFE and

VET in the provision of adult programs are already evident in Australia. Australian

universities, if they can reconcile their own reform agendas and align them with

community and social needs, appear well-placed to overcome these challenges. The

reasoning behind this statement is that fundamental capacities, as put forward by

Withnall and Percy (1994) are already in place—positive policies and funding,

information and guidance services, organizing provision, learning environments,

teaching and training, staff development and evaluation methods. Universities also

are, as Winter et al. (2006) posit, “a power to be harnessed in order to rectify the

supposed civic deficit among students, and to address some of the consequences of

the failures of democratic process, such as increasing social inequity, political

apathy, isolation and fragmentation” (p. 223).

While graduate programs in gerontology exist in Australia, and are supported

by the Australian Association of Gerontology (Wendt & Peterson, 1993), this

approach may not be sufficient because some significant gaps in educational services

are anticipated (Wendt & Peterson, 1993). For example, a recent report by Glista

and Petersons (2003) reveals that, in preparing a gerontology program for allied

health students in the United States, more than 70% of faculty staff admitted to


Chapter 2 44

needing continuing professional education to keep pace with the expanding body of

literature about ageing. While there is no local empirical evidence, a contemporary

understanding of the biopsychosocial elements in ageing is emerging across

developed countries like the USA and Australia and as such, it is likely that this gap

in professional development will only increase. To narrow this gap, information

about ageing, the impact of social factors on learning and the unique characteristics

of the older learner appear vital to achieving adequate, professional preparedness.

The emergence of social gerontology as a distinct discipline is an indicator of this

emerging need, where older adult learning is gaining prominence. Instructionally, it

would also be useful to consider a wider range of strategies designed to empower the

older adult and create opportunities for effective learning.

Revision of higher education curriculum seems inevitable especially in

preparing those currently working in workplaces where the workforce is ageing, and

in skilling those intending to work exclusively with the older adult. Clearly, the

adult learning practitioner is at the front-line of the research and development of

older learners, a view supported by Ilmarinen (2005) who describes the training

situation of ageing employees and their learning new things as requiring “special

investments” (p. 217) and who considers that “the instructors of ageing employees

are required to have special competence related to ageing and learning” (p. 226).

Some of the broad content likely to underpin this special competence is discussed in

the following section.

2.7.1 Adult Education and the Older Adult Learner

Those preparing to work with older people need to understand new information

about ageing, as it challenges traditional views of older adults’ abilities, attitudes,

behaviour and performance (Long, 1990). More specifically, Jones (2005) called for

“a special professional development program to give Human Resource practitioners

leading edge knowledge and skills in managing an ageing workforce” (p. 73). The

need for a more focused treatment of adult education is reinforced by Cusack (1999)

who states that “we agree that teaching older adults is qualitatively different from

teaching adults, because the social circumstances and developmental tasks of third-

age persons in today’s world are unique” (p. 22).


Chapter 2 45

This statement is suggestive of an evolution of the traditional

conceptualisation of adult education practices towards a more specialised approach

suitable for older learners. Since Lindeman’s 1926 publication of The Meaning of

Adult Education, adult educators have established the field of adult education as

distinct from childhood learning (as cited in Baumgartner et al., 2003). When

Knowles (1980) later identified andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults

learn” (p. 43) he formalized the principles of adult learning to include internal learner

motivation, safe learner environment, shared goals and responsibilities, and active

participation by the adult learner where the activity is relevant to the learner’s

experience. Self-evaluation and self-directedness is also evident (Brookfield, 1986)

in adult learning. However, critics of Knowles’ (1980) assumptions have questioned

whether self-directedness is limited to adults, and from an ageing perspective, it is

not clear whether older learners remain self-directed as they encounter

marginalisation and ageist social behaviour in educational and/or workplace settings.

As Baumgartner et al. (2003) note, “Knowles’ andragogy focuses on the individual

learner and ignores the impact on sociocultural factors on learners” (p. 14).

Ilmarinen (2005) concurs, by stating that “social functioning capacity and the

changes it goes through during a person’s worklife have not been studied nearly as

much as the change in physical and mental functional capacity” (p. 206).

Moreover, the concept of self-realisation also appears to have been

overlooked in traditional adult educational practices, a view supported by Hodkinson

et al. (2007) who argue that the dominant view of learning has been one of

acquisition of a “certain commodity: be that knowledge, skills, understanding or

something else” (p. 14). To view adult learning in this way is regarded as

reductionist as it demonstrates the inadequacy of overlooking other centrally

important issues such as social needs, psychological needs (such as belonging) and

the fact that learning is an ongoing process (Hodkinson et al., 2007).

This entirely cognitive view of learning, concerned with the mind and with

propositional knowledge (the information), ignores the centrality of the purposes

behind learning and the emotions underpinning the process. Adult learning must

acknowledge and adapt to the fact that organisational culture and social structures

and relations impact on the individual’s freedom. The individual cannot be seen as

the isolated and insulated self, traditionally described by Knowles as an autonomous

self-directed learner (Baumgartner, 2003). As Hodkinson et al. (2007) state, “we


Chapter 2 46

need to understand adult learning as biological, cognitive, emotional and practical”

(p. 15).

Clearly, the interrelationships between learning, identity and the learning

setting must be considered in contemporary older adult learning. In addition, older

learners represent a different population and occupy numerous learning settings,

thereby requiring a more focused model of andragogy—translated into geragogy—

that incorporates the impact of society on the learner and vice versa.

According to Baumgartner et al. (2003), andragogy’s second assumption is

that “adults come to an educational activity with a greater volume and a different

quality of experience from youths” (p. 12). Interestingly, this is precisely what

renders traditional adult teaching practices ineffective for older learners, as early

adult and workplace learning programs have often been premised on a linear model

that prepares students for one overarching social outcome: workplace productivity.

However, the profile or workers is changing (Jarvis, 2001), and as Weaver (1999)

indicates, the demographic of the student population is also changing, with older

learners increasingly viewed as a dynamic, diverse, and multi-faceted group with

different needs and aspirations.

Adult education has recently shifted towards an inclusion of the socio-

political context of adult education, where assumptions about conditions that shape

the learning contexts are critically questioned (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner,

2006). This is a view shared by Withnall (2002) who regards the traditional lifecycle

view of adult learning theory to be not sufficiently aware of the impact of socio-

economic context, or the complexity and unpredictability of adult life. The role of

context is gaining prominence. As Baumgartner et al. (2003) state, it is precisely the

combination of the “biographic, interpersonal, political, historical, and sociocultural

settings in which individuals are socialised, shaped and situated and in which they

interact” (p. 18).

These are known to affect the individuals’ view of learning and ways of

engagement in the learning process. Moreover, Merriam (2004) states that, in a

critical orientation to adult learning, “diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is

challenged, inclusion is a goal, and emancipation from oppressive social structures

makes possible a context in which learning can thrive” (p. 213).

It is acknowledged that older learners become less homogenous with age, and

this complexity is further generated by issues relating to global spirituality (Merriam,


Chapter 2 47

2004) and the interconnectedness of humanity and the spiritual in learning

experiences. Tornstam (2005) describes this phenomenon as “gerotranscendence”, a

process which incorporates a re-interpretation of self, and which requires a lifetime

of preparation (Thomas, 2004). It is useful to identify other characteristics of older

adults, to explain their difference to younger adults, and to justify why a different

skill base underpinning older adult learning is required. From a life course

perspective, retirement represents a significant social indicator of older age, and

when this event occurs close to the challenge of confronting one’s mortality, it has

the potential to erode self-worth (Tougas et al., 2004). The result of such an

experience can impact on the affective domain of any future learning that might be

undertaken (Russell, 2007) and makes this experience unique to each older learner.

So while accumulated personal experience, social class, gender, ethnicity,

geographical location and ability (Findsen, 2003) affect older adults in much the

same way as younger adults, it is argued that where these factors are juxtaposed with

physical changes, changing social roles, rapidly-changing context and workplace

settings (Hodkinson et. al, 2007) and the impending end of life, all of these justify

that specific treatment for the older adult is warranted. Settersten (2003) summarises

several commonalities that sets older adults apart from general adults thus:

� The presence of normative decline in physical and cognitive capacities;

� Increased prospects of health conditions and the resulting concern

reflected in individuals’ self-definitions;

� Diminishing time left to live and the need to contend with one’s

mortality;

� Bereavement associated with deaths of parents, spouses and friends;

� More restricted but intense social relationships and networks;

� Being perceived or treated by others in ageist ways;

� Increased interiority, desire for integrity, and search for meaning in life;

and

� Greater acceptance of things that cannot be controlled in life, coupled

with greater fear of losing control over one’s life (p. 175).

Most adult education consists of training connected to work or occupation

(Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 13). However, traditional adult learning programs have not been

developed in consideration of the enormous changes in the work environment as

perceived by the older learner, a situation which can negatively impact on the mature


Chapter 2 48

aged workers’ sense of self and role identity (Bruce, 1984). Maslow (cited in Bruce,

1984) identified these as needs associated with a sense of belonging and which in

effect define the process involved in socialization (Bruce, 1984).

For workplace training it is important to consider that work may no longer be

the older learner’s primary goal, which means that the educational objectives for this

target group are different and varied (Hankin, 2005). To simplify this, Jamieson,

Miller and Stafford (1998) broadly categorized motivations for learning by older

people as either knowledge acquisition or social contact, where the former included

specific subject interests and intellectual stimulation and the latter included the need

to meet new friends and escape the home environment and loneliness. In practice

however, adult learning cannot rely on traditional assumptions about older adult

learners, a fact reiterated by Hodkinson et al. (2007) who, in their re-

conceptualisation of adult learning, state that “one has to understand the

interrelationships between learning, agency and identity, as it facilitates a potentially

valuable way of considering these relationships, which contrasts with the

assumptions of a crude acquisition model” (p. 35).

Clearly these details show that for older adults, not every learning situation

will have a vocational outcome. Research has revealed however that even recreation

and leisure pursuits still require some performance guidelines when training is

involved (Beland & Kapes, 2003). In addition, acquiring knowledge about active

citizenship could also be regarded as a learning opportunity, and benefits associated

with any learning event are clearly beyond simply information-gathering. Calder

(1993) for example proposes a link between education and decent social product.

Further justification for encouraging adult education activities is provided by

researchers such as Mehrotra (2003a) and Schneider (2003) who posit that sustaining

mental ability through educational activities is the key to self-efficacy and may even

delay cognitive decline in older adults. This is a view presented by Bishop (2003) in

which the link between improved health and productivity was established. Ilmarinen

(2005) supports this assertion by noting that “the ability to learn deteriorates if it is

not practiced. After an extended pause, one may no longer feel able to learn.

Therefore, life-long [sic] learning and continual learning experiences maintain and

improve the ability to learn” (p. 225).


Chapter 2 49

2.7.2 Lifelong Learning

Field and Leicester (2000) posit that the agenda for lifelong learning, as set by the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996,

encourages education for citizenship (political), encourages wider participation

(social), and emphasizes the relevance to economic prosperity (vocational), while

recognizing the importance of self-determination and personal development (liberal).

Longworth and Davies (1996) justify the concept of lifelong learning as a reaction to

the information society model of education that educates for a wider and more

responsible role in a democratic society. They define lifelong learning as

the development of human potential through a continuously supportive

process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the

knowledge, values, skills, and understanding they will require throughout

their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in

all roles, circumstances, and environments. (p. 22)

According to Ilmarinen (2005), lifelong learning which alternates between

training and working is the trend of the future (p. 217). This places it squarely within

the domain of life course theory where Settersten (2003) asserts that the life course

involves multiple learning points as we age, a view reiterated by Longworth and

Davies (1996) who describe lifelong learning as “a process, a continuum of

interdependent elements capable of being tailored to individual needs in each part of

one’s educational lifetime” (p. 20).

Chappell, Rhodes, Solomon, Tennant and Yates (2003) state that lifelong

learning foregrounds learning pedagogy, not merely to make people more skilled or

more rounded, but to construct identities that can perform better. It is however far

from a panacea according to Field and Leicester (2000) who caution against over-

optimism by suggesting that the rhetoric of “widening participation” might not

include older learners. As Withnall (2002) states, it is not useful to link lifelong

learning specifically to vocational relevance particularly when you place older adult

learning in a life course perspective. More importantly, the possibility exists that

lifelong learning practices formulated purely on government economic policy might

translate into the continuation of schooling, an approach regarded by Formosa (2002)

as contrary to emancipative learning and therefore unsuitable for the older learner.

Nevertheless, connections to the overarching goals of holistic development of the


Chapter 2 50

older person are strong, especially where lifelong learning is regarded as

fundamental to social cohesion, community-building and individual development and

freedom. As such, understanding lifelong learning as distinct from older adult

learning is important to the development of the conceptual framework underpinning

curriculum and skills relevant to older learners, a view shared by Edwards and Nicoll

(2001) who suggest that while lifelong learning is largely atheoretical, it could

provide a framework for considering learning in the life course, occurring “from the

cradle to the grave” (p. 5).

2.7.3 Life Course Theory

The World Health Organisation’s “Active aging: A policy framework” published in

2002, was one of the first publications to include a life course perspective to the

ageing population phenomena, and to discuss the concept and rationale for active

ageing in a social context. Settersten (2003) describes life course theory as the

cartography of human lives, how each life is shaped by contemporary societies, and

how the life course is conditioned by time and place. It is a multi-disciplinary and

dynamic approach. First, it stresses the importance of earlier life course experience

for an understanding of later life and second, it encompasses the interaction between

individual change and social change (Jamieson et al., 1998). In his book “Ageing:

Concepts and controversies,” Moody (2006) outlines the basic concepts of the life

course perspective on ageing, and establishes a baseline for considering age

identification. In age differentiation, society determines what behaviour is

appropriate for certain ages, while in age grading, individuals are assigned specific

roles in society according to their age. Peterson (2004) described age grading as “the

social position accorded to an elder” (p. 13).

While a life course perspective will recognize markers of the passage through

life, such as important life events or transition points (Moody, 2006), ageing in the

21st century however is less predictable, with the timing of major life events such as

marriage and retirement no longer age differentiated. In addition, today there exists a

prolonged period of life devoted to education, creating the likelihood that ageing

could be seen as more susceptible to intervention and improvement (Moody, 2006).

A central proposition to life course theory is that development is lifelong, which has

implications for learning at multiple points as we age. Older adults are likely then to


Chapter 2 51

return to learning at some point in their lives, irrespective of the subject matter or

purpose behind the activity.

Another basic concept in life course theory includes recognition of how each

person’s lifelong pattern of psychological growth is shaped in predictable and

idiosyncratic ways by an interplay between biobehavioural and sociocultural forces

(Peterson, 2004, p. 5). In other words, lifelong growth is nurtured by others in

changing ways over time, and historical and cultural forces also regulate

development. Developing psychological functioning across the domains of

cognition, emotion, personality and social relationships, display patterns in every

human lifespan (Peterson, 2004). As such, this broad approach has given rise to the

term “successful ageing” where the assumption that old age automatically leads to

frailty and senility is rejected on the basis of optimising across-the-board capacities

that remain while compensating for losses that will inevitably occur (Moody, 2006).

Thus, the measure of successful ageing is life satisfaction and a sense of well-being

in the face of decline, with a specific emphasis on self-concept, social relationships

and cognitive processes. One of the goals of development is to achieve capacity to

self-regulate in the older learner, achieved in tandem with a positive sense of self that

is consistent with reality (Tones, 2007). Other developmental goals constitute those

that acquire or alter socialization skills, where adjustment to changing societal

demands and expectations is required. Moody (2006) describes this as “role loss”

(p. 21) and introduces the cognitive theory of ageing where it is argued that the

perception of change in roles has the most impact on behaviour rather than the

change itself.

Today, an increasing number of aged individuals elect to remain active in the

workplace (Moody, 2006) supported by the knowledge that tacit knowledge relevant

to job competency does not decline with age, leading to the assumption that ageing

workers are likely to be sound on the job despite the minimal and gradual decline in

memory and attention. Given the volatile economy, explosion of knowledge

industries and resulting variability in employment patterns, job changes and

retraining are inevitable as “individuals at any age are called upon again and again to

reinvent themselves” (Moody, 2006, p. 13).

Ilmarinen (2005) regards the challenge of adult education to be “the ability to

combine a high level of formal education with learning by doing (i.e. working)”

(p. 217). Age management, a phrase term gaining popularity and defined as


Chapter 2 52

“managing the work ability of personnel and the success of the enterprise”

(Ilmarinen, 2005), is essentially the everyday management and organisation of work

from the viewpoint of the life course and personal resources of people whether the

changes are caused by the ageing process or by other age-related factors. In this

approach Imarinen states that “seniors need other solutions to maintain their work

ability and motivation” (Ilmarinen, 2006, p. 233), a process which requires

“sufficient understanding of the processes of human ageing and growing old”

(p. 233). Schneider (2003) in considering the significance of learning for ageing,

recognizes that adult education specialists working with the “theory of educating

older people” can help ensure that older people recognize the possibilities that

different life situations offer. For those specialists, geragogy is a fundamental

instructional premise.

2.7.4 Geragogy

Geragogy is the process of teaching older adults (John, 1988) that generates self-

directedness for the learner, a principle consistent with that of adult learning

(Knowles, 1980). However, while this supports the traditional process and content

needs of the older person, Formosa (2002) proposes a process called critical

geragogy, which is specifically committed to the transformation of ageism and

particularly concerned with empowerment through education, a view reiterated by

Glendenning (2001). These academics stress that older adults do not benefit from

traditional structural modes of education where the teacher (or workplace trainer) is

the central source of information. This is regarded as a continuation of schooling

(Formosa, 2002) and does not reflect the liberatory goals of educational gerontology

or critical geragogy where learners feel free to engage in critical thought (Jarvis,

2001). It follows then that professionals preparing to facilitate learning for older

adults should become familiar with instructional techniques that consider both their

need for empowerment and their diversity. Lumsden (1985) has suggested that

contemporary educators have realized that older learners can be presented with chaos

and succeed with self-directed activities and less structure. Cusack (1999) further

operationalises critical geragogy through an analysis of strategies that contribute to

both individual and societal transformation by stating that “empowering older people

is essentially an educational process – it is what happens in the discourse and

dialogue between two people who are both learning and teaching” (p. 25).


Chapter 2 53

Appreciating the unique characteristics of the older adult learner, it is argued

that critical geragogy empowers this cohort through “transferring greater legitimate

responsibility for decision-making to seniors” (Cusak, 1999, p. 26), which essentially

is a leadership construct that assumes critical thinking about our belief systems.

Essentially, critical thinking requires the challenging of assumptions, a recognition of

the importance of context, imagining and exploring alternative beliefs, and

maintaining an attitude of reflective scepticism (Cusak, 1999, p. 32). Applying

specialist skills of this type however assumes a level of instructional skill by the

older adult educator or adult learning practitioner (Cusack, 1999; Ilmarinen, 2005;

Mosely & Dessinger, 2007) and knowledge of cognitive development relevant to

both the instructional event and the capabilities of the learner. For example, it is

recognised that humans experience developmental gains and losses in cognitive

functioning as well as maintenance of domains (Baltes & Baltes, 1990), and

instructional skills amenable to this level of sophistication requires knowledge of

more than the current repertoire of discussion, simulation and case studies to promote

learning.

Callahan et al. (2003) detail five instructional design factors emanating from

an industrial gerontology training model that include “motivation, structure,

familiarity, organisation and time” (p. 664) in order to adapt to changing physical

and cognitive aspects of the older learner. Similarly, Ilmarinen (2005) offers the

following methodology guidelines (i.e. methods, environments, and learning

schedule) for the instructors of ageing employers:

� the use of a learning strategy that scaffolds on an existing and secure layer

of competence;

� learning conditions that accommodate the senses of the ageing learner

where sensory functions deteriorate with age;

� the use of images for enhanced motivation;

� a relaxed atmosphere of mutual respect and trust; and

� knowledge of the variety of learning styles (p. 228).

A reliance on such a simplistic benchmark for training quality may not be

enough. For example, reporting on research into three different instructional

methods and four instructional factors on observed training performance of older

learners, Callahan et al. (2003) assert that training that integrates multiple methods


Chapter 2 54

could be useful when training older learners (p. 675). In addition, they found self-

pacing strategies and small group size to be significant. Older learners are not a

homogenous group, their diversity actually increases with age and is exacerbated by

issues like race, gender, and ethnicity (Hankin, 2005). For this reason, older adults

should be in control of their thinking and learning where the teaching and learning is

a “collective and negotiated enterprise” (Formosa, 2002). To achieve a more critical

form of enquiry, some innovative strategies have been proposed by Moody (1990)

who originally suggested techniques based on Socratic Dialogue principles where the

theme of self-directedness is maintained, and a dialogical strategy supported by

Simmons (1999) as one also appropriate for corporate activities. Strategies that

nurture spirituality are also regarded as a valuable instructional element towards

enhancing older adults’ sense of well-being and in increasing empowerment (Collins,

Furman, Hackman, Bender & Bruce, 2007). It is proposed that by viewing

spirituality as a source of strength, “older people may develop increased

connectedness with others and a sense of meaning” (p. 711). Interestingly, the

practice of structured reminiscence is gaining ground as an effective method for

engaging older learners, particularly in the spiritual training literature such as that

issued by the Australian Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies (CAPS) and

available on their website (http://www.caps.org.au). Reports of NASA and IBM

using storytelling and narrative case studies for knowledge sharing and transfer of

workplace information (De Long, 2004) is another significant step towards arguing

for a wider, more holistic and lateral approach to training older adults.

While Lemieux and Martinez (2000) express difficulty in defining the field of

geragogy, they do defend its emergence as a distinct area on the basis of its inclusion

of social issues. This is not simply a new label being applied to an existing process,

in fact Formosa (2002) takes this argument further by suggesting that it emphasises

critical dialogue amongst older learners, provides a platform for transactions that

reflect the wisdom and contribution of the older learners, and provides outreach to all

segments of the older population. For this reason, it constitutes a valuable process

tool that should form part of the professional repertoire of educators of the older

adult.

It is acknowledged that advances in the field of adult education have

attempted to overcome the shortcomings of current practices by introducing an

ideology based on cognitive development, principled and interactive problem-


Chapter 2 55

solving, and pragmatic orientation suitable for meeting the needs of today’s rapidly

changing social and economic environment (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Merriam,

2004). However, it is argued that to rely only on traditional adult education

principles for broad-based developmental strategies suitable for older learners falls

into the trap of universality (Baumgartner et al., 2003) and fails to consider

sociocultural issues such as context and the learning lives of those identities engaged

in learning (Hodkinson et al., 2007). This more holistic approach to adult learning

supports critical thought, and is more aligned to geragogical processes suitable for

older adults, with implications for teachers, trainers, human resource developers,

managers, supervisors, community workers, health care professionals, researchers,

and the older person whether in work or leisure settings. Due to the ageing of the

workforce, each of these professions is required to widen their charter to consider the

principles of older adult education.

2.7.5 Widening Perspectives of Older Adult Educatio n

Recent evidence of the widening perspectives of older adult education includes

exciting research into education for dementia patients which revealed that it is

possible for older adults with dementia to learn, suggesting that mental activity may

stimulate neuronal regeneration (Richeson, Boyne & Brady, 2007) which in turn has

the potential to enable dementia patients to “regain some self-efficacy through

participation in lifelong learning opportunities” (p. 724). Interestingly, it is noted

that the facilitators of this particular educational program included two “doctorally-

prepared faculty members with backgrounds in educational gerontology” (Richeson

et al., 2007, p. 735).

Specialist older adult education also has the potential to impact on technology

use. Research into the use of educational hypermedia for older adult learners has

shown that in general, older adults do not report high levels of anxiety regarding

technology testing sessions, are not unduly hampered by sensory and motor deficits,

are more attentive during instructions, more inclined to ask questions, and are more

conversational during the testing procedure (Boechler, Foth, & Watchorn, 2007).

Boechler et al. (2007) report that, to overcome sensory impairments (hearing and

vision) facilitators use larger materials, consider the setting and apply care to

establishing procedures and instructions (p. 234). From an information-processing

perspective, research into concurrent task performance in older adults reveals that


Chapter 2 56

educational strategies will need to accommodate declining psychomotor abilities

(Albinet, Tomporowski & Beasman, 2007) and that overlearning to the point of

automatisation is recommended to reduce demand on working memory. In other

technology-related research investigating the relationship between life satisfaction

and online education of older adults, Dorin (2007) found that older adults are

positively impacted by even minimal exposure to online education, reinforcing the

link between online education and well-being.

Given the rapid proliferation of educational activities relevant to the older

adult, it is proposed therefore that a more thoughtful institutional response to the

challenges of an ageing population—characterized by expanded adult education and

lifelong learning principles, applied through curriculum relevant to new theories of

ageing and aligned with the biopsychosocial elements of social gerontology—be

undertaken in Australia. Essentially this could be described as an integration of

institutions and processes of education with an appreciation of the content knowledge

of human ageing and the needs of older people. According to Sherron and Lumsden

(1990) and Wendt and Peterson (1993), these are the tenets of educational

gerontology.

2.8 Framework of Educational Gerontology

2.8.1 Introduction

Educational gerontology has been in existence for over thirty years (Engelbrecht

2006; Withnall, 2002). In this time some major achievements have occurred, such

as:

A major achievement has been to raise awareness among both academics and

practitioners in a whole range of disciplines about changes in the age

structure, and to stimulate debate concerning an intellectual basis for the

development of both theory and practice in education for older people.

(Withnall, 2002, p. 89)

In 1991 Jarvis (cited in Glendenning, 1991) stated that “educational

gerontology might well become a major option in professional adult preparation”

(p. 63) a view shared by Long (1990) who describes it as “including public

endeavours designed to inform about ageing and older people, and the preparation of

those who intend to work in human services for the aged” (p. 14). This definition is


Chapter 2 57

mirrored by Moseley and Dessigner (2007) who state “educational gerontology is the

study of how and why older adults learn; an interface between adult education and

social gerontology” (p. 334).

As noted by Sherron and Lumsden (1990), educational gerontology has its

origins in social gerontology, a discipline in its own right (Lowenstein, 2004) where

the ageing individual is viewed in their unique social, emotional and intellectual

context and against the social structures that surround them. This focus on the

individual translates into educational goals underpinned by social justice in order to

achieve self-empowerment and self-determination (Formosa, 2002). Closely aligned

with the notions of transformative learning as posited by Mezirow (1981) and

described by Baumgartner et al. (2003) as an approach “leading to a more integrated

self” (p. 24), the outcomes seen within the individual are theorised to lead to social

transformation.

In contrast to traditional linear educational outcomes, educational

gerontology introduces a wider knowledge base that moves in two directions:

knowledge about older learners, and knowledge for older learners directly (Walker,

1996). Practically, its purpose is ameliorative: to prevent premature decline, to

facilitate meaningful roles and to encourage psychological growth. Conceptually, it

focuses on the cognitive changes that occur throughout later life, the resultant

instructional changes that emerge in adaptation to these changes, and the

motivational factors determining participation and non-participation by older learners

(Petersen, cited in Glendenning, 2001). It is essentially a humanistic approach that is

underpinned by the goal of reaching full human potential (Baumgartner et al., 2003)

via spiritual, social and intellectual growth. Educational gerontology can be both

instrumental and expressive, both formal and informal, both for older people and

about them, both a study and a practice, both remedial and preventive – but with an

overarching theme of human development (Glendenning, 2001).

There has been some opposition to the establishment of a separate and

distinct educational gerontology program. Opposition to the development of this

field came from Maddox (1988) in questioning the political wisdom of creating

distinct degrees and careers out of gerontology, together with Berdes et al. (1992)

who considered it a potentially divisive exercise unless it was aligned with political

and economic realities. As evidenced from recent population and workplace

statistics, it is argued that these realities have arrived.


Chapter 2 58

There is also evidence of successful educational gerontology activities

overseas, including the development of practice competencies for entry-level

professionals in the field of ageing (Bennett & Sneed, 1999), standardization of

modules within the European Joint Masters Degree in Gerontology (Meyer, 2003),

Spanish university programs for seniors (Socias, Brage & Garma, 2004), the formal

linkage of US university gerontology curriculum with engagement and service with

elders (Goff, 2004) and US summer universities for seniors (Jarvis & Walker, 1997).

Research in ageing training also features as a priority for higher education in Europe

(Mehrotra, 2003b), and the practice of “integrative educational gerontology” has

emerged in research in German aged care settings (Maderer & Skiba, 2006). Finally,

the establishment of the Centre for Applied Gerontology at the Oberin University in

Japan reinforces the strength of the field and its movement beyond the scientific

paradigm and into the applied areas of interventions involving older people directly

(Shibata, 2006).

While the overarching philosophy of educational gerontology is that of

advocacy for the improvement of older adults’ lives, educational gerontology can be

operationalised through a variety of adult education activities. Firstly, educational

projects that extend knowledge of ageing into other educational sectors such as

schools can serve to reduce negative stereotypes and generate an informed society.

Community projects that inform older adults directly on issues such as preparing for

retirement, or training in technology use, also qualify as educational gerontology

activities. The worldwide University of the Third Age (U3A) offers student-led

classes in wide-ranging topic areas that stimulate participants and provide a positive

social engagement. Private sector projects that develop products for the ageing

population, corporate consultancies that advise on ageing workplaces, research

contribution to policy formulation and educational service to community and

industry organisations all represent the variety of educational gerontology

applications which might emanate from adult education. What is not clear, however,

is exactly how and where the study of educational gerontology as a subset of social

gerontology might be advanced. To progress this conceptualization and to begin to

understand how educational gerontology might also be operationalised, it is useful to

formulate a preliminary model of the various elements and activities underpinning

the field.


Chapter 2 59

2.8.2 Model of Educational Gerontology

To provide a diagrammatic synthesis of educational gerontology, Figure 2.1

Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education

presents a model of what an educational gerontology program might consist of, based

on a combination of the definitions. As noted earlier, Peterson (1976) described

educational gerontology as having three distinct but inter-related aspects—first,

educational opportunities for older people; second, education for the public about

older people and ageing; and third, education for professionals and para-

professionals working with older people. This definition developed a sharper

paradigmatic focus when Glendenning (2001) identified its linkage to social change

when he stated that educational gerontology is “a dynamic, fast-growing new branch

of social gerontology” (p. xi).

Reflecting the breadth of educational activities outlined by Jarvis and Walker

(1997) in a centre designed for seniors in the USA, this model is also underpinned by

an expanded view of adult learning theory posited by Baumgartner et al. (2003) and

Hodkinson et al. (2007) that is more inclusive of marginalised groups, concerned

with learning contexts and focused on transformative learning and empowerment.

This synthesised model also reflects an emerging adult education paradigm based on

geragogy, or the process of teaching older adults (John, 1988). In terms of the

emergence of geragogy, Withnall (2002) notes how Glendenning (2001) described

this as “the study of how older people function and learn, the psychology of learning,

programme models, good practice in teaching, and so on” (Withnall, 2002, p 90).

It is proposed therefore, that this synthesised approach to older adult

education can be and should be applied through Australian universities in response to

human development issues that are emerging out of the ageing Australian population.

In this model, Adult Education programs play a key role in applying the educational

gerontology activities in universities.

It is submitted that this model of educational gerontology is both feasible and

appropriate, due to the fundamental disciplinary knowledge of adult education theory

and lifelong learning principles, and due to the potential for mediation across

contributing disciplines such as sociology, psychology, gerontology and population

health. Other activities for the educational gerontologist include conducting and

disseminating research findings, the improvement of quality of programs to and for

older adults, and engagement in collaborative activities with community associations.


Chapter 2 60

For this reason, research entities have an integral role to perform in the formulation

of an effective educational gerontology presence.

Figure 2.1

Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in A ustralian Higher Education

It is important to note then that the particular focus for this study lies in the

two highlighted areas in the diagram, namely Training Delivery to and for Older

Learners and Ageing Research and Development. These are the areas regarded as

critical to generating capacity for educational gerontology in Australia and to

develop the springboard for meeting professional development needs of adult


Chapter 2 61

learning practitioners incumbent in organisations, delivering academic programs in

universities and developing ageing-related curriculum. These two shaded areas also

accommodate the range of potential educational gerontology activities which could

indicate evidence of or capacity for application of this specialized field. Emanating

from the model provided in Figure 2.1 and by cross-referencing with a range of

activities described by Jarvis and Walker (1997) applied in an innovative seniors

centre, a list of possible activities indicating evidence of educational gerontology has

been developed. They include:

� Internal staff development activities designed to promote an

understanding of educational issues related to ageing;

� Private sector educational projects that focus on older adults;

� Ageing educational research;

� Community education that comprises projects and programs that benefit

older adult community directly;

� Educational consultancy and advice that informs about older adults;

� Curriculum or program development where the content is specific to older

adult learning;

� Evaluation and accreditation of older adult educational programs;

� Information and guidance services that involve advocacy and information

to a wider audience;

� Creating learning environments that relate to age-friendly settings, and

geragogical instructional strategies including critical geragogy;

� Organisational policy that identifies internal systems and processes that

support ageing-specific educational activities; and

� Professional development and training that improves knowledge and

skills about older adults for incumbents employed in the aged sector.

In addition to the evidence-based activities identified above, there exist less

tangible areas that could be used to indicate capacity for educational gerontology.

These include:

� Educational experience that reveals a theoretical grounding in adult

education as a springboard for educational gerontology;

� An interdisciplinary research focus that includes research involvement

outside the originating discipline and focuses on older adults;


Chapter 2 62

� A culture of lifelong learning that suggests knowledge of, and adherence

to, lifelong learning principles;

� An organizational infrastructure that indicates that staffing and systems

support educational issues relevant to older adults;

� Policy and funding that provide conditions conducive to educational

gerontology pursuits;

� A social gerontology focus that establishes a philosophical framework in

which educational gerontology might be nurtured;

� An understanding of educational gerontology that suggests the existence

of a working knowledge of the parameters of this area; and

� Motivation/Other miscellaneous factors that indicate a drive for future

older adult educational projects, processes or institutional involvement.

2.9 Summary of Literature Review

This review of literature has argued for a change in traditional adult learning theory

and practices in response to an ageing world, particularly where psychological and

sociological issues gain prominence in the development and empowerment of older

adults. It also asserts that the Australian socio-political response to an ageing

demographic has introduced the need for a new benchmark for workplace training

and development practices, particularly as it relates to quality of experience for the

older Australian workplace learner. This fresh emphasis has implications for

programs and activities in the Australian university context, the existing Vocational

Education and Training (VET) sector, and the workforce development activities in

corporate Australia. Analysis of adult education and lifelong learning principles

reveals however that these activities will be ineffective if they are based solely on

economic drivers and linked only to vocational education outcomes, because this

neglects the spiritual, social and emotional elements of human development and

ageing. Adult education too has been revealed as inadequate for an audience that is

less homogenous than traditional adult learning theories have suggested, and which

neglects issues such as context, identity and personal transformation in learning.

Current gerontology curriculum, despite its well-developed disciplinary basis

(Howe, 1990), is considered too narrow for the older adult learner as it neglects the

social and psychological elements of learning, and content is largely bio-medical.

The emerging discipline of social gerontology with its critical framework that


Chapter 2 63

questions assumptions of power and citizenry amongst older adults, appears more in

line with widening social perspectives of ageing well. In addition, research indicates

that a curriculum more mindful of the consequences of ageist workplace practices

can assist in the development and empowerment of the older worker, and recent

legislation is providing added momentum to changing stereotypical views of older

adults at work. Finally, the practice of educational gerontology, defined as “a field

of study embracing exclusively education for older adults, public education about

ageing and the education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of

ageing” (Berdes et al., 1992, p. 28) provides a philosophical framework, consistent

with emergent adult educational philosophies, from which to investigate possible

remedies to the issues and challenges identified. Importantly, educational

gerontology also introduces a distinction between the content of ageing and the

process of instruction to older adults in the form of geragogy.

This chapter also proposed that Australian universities, and in particular,

Adult Education programs, possesses the strongest institutional platform for meeting

this challenge through the introduction of educational gerontology as an extension to

established adult education programs given their location in Faculties of Education.

This study suggests that Faculties of Education could build from the theoretical

foundations of adult education and the principles of lifelong learning necessary for

dealing effectively with older adult learners directly, and greatly assist in preparing

those for working with older learners to draw from other disciplines to create a more

rounded understanding of older adults and the strategies more suitable for a holistic

curriculum development.

While there are existing Ageing Research Centres that are affiliated with

universities, and established adult education programs within university faculties

presently, there is no evidence of resources from these organizations being directly

applied to the developmental needs of the older learner, or to meeting the needs of

professionals requiring preparation to serve the aged sector, particularly in relation to

their learning.

Both financial and social benefits exist for an educational focus of this nature.

Given the link between education and economic prosperity, between educational

engagement and older adults’ health and well-being, and the potential for education

to contribute towards delaying the onset of disease, it is argued that forward planning

in this area will ensure future cost benefits to Australia. Savings are predicted to be


Chapter 2 64

manifested in reduced health care costs as older adults engage socially which reduces

loneliness, isolation and depression and delays the onset of disease (Bishop, 2003).

Bowling (2007) found that, in terms of social functioning, “numerous associations

appeared between activity (social and productive), multiple roles and self-perceived

competence, efficacy, better health and functioning, autonomy, enhanced emotional

wellbeing and life satisfaction in old age” (p. 267). Moreover, while extended

working lives of older adults contribute towards the economy through increased

productivity, this practice sustains mental agility, which can also delay cognitive

decline (Schneider, 2003).

It is further argued that development of older adults as individuals translates

to a general betterment of society (Jamieson et al., 1998). Educational gerontology is

a specialist area within adult education that specifically supports development of

older adults, and is defined as “the study and practise of instructional endeavours for

a general or specific public about ageing and older people” (Sherron & Lumsden,

1990). The demographic trends indicating that Australia is ageing (Jorgensen, 2004)

justifies the usefulness of educational gerontology particularly within the milieu of

emerging concepts in contemporary adult education that increasingly emphasise

interdisciplinary issues encompassing learning contexts, older adult learner identities

and motivations, and specific geragogical processes discussed earlier in this Chapter.

Despite the established university infrastructure and the apparent fit with

lifelong learning, it is not yet clear where educational gerontology might practically

reside as a catalyst for professional development or curriculum content development.

This investigation could therefore, provide the rationale for educational gerontology

to be recognised as specialised curriculum within university Faculties of Education

Adult Education programs. Curriculum development is a complex process,

necessitating consideration of a variety of sources that impact on its feasibility.

These include internal factors such as the abilities and aptitudes of individuals, the

particular values, strengths and capacities of the educators, the political ethos,

structure and relationships of the institution, material resources, and perceived

shortcomings in the existing curriculum (Brady, 1990). External factors affecting

curriculum include cultural, political and social changes and expectations, changing

educational systems and policies, the changing nature of the subject matter, the

potential contribution by institutions, and flow of resources (Brady, 1990). It is


Chapter 2 65

argued that an analysis of the various contexts within which a potential curriculum

might rest is critical to this study.

It is therefore timely to investigate what the dimensions of educational

gerontology capacity might be. How do Australian universities currently meet the

overarching ameliorative goals of educational gerontology? Are local community

and regional economic needs being addressed through a focus on older learner

development? How well do current programs reflect a holistic and transformative

approach to ageing? How adequately are future adult learning practitioners being

prepared for an ageing population? What specific enablers or barriers exist for such

specialization? To answer these questions, it is proposed that research into the

application of educational gerontology principles be undertaken at Australian

university sites specifically concerned with adult education and ageing research

centres to determine their relevance to the changing Australian socio-political

context, their curriculum content input, their potential for exchange, and their

potential impact on the emerging learning needs of the older adult.


Chapter 3 66

Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the overarching design of the study by discussing its

qualitative research framework. This section precedes a discussion of the relevance

of case study methods including data collection tools such as surveys and interviews

to achieving the research objectives. The chapter then provides a link from the

conceptual framework about educational gerontology based on the literature, to the

study design as a means to develop a framework of educational gerontology. This

framework provides the basis for the development of a list of characteristics

consistent with educational gerontology principles referred to in the research. These

characteristics underpin the instrument used to determine the level of familiarisation

and recognition of educational gerontology in Australian university Adult Education

and Ageing Research locales. This is followed by a presentation of the survey items

and guiding interview questions that were developed to investigate the evidence of,

and capacity for, educational gerontology in higher education. A description of data

collection tools, protocols and procedures is then provided, followed by a discussion

of the coding and analysis frameworks that are applied to the design. The chapter

concludes with issues relating to triangulation of results and trustworthiness of the

data, and an acknowledgement of some methodological limitations inherent in the

study.

3.2 Rationale

Based on demographic trends that signal widespread social changes across

dimensions such as education and training (Bloom & Canning, 2006), this research

seeks to determine if formal educational gerontology studies currently exists within

Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres as

strategic preparation in accommodating ageing issues in future curriculum

development and educational gerontology awareness. This information will be vital

for Adult Education programs and Ageing research in the coming decades.

While the current socio-political context appears to support humanistic and

critical theoretical approaches fundamental to educational gerontology practice—and

it can be seen in Adult Education programs—it is argued that it has not yet been

extended to achieve consistency with the broadening interdisciplinary requirements


Chapter 3 67

and unique older adult learner characteristics inherent in educational gerontology.

The current preponderance is to focus only on adult education and learning that is

geared towards workplace training and career development, where:

� the HRD professional is largely influenced by production-centered forces,

� where organisational roles require competence, and

� where performance increases are defined by the organisation in a

competitive marketplace (Kuchinke, 2000).

Herzog and House (1991) however, caution against applying a broad

“employment-as-activity” strategy without consideration of a wider range of issues.

They state that “it is not just whether older adults are productively active, but

whether they are active at the level and in the form that they would like to be” (p. 4).

Ilmarinen (2005) encapsulates the older adult educational challenge by

stating:

Current practices and principles of adult education in worklife do not

encourage and support ageing adults to participate in training. Training has

usually been directed towards young adults and those with good basic

education. Therefore, the ageing workforce is a major challenge to adult

education instructors. Both the development of methods supporting the

learning of ageing people and changes in attitudes of adult education

instructors are required. (p. 224)

To address this gap in older adult educational provision, the following research

questions were formulated:

� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in

Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research

centres?

� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application

of educational gerontology principles?

� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the

development of curriculum content that extends current adult learning

concepts for those preparing to work in the aged sector?


Chapter 3 68

3.3 Research Setting

The study is situated in universities that either provide study programs in Adult

Education, or conduct Ageing Research in a dedicated research centre, as these sites

provide the most obvious place to begin the development and adoption of the study

of educational gerontology. For Adult Education providers, the established

infrastructure, knowledge base and teaching provisions can be integrally linked to

delivery of educational gerontology content as an extension of adult education degree

programs, as demand increases. The list of universities in Australia offering Adult

Education programs is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1

Education Schools/Faculties offering Adult Educatio n Programs

Education Schools/Faculties State

Charles Sturt University New South Wales (NSW)

Queensland University of Technology Queensland (QLD)

Southern Cross University New South Wales (NSW)

Curtin University of Technology Western Australia (WA)

University of Tasmania Tasmania (TAS)

University of Technology Sydney New South Wales (NSW)

University of Western Sydney New South Wales (NSW)

University of South Australia South Australia (SA)

Griffith University Queensland (QLD)

None Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

None Victoria (VIC)

None Northern Territory (NT)

For university-affiliated Ageing Research centres, their established research

focus and gerontological knowledge is a suitable springboard for educational

gerontology as these centres provide an excellent basis to explore the cross

disciplinary nature of any emergent intervention in education gerontology that could

include allied health, business or human services. The list of university-affiliated

Ageing Research centres applicable to this study are provided in Table 3.2.


Chapter 3 69

Table 3.2

Australian Ageing Research centres

Australian Ageing Research Centre State Affiliation

Australasian Centre on Ageing QLD University of Queensland

National Ageing Research Institute VIC University of Melbourne

Centre for Elder Law NSW University of Western Sydney

Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies ACT Charles Sturt University

Centre for Social Change Research QLD Queensland University of Technology

Monash Ageing Research Centre VIC Monash University

Centre for Applied Gerontology VIC Bundoora Extended Care Centre, Southern Health Service

Centre for Mental Health Research ACT Australian National University

Research Centre on Ageing & Retirement NSW University of New South Wales

Research Centre for Gender Health & Ageing NSW University of Newcastle

Anzac Research Institute NSW University of Sydney

Communication Disability in Aging Research Unit

QLD University of Queensland

Ageing & Long Term Care Policy & Practices Unit

VIC University of Melbourne

Alma Unit for Research on Ageing VIC Victoria University

Centre for Ageing Studies SA Flinders University

Centre for Education and Research in Ageing NSW University of Sydney

Centre for Physical Activity in Ageing SA Royal Adelaide Hospital Health

Centre for Research into Aged Care Services WA Curtin University

Lincoln Centre for Ageing & Com Care Research

VIC La Trobe University

National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre QLD University of the Sunshine Coast

Business Work and Ageing Centre for Research

VIC Swinburne University of Technology

To investigate evidence of an understanding of educational gerontology and

the introduction of educational gerontology into research and teaching, this research

focuses on identifying activities such as academic staff awareness of this emergent

area of research, the existence of program delivery approaches to and for older adult

learners, current ageing educational research, and the preparation of future adult

educators for the older adult population. The study also examines the extent of

interdisciplinary collaboration to match the content relationship between adult

education and other contributing disciplines underpinning educational gerontology in


Chapter 3 70

Australian universities. These activities reflect the key issues related to supporting

educational gerontology as an area of study which is concerned with older adult

learners as a group, and older adults as individuals enjoying personal growth and

development as contributing members of society. A summary of these

characteristics in universities is illustrated in Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of

Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education, which is reproduced here

for convenience.

Figure 3.1



Chapter 3 71

3.4 Research Philosophy

A qualitative research philosophy was utilized for this study because it is suitable for

research within a natural world setting and the use of multiple data collection

methods - in this research comprising survey and interviews—that are interactive and

humanistic, support the emergent nature of the data and the fundamental interpretive

outcome (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Qualitative research produces findings that

are not based on statistical procedures, and its purpose is usually to examine people’s

words or actions in narrative and descriptive ways as experienced by participants

(Boulton-Lewis & Wilss, 2004). The focus of qualitative research is about people’s

lives, lived experiences, behaviours, and emotions, as well as organisational

functioning, social movements, and cultural interactions (Marshall & Rossman,

1999; Strauss & Corbin, 1997). A complementary explanation for this research

methodology is drawn from feminist research descriptors. While this study is not

specifically directed to gender, the research draws on its sociological theme of

examining “a problematic in relation to theoretical, policy, or action frameworks in

the interest of realizing social justice” (Punch, 2005, p. 136).

The commitment to action, the focus on emancipation of older adults from

negative ageist labelling and lack of political power, and the overarching needs

assessment, are further commonalities of this study to the feminist research

descriptors noted. Punch (2005) also suggests another significant purpose inherent in

this approach is that it can demystify the process underpinning the design.

Demystification research states that “the act of obtaining knowledge creates the

potential for change because the lack of research about certain groups accentuates

and perpetuates their powerlessness” (p. 138).

Consciousness-raising amongst adult educators and ageing researchers (e.g.

achieved by demystifying ageing to older adult educators, and by promoting the

value of older adults as contributing members of society) is a strong indicator of the

impact that educational gerontology research might ultimately have on the social

construction of old age. Finally, the “emancipatory impulse” (Punch, 2005) of this

design is consistent with the liberatory goals underpinning critical geragogy (see

Chapter 2) which emanate from other traditions of social thought such as Marxism

(Formosa, 2002). Having such a “cross-cut and overlap” (Punch, 2005) in this

research design reflects the range of current research approaches, but as Punch


Chapter 3 72

(2005) states “taken together, they stress the political dimensions of research, and

contribute to the diversity in qualitative research” (p. 140).

The qualitative method employed in this research lays the foundation for

advancing a case study. This is a method regarded as distinct and having its own

research designs and strategy (Yin, 2003), while recognising the complexity of the

setting and the context (Punch, 2005). As Stake (1995) states, “a case study that

portrays an educational problem in all its personal and social complexity is a

precious discovery” (p. 254). While case studies can comprise a mix of quantitative

and qualitative evidence, they are particularly appropriate as a research strategy when

“how” and “why” questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control

over the events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some

real-life context (Yin, 2003, p. 1). It is argued that ageing and the relationship of

education to older adult health and well-being is a strong example of a contemporary

social phenomenon. Defined as a “bounded system,” a case is likely to be purposive,

and representing an integrated system (Stake, 1995). In this study, boundaries exist

due to the focus of the activities of each site and their specific charter. For example,

the Adult Education university sites represent an integrated system of institutional

programs that educate for a specific purpose, while the Ageing Research centres

represent an integrated system of highly purposive research teams united in their

research focus. This bounded feature complements the purpose of this study where

each site will provide an insight into the current awareness and practice of

educational gerontology. Due to the multiple sites included in the design, it can be

referred to as a “collective” case study (Stake, 1995, p. 5) where a greater concern for

representation is evident, or a “multiple case study” (Punch, 2005, p. 144) where the

focus is both within and across cases. In this study ageing is a phenomenon that

represents a shared construct between both sites, and while their treatment of the

phenomenon is different, it is argued that a consolidated understanding of the link

between ageing and education will prove a more powerful trigger for social and

political interest. A case study approach is also a particularly effective method that

contributes knowledge about individual, group, organisational, social and political

phenomena, and it is a strategy that is conducive to understanding complex social

structures, where the goal is to achieve “analytic generalisation” based on theoretical

propositions (Yin, 2003, p. 10). Given the sociological foundation of educational

gerontology, the impact of the socio-political context on the lives of older adults, and


Chapter 3 73

the combination of contributing disciplines to the successful study of educational

gerontology as a specialist field, case studies represent the most appropriate strategy

for this research.

Successful case studies are characterised by a large number of variables,

sourced from multiple sources of evidence, where data converges in a triangulating

fashion, and where the design originates from theoretical propositions to guide data

collection and analysis. It was anticipated that in this study, each site would present

with individual complexities and embedded interactions with its context, revealing

issues that are intricately wired to political, social, historical, and personal contexts

(Stake, 1995).

3.4 Research Participants

The method used for selection of participants was a combination of critical case

sampling, where one setting that is particularly experienced in the research topic is

examined (e.g. university adult education programs are entirely focused on the

education of the adult) and criterion sampling, where participants possess a specific,

relevant characteristic (Patton, 2002). Participants in Ageing Research centres

represent a highly focused, gerontological research knowledge and capability. The

samples in qualitative studies are often acknowledged as too small for

generalizations. However, participants in this study are clearly linked by a common

focus within each site and are limited to an organisational context. Acknowledging

that these sites represent Australian-specific institutions, the university model

adopted in Australia is comparable to university campuses in other Western nations,

rendering the findings representative of similar cases. Moreover, the characteristics

identified in the proposed dimensions of educational gerontology have been drawn

from a broad consideration of international research literature, and it is argued that

this model is therefore likely to be applicable to cases outside the Australian socio-

political climate.

Thirty participants were selected for this study. This could be considered

small, but it is asserted by Sandberg (2000) that approximately 20 interviews can

provide sufficient data before respondent ideas reaches saturation point. More

importantly, the participants contributing to the study are expressly active within the

Research centres in ageing research and as Adult Education academics in Australian

universities, which gives added significance to the participants selected. In addition,


Chapter 3 74

this sample represents the total number of sites of this type available in Australia,

thereby accurately representing a domestic Australian perspective.

Participants in this study consisted of executive representatives from each of

the 21 Australian Ageing Research centres (see Appendix 5) found through an

internet search targeting “ageing research” at every Australian university, and cross-

referenced with on-line information identifying specific research projects and

interests. To obtain participants from the Adult Education sector, each Australian

university was canvassed about details of adult education programs provided. This

generated a list of nine Faculties of Education together with the contact details of the

relevant adult education course coordinators.

This full complement of 30 participants was selected to complete the survey

due to the specific focus on research into ageing or adult education and their links

and affiliations to universities. It represented a community of entities linked by a

common purpose (ageing research or adult education), yet sufficiently diverse to

provide a wide range of organisational objectives suitable for investigation.

Moreover, it is argued that responses from these participants would reflect the full

range of possible activities undertaken across the ageing research and adult education

sector and thereby provide a comprehensive basis against which to compare and

contrast contemporary educational gerontology practices in universities.

3.4.1 Participation

Survey Responses

Each participant from both research sites (Adult Education programs and Ageing

Research Centres) was issued with the survey questionnaire and asked to volunteer

for a follow-up interview. Of the 30 subjects targeted, a total of 17 responded to the

research project. This means that an overall response rate of 57% for the study was

achieved.


Chapter 3 75

Figure 3.2

Rate of Response by Research Location

Overall Participation in Study by Research Location

40%

17%

43% (R)esearch Centre Participation

(A)dult Education Faculty Participation

Non Participation

The 17 survey participants comprised 5 Adult Education Academics and 12

Ageing Research centre directors. This rate of response for each category of site is

reflected in Figure 3.2 which illustrates the participation from each research location.

This reveals that, of the total number of sites selected for the study, 55% of the nine

Australian university Adult Education program co-ordinators selected for

participation responded to the study while 57% of the 21 university-affiliated Ageing

Research centres existing in Australia, responded to the study.

Interview Participation

Sixty percent (60%) of Adult Education respondents to the survey agreed to

participate in a follow-up interview. Reasons some participants were unable to be

interviewed included lack of time and lack of interest. Consequently, the opportunity

to ascertain (and confirm) evidence of and capacity for educational gerontology

through follow-up discussion was not achievable for questionnaire responses

originating from two Australian states, namely Western Australia and Tasmania.

To obtain an overview of the participation rate, Table 3.3, Adult Education Program

Response Rate to Survey and Interview reflects the total number of Adult Education

program sites targeted, and the response rate to the survey and interview according to

the state of origin. This table indicates that 60% of participating Adult Education

academics agreed to participate in a follow-up interview.


Chapter 3 76

Table 3.3

Adult Education program response rate to survey and interview

State Number Survey Interview

NSW 2 Yes Yes

2 No No

QLD 1 Yes Yes

1 No No

SA 1 No No

TAS 1 Yes No

WA 1 Yes No

The full list of Ageing Research Centre sites selected for the study can be

found in Appendix 5. The list of Ageing Research Centres who participated in the

study is provided below in Table 3.4 List of Participating Australian Ageing

Research Centres by State, together with an indication of their rate of response to the

survey and their willingness to participate in a follow-up interview. It also shows the

state from which the various respondents originated. This table indicates that 75% of

Ageing Research Centre survey respondents agreed to participate in a follow-up

interview.

Table 3.4

List of Participating Australian Ageing Research Ce ntres by State

State Number of

Respondents Surveys received Consent to Interview

ACT 1 Yes Yes

NSW 3 Yes Yes

2 Yes No

QLD 2 Yes Yes

1 Yes No

VIC 3 Yes Yes

TAS 0 No No

WA 0 No No

3.5 Procedure

Data in case study research may be collected through observation, interviews,

documentation and videotapes (Boulton-Lewis & Wilss, 2004). Given the purposive

nature of the sites selected for this study, namely university Adult Education


Chapter 3 77

programs and Ageing Research centres linked to Australian universities, two data

collection methods were used. Firstly, a survey generated descriptive statistics

regarding the current educational gerontology activities of Adult Education faculties

and Ageing Research centres. Secondly, more detailed qualitative data was obtained

through subsequent telephone interviews with survey respondents, at each of these

sites. While the descriptive results provide a snapshot view of the current range,

frequency and extent of activities relevant to educational gerontology against the

model and dimensions provided, the interviews provide a deeper understanding of

the capacity inherent within each respondent for the application of educational

gerontology, together with perceived enablers and constraints such as personal

motivations, organisational limitations, and workload.

3.6 Questionnaire Instrument

The questionnaire was developed as the survey instrument. While the basic aim of

surveys is to describe and explain statistically the variability of certain features of a

population, descriptive statistics provide data to answer questions about the current

status of the project under study, reports “the way things are,” and can include

assessment of demographic information (Gay, 1990, p. 189). A questionnaire is

therefore suitable for learning about the distribution of characteristics, attitudes and

belief of the respondent (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). While the basic aim of

questionnaires is to describe and explain the various features of a population, the

specific questions in this study were designed to obtain general information about

educational gerontology. It is important to note that a filter mechanism was inserted

early in the survey design to identify those centres that have some educational faculty

involvement. Only these centres displaying education faculty involvement were

directed to complete the remainder of the questionnaire which dealt specifically with

current adult education activities, programs and practices.

Critical components of this research were to identify current educational

gerontology practices across both target sites, to determine the extent of current

capacity necessary to respond adequately to an ageing demographic, and to develop a

framework to extend established adult education concepts to cater for an ageing

population.

The second research instrument was the interview in which details obtained

from the survey instrument in addressing needs and issues about educational


Chapter 3 78

gerontology were referred to as a basis for an open-ended interview. The geographic

spread of the sample sites across Australia presented a challenge for personally

accessing each location for a face-to-face interview. Mindful of the limitation, but

for logistic and pragmatic reasons, telephone interviews were selected to overcome

issues of distance and to minimise travel expenses. Guided by the survey responses,

and based on the dimensions of educational gerontology developed in the literature,

the telephone interview explored:

� current educational ageing research activity;

� evidence of links or correlations with specific Faculty focus and

gerontology program types;

� extent of familiarity with the educational gerontology paradigm;

� evidence of attitudinal or perceived organisational barriers;

� types of collaborations that have occurred;

� demographic information;

� evidence of educational gerontology activities, and

� evidence of programs that support geragogy.

3.7 Conceptual Basis of the Questionnaire Items

Formulated from Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in

Australian Higher Education and focusing on the shaded areas, namely “Training

delivery to and for older learners” and “Ageing research and development,” a list of

possible activities under each dimension was generated as a basis for development of

the questionnaire items. These activities were drawn from the definition of

educational gerontology provided by Wendt and Peterson (1993) which is “a field of

study embracing exclusively education for older adults, public education about

ageing and the education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of

ageing” (as cited in Berdes et al., 1992, p. 11). To extend the relevance of these

activities, this definition was further extrapolated by using the description of

educational gerontology provided by Wendt and Peterson (1993) which is “an

integration of institutions and processes of education with the content knowledge of

human ageing and the needs of older people” (p. 182).


Chapter 3 79

A useful synthesis of these definitions was provided by Walker (1996) who

regards educational gerontology as comprising three distinct, yet interrelated aspects:

� educational activities about ageing and older people to a wider public;

� educational activities designed for older adults; and

� educational preparation for those intending to work in professional or

paraprofessional capacities in the aged sector.

Using these definitions, and based on the key dimensions of educational

gerontology noted in Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology

in Australian Higher Education, a list of organizational activities that have the

potential to provide evidence of educational gerontology at each site was developed.

In a similar way, a list of concepts that would indicate capacity for the application of

educational gerontology principles was also developed. To further refine the process

of developing survey questions, event codes proposed by Burns (2000) were used to

categorise and delineate specific activities relating to educational gerontology and to

foreshadow a framework for dimensional analysis. These include: social structure

codes that indicate patterns of behaviours and relationships; strategies codes that

indicate how people do things; and subject perspective codes that reveal how

respondents feel about their situation. These codes were regarded as useful for a

preliminary categorisation of the contents of the interview conversations prior to

analysing their content according to the situational analysis, a process regarded by

Brady (1990) as essential for answering the educational gerontology curriculum

research question formulated in Chapter 2.

In Table 3.5 Conceptual Basis of Survey Items Investigating Educational

Gerontology, the linkages between the proposed dimensions of educational

gerontology, the key attributes and the ensuing survey questions are provided.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

3

80

Tab

le 3

.5

Con

cept

ual B

asis

of S

urve

y Ite

ms

Inve

stig

atin

g E

duc

atio

nal G

eron

tolo

gy

DIM

EN

SIO

N 1

: E

vide

nce

of E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy

Key

Attr

ibut

es

Eve

nt C

odes

Q

uest

ionn

aire

(Q

) Ite

m o

r Int

ervi

ew

Inte

rnal

Sta

ff D

evel

opm

ent

• in

tern

al a

ctiv

ities

des

igne

d to

pro

mot

e un

ders

tand

ing

of

educ

atio

nal i

ssue

s in

age

ing.

S

TR

AT

EG

Y

Q8(

e)

Inte

rvie

w

Priv

ate

Sec

tor

Pro

ject

s •

exte

rnal

edu

catio

nal p

roje

cts

rele

vant

to o

lder

adu

lts

ST

RA

TE

GY

/SO

CIA

L S

TR

UC

TU

RE

Q

8(f)

Inte

rvie

w

Age

ing

Edu

catio

nal R

esea

rch

• ag

eing

res

earc

h w

ith a

n ed

ucat

iona

l ele

men

t S

TR

AT

EG

Y

Q1;

Q7,

Q 8

(a)

Com

mun

ity E

duca

tion

• pr

ojec

ts o

r pr

ogra

ms

that

ben

efit

the

olde

r co

mm

unity

di

rect

ly

ST

RA

TE

GY

/SO

CIA

L S

TR

UC

TU

RE

Q

4, Q

6, Q

8(g)

, Q8(

i)

Inte

rvie

w

Edu

catio

nal C

onsu

ltanc

y an

d A

dvic

e •

prof

essi

onal

con

sulta

ncy

rega

rdin

g ag

eing

to e

xter

nal

agen

cies

S

TR

AT

EG

Y/S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q8

(a-k

)

Inte

rvie

w

Eva

luat

ion

and

accr

edita

tion

of

educ

atio

nal p

rogr

ams

• qu

ality

adv

ice

rela

ting

to e

duca

tiona

l pro

gram

s of

fere

d to

w

ider

aud

ienc

e S

TR

AT

EG

Y/S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q8(

h)

Info

rmat

ion

and

Gui

danc

e se

rvic

es

• ad

voca

cy a

nd in

form

atio

n to

wid

er a

udie

nce

ST

RA

TE

GY

/SO

CIA

L S

TR

UC

TU

RE

In

terv

iew

Cre

atin

g Le

arni

ng E

nviro

nmen

ts

• ev

iden

ce o

f ag

e-fr

iend

ly le

arni

ng e

nviro

nmen

ts,

inst

ruct

iona

l str

ateg

ies

or g

erag

ogy

proc

esse

s re

leva

nt to

ol

der

lear

ners

.

ST

RA

TE

GY

Q

8(i)

Inte

rvie

w

Org

anis

atio

nal P

olic

y •

inte

rnal

sys

tem

s an

d pr

oces

ses

that

sup

port

edu

catio

nal

activ

ities

S

TR

AT

EG

Y/S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q10

Inte

rvie

w

Pro

fess

iona

l Dev

elop

men

t and

T

rain

ing

in A

ged

Sec

tor

•

prog

ram

s, s

emin

ars,

wor

ksho

ps th

at im

prov

e th

e sk

ills

of

the

full

rang

e of

age

d se

ctor

em

ploy

ees.

S

TR

AT

EG

Y/S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q8(

e)

Cur

ricul

um o

r P

rogr

am

Dev

elop

men

t •

deve

lopm

ent o

f age

ing-

spec

ific

cont

ent m

ater

ial f

or in

tern

al

deliv

ery

ST

RA

TE

GY

Q

6, Q

8(b)

,Q8(

c)

Inte

rvie

w

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

3

81

Tab

le 3

.5 c

ont.

Con

cept

ual B

asis

of S

urve

y Ite

ms

Inve

stig

atin

g E

duc

atio

nal G

eron

tolo

gy

DIM

EN

SIO

N 2

: C

apac

ity fo

r Edu

catio

nal

Ger

onto

logy

Key

Attr

ibut

es

Eve

nt C

odes

Q

uest

ionn

aire

(Q

) Ite

m o

r Int

ervi

ew

Edu

catio

nal E

xper

ienc

e of

the

Res

pond

ent

• re

leva

nt p

latfo

rm fo

r un

ders

tand

ing

adul

t edu

catio

n

SU

BJE

CT

P

ER

SP

EC

TIV

E

Inte

rvie

w

Inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y R

esea

rch

Foc

us

of th

e S

ite

• ed

ucat

iona

l or

agei

ng r

esea

rch

invo

lvem

ent o

utsi

de th

e or

gani

zatio

n S

TR

AT

EG

Y/S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q3;

Q4;

Q7;

Q8(

k)

Inte

rvie

w

Life

long

Lea

rnin

g C

ultu

re

• kn

owle

dge

of, a

nd a

dher

ence

to, l

ifelo

ng le

arni

ng p

rinci

ples

S

UB

JEC

T

PE

RS

PE

CT

IVE

Q

8(j)

Inte

rvie

w

Org

anis

atio

nal i

nfra

stru

ctur

e •

staf

fing

or s

yste

ms

in s

uppo

rt o

f ed

ucat

iona

l end

eavo

rs

SO

CIA

L S

TR

UC

TU

RE

Q

10

Inte

rvie

w

Pol

icy

and

Fun

ding

•

cond

ition

s of

fund

ing

that

ena

ble

or c

onst

rain

edu

catio

nal

purs

uits

S

OC

IAL

ST

RU

CT

UR

E

Q1

Inte

rvie

w

Soc

ial G

eron

tolo

gy F

ocus

•

pres

ence

of

the

fund

amen

tal f

ram

ewor

k fo

r ed

ucat

iona

l ge

ront

olog

y S

UB

JEC

T

PE

RS

PE

CT

IVE

Q

1

Inte

rvie

w

Und

erst

andi

ng o

f E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy

• a

wor

king

kno

wle

dge

of th

is s

peci

alis

t are

a S

UB

JEC

T

PE

RS

PE

CT

IVE

Q

5

Inte

rvie

w

Mot

ivat

ion/

Oth

er

• m

isce

llane

ous

activ

ities

or

futu

re g

oals

indi

catin

g fu

ture

ed

ucat

iona

l pro

cess

es o

r in

stitu

tiona

l inv

olve

men

t. S

UB

JEC

T

PE

RS

PE

CT

IVE

Q

9

Inte

rvie

w


Chapter 3 82

3.7.1 Survey Questions

Based on the dimensions noted in Table 3.5, the following questions were formulated

to investigate evidence of educational gerontology practices in Australian university

Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres across Australia, resulting in

the following items:

Section One of the survey examined:

What is the primary focus of the Research centre or Adult Education Faculty?

What kind of ageing research activities are conducted by the Research centre

or Adult Education Faculty?

In what way does the Research centre or Adult Education Faculty contribute

to the university’s Strategic Plan?

What links exist to the university generally?

What function do these links perform?

What links exist to Ageing Research or Faculties of Education?

What function do these links perform?

What ageing-related educational programs are offered at the centre or

Faculty?

Section Two of the survey examined:

What educational gerontology-based programs currently exist?

What are the topics being offered?

Where and how are they delivered?

To what extent has interdisciplinary collaboration occurred to achieve

objectives associated with educational gerontology?

What industry and community collaboration has occurred to foster

educational gerontology practice?

Is any research in educational gerontology being conducted?

Section Three of the survey elicited:

Voluntary Demographic Information

Optional return address for distribution of findings

Thanks to Respondents


Chapter 3 83

The survey questions were field-tested to obtain early feedback about the

clarity, flow, and overall validity of the instrument. The field-testing involved

obtaining feedback from three independent stakeholders active in various areas

across the ageing sector. Participants in the field-test included an independent

doctoral student in ageing, a representative of an older person’s lobby group, and a

university academic. The field-testing process was based on a list of potential

weaknesses in survey design as provided by Neuman (1994), which include:

� Jargon, slang and abbreviations;

� Ambiguity, confusion and vagueness;

� Emotional language and prestige bias;

� Double-barreled questions;

� Questions that are beyond the capabilities of the respondent;

� Questions that ask about future intentions;

� Overlapping response categories;

� Unbalanced response categories (p. 230).

As a result of feedback received, the response category developed for noting

the length of establishment time was amended, as the range did not follow

sequentially. In addition, reservations about the use of the term “educational

gerontology” were raised as it was perceived as intellectual elitism or labeling.

While mindful of this tendency for jargon, the researcher retained the term in the

survey to remain consistent with established descriptors within the literature and to

sustain the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The final questionnaire is

provided in Appendix 4.

3.7.2 Data Collection

The first opportunity for data collection occurred through contact with potential

respondents and this was conducted by post (and email). The objectives of this

contact stage were to confirm respondent details and willingness to participate in the

study. Information regarding the project was then distributed (see Appendix 1)

together with research protocols (see Appendix 2) and consent form for voluntary

participation (see Appendix 3) which provided the participant with an opportunity to

nominate a date and time for the telephone interview. In most cases, however, the

researcher personally contacted the respondents by telephone to arrange a time and


Chapter 3 84

date for the interview. This was useful to establish early rapport, and to convey an

early enthusiasm regarding the interview process.

3.7.3 Units of Measurement

Due to the number of respondents (n=30) identified, it was anticipated that simple

percentages would be applied to the results. Descriptive data including

demographics, primary research focus and length of establishment would be reflected

in averages and broad totals.

Question 8 (a-k) Self-rating scale

Question 8 sought to examine the extent of collaboration across both sites by

participants’ self-rating the extent of various activities including curriculum review,

curriculum development, program development, professional development,

community involvement, best practice, geragogical delivery, application of

educational gerontology and making grant and funding applications. A four-point

scale was designed according to four descriptors beginning at 1=not at all, 2=minor

involvement, 3=regular involvement and ending with 4=significant involvement. The

self-rating questions also provided an opportunity for further comments and

elaboration, which were used during the interview to elicit greater explanation of the

collaborative activities between the Ageing Research Centre and the university Adult

Educators.

Questions 9 – 10 Open ended questions

Analysis of responses in the open-ended questions sought to clarify, categorise, and

classify in such a way as to name objects and display the relationships between them

(Morse & Richards, 2002). A wide variety of responses were anticipated in these

open-ended questions, which resulted in the use of a constant comparative method of

content analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1997), an iterative process in which interview

transcripts are read and re-read to determine recurring themes and identify concepts.

In this way the theoretical framework inherent in the proposed dimensions of

educational gerontology was used to analyse the data to seek a level of congruence or

misfit. This can be described as “dimensional analysis” (Morse & Richards, 2002,

p. 57), drawn from grounded theory where the overarching structure guides analysis.


Chapter 3 85

By keeping the literature in mind, and by relating transcripts to key research

questions and the model of educational gerontology, commonalities, categories and

relationships between them were developed.

3.7.4 Telephone Interviews

Appreciating that telephone interviews do not provide the opportunity to interpret

facial expressions and body languages, the telephone interview process was carefully

planned. To scaffold the interview process, the four stages of interviews as proposed

by Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran (2001) were used as a planning tool. The stages

include “entrance investment time, activity No2, intimacy and exit investment time”

(p. 138). As part of the entrance investment time, and to establish the appropriate

entry into the “rapport zone” (p. 139), culturally accepted ritual greetings were used.

Still within this adjustment period, and to reduce anxiety, the researcher described

the housekeeping rules applicable to the conversation, emphasising the flexibility of

the interview process, the ability of the respondent to adjust, re-phrase or retract

comments should they wish to, and the opportunity to suspend the conversation

should some interruption occur. The taped nature of the interview and the

confidentiality of the respondent were also reiterated at this time. Such an entry

procedure can “assist in removing natural barriers and in lowering anxiety” (p. 139).

As a further gesture of courtesy, permission to proceed with the interview was sought

before continuing to the next stage.

Cavana et al. (2001) describes the second stage – Activity No. 2 - as being

content-based. Consistent with this concept, the ensuing questions were all based on

the survey responses of the particular respondent. It must be noted that the survey

responses provided only a guiding principle to the interview, as the questions and

responses varied between participants and across sites, thereby making each

interview unique. The interviews were also semi-structured due to the reasonable

amount of information already gathered (Burns, 2000), the switch between content-

specific and open-ended questions, and the use of the “preferred scenario” strategy

(Cavana et al., 2001, p. 149) as the final question, which was the same in every

interview. To enhance clarity, verbal advance organisers were used to orientate the

respondent to their previously-submitted survey responses before each new question

was posed.


Chapter 3 86

While the third stage “intimacy” (Cavana et al., 2001, p. 150) is more

difficult to achieve in a telephone interview, the open-ended questions at the end of

the interview generated free expression of ideas that were categorised by the

researcher as “crystal ball” ideas. No limitation or restriction on the responses was

inferred at this point, instead strong affirmations were made by the researcher after

each comment on the “basis of a shared, authentic and sincere interest” (p. 150) in

the field of gerontology and in the practise of adult education. As Zima (1991) states

“vocal body language that projects interest and enthusiasm in the other person and

the topic under discussion is a decided advantage and can overcome most visual and

vocal non-verbal limitations” (p. 24). Full disclosure of more private aspirations and

concerns were often more forthcoming from the respondents at this stage.

To make up the “exit time investment” (Cavana et al., 2001, p. 141), the

researcher asked the respondent if there were any questions they wished to ask. This

was effective in achieving three things: firstly it reinforced a sense of collegiality

between the two parties; secondly it enabled clarification of any issues about the

research project; and finally, it gave the respondent a cue that the interview was

concluding. This pre-empted a positive verbal leave-taking, with all of the

respondents wishing the researcher well with the remainder of the project.

In terms of organisation, the telephone interviews were organised through the

use of a telephone conferencing service, pre-arranged to occur at mutually-

convenient interview times, and efforts were made by the researcher to adhere to

estimates of the duration of each conversation.

3.7.5 Transcription

The recording of each interview was transcribed using the telephone conference

services of a communications company. Under this arrangement, at the completion

of each telephone interview, the recording of the conversation on a Compact Disc

(CD) was mailed to the researcher for transcription. Recordings of the verbatim text

were received by the researcher within one week of the associated interview.

Transcription was manual, using Microsoft Word© and Windows Mediaplayer©

software. To enable easy identification of excerpts from the interview responses, a

coding system was implemented. This system identified the extract by referring to


Chapter 3 87

the date of the interview, the initials of the participant, and the number of the excerpt,

in the order that it was stated during the telephone conversation.

3.7.6 Analysis

The overarching analytical strategy for this study was based on the dimensions of

educational gerontology developed through a synthesis of literature, definitions of

educational gerontology developed over the last two decades, and the Proposed

Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education as

illustrated in Figure 3.1. This analysis process reflects an etic approach whereby the

intent to measure the dimensions of educational gerontology preceded the

development of a series of categories as an indicator of these constructs (Lee, 2002).

As noted earlier, these constructs were derived from the theoretical framework of

educational gerontology and purposely search for evidence of and capacity for

educational gerontology. Closer analysis of responses formulated in the open-ended

questions and interviews should generate emic issues, which are “representations of

the multiple constructions that various respondents have made” (p. 215) and

considered essential to case studies as these reflect issues from the inside (Stake,

1995). These issues are useful in determining the capacity for educational

gerontology across these settings. This allowed the researcher to develop greater

understanding of each site and formulate assertions in the form of “petite

generalisations” (p. 20).

3.7.7 Coding

NVivo software was used to establish a plan for analysis, where each interview was

coded into specific nodes (categories) that reflect educational gerontology principles

and aligned with pre-determined attributes to enable searching, cross-analysis,

categorical aggregation and reporting. These nodes and sample transcripts are

presented in Appendix 7. This aided in formulating a tabular representation of

results for each site and across sites.

Contents of transcripts were perused for statements that relate to each of the

issues and main themes and these statements were coded accordingly. This

dimensional analysis (Morse & Richards, 2002) sought to identify applicability and

relevance to key themes, where these themes were closely related to the criteria


Chapter 3 88

proposed as supporting the application of educational gerontology principles. They

include:

� Collaboration with faculties for research projects;

� Research projects with an educational component;

� Incorporation of educational practices into centre activities;

� Professional development programs;

� In-house knowledge and skills of educational gerontology;

� Future plans for inter-disciplinary collaboration; and

� Perceived barriers to inclusion of educational gerontology.

Weinberg and Abramowitz (2002) regard this as traditional analysis, where

systematic coding, grouping and summarising occur in order to provide a coherent

organising framework that encapsulates the social world of the respondents.

However, to generate active interview data, the analysis should also show the

dynamic interrelatedness of the whats and hows (Weinberg & Abramowitz, 2002,

p. 124). To achieve this, contents of each theme was further analysed to reveal emic

issues (those important to the respondents themselves), with particular focus on the

perceived enablers and constraints relevant to the introduction of educational

gerontology in higher education. For example, personal viewpoints offered during

the interviews provided another dimension to the complex workings of the respective

research centre, and revealed unexpected biases or indicated a genuine lack of

knowledge regarding the practice of educational gerontology. To mitigate researcher

bias during the analysis, these were cross-referenced with specific attributes of each

site drawn from the demographic information supplied in questions 1-7 of the

questionnaire. These included: research focus, length of establishment, affiliation

status, affiliation purpose, link to educational gerontology, knowledge of educational

gerontology, existence of training programs, and links to university programs in adult

education or university research in ageing.

3.7.8 Triangulation

Stake (1995) regards one of the principle targets for triangulation to be the

“presentation of a substantial body of uncontestable description” (p. 110). He also

argues that “only the important data and claims will be deliberately triangulated”

(p. 112), where importance is directly related to the ability to understand the issues or


Chapter 3 89

differentiate between conflicting meanings. At this stage, theory triangulation was

achieved by an evaluation of findings against the conceptual framework and

proposed model of educational gerontology (as noted in Figure 3.1) and the list

identifying evidence of and capacity for this practice, where theory means “the

design of research steps according to some relationship to the literature, policy

issues, or other substantive source” (Yin, 2003, p. 5).

Methodological triangulation was achieved through comparison of the

transcripts with the original responses on the questionnaire to determine

inconsistency in viewpoints. One example of inconsistency was found where a

particular survey response indicated an extensive knowledge of educational

gerontology, but during the interview it was found that this respondent was referring

to an understanding of lifelong learning and could not elaborate in any way on

educational gerontology. For this reason, the self-rating score was reduced by the

researcher to represent no knowledge of the field.

In addition, each separate transcript recorded by the NVivo software package

is available to other researchers, a practice common to case studies (Yin, 2003).

Notes taken by the researcher during the telephone interviews have been stored,

together with any completed questionnaires and the CDs containing the actual

conversations. To further improve the reliability, a chain of evidence has been

established by:

a) recording dates and times of each interview,

b) placing each interview transcript on file

c) attaching memos and notes about specific circumstances to each file, and

d) identifying linked documents to each transcript where applicable.

The final effort in triangulation was to view the findings against the proposed

macro forces exerting pressure on each site, including policy, legislation, funding

and socio-cultural influences. Such a process assisted in defining and testing

potential “rival theories” (Yin, 2003, p. 113) where the outcomes could have been

influenced by outside forces. As Yin states, “the more rivals that your analysis

addresses and rejects, the more confidence you can place on your findings” (p. 113).


Chapter 3 90

3.7.9 Trustworthiness

By their nature, qualitative studies cannot be replicated because the real world

changes. Peer debriefing is recommended to improve trustworthiness (Stage &

Manning, 2003) and this was conducted in collaboration with the researcher’s

Academic Supervisory team. In addition, all collected data was well organised and is

available for future use or re-analysis by other researchers. To mitigate interviewer

bias, each interview is supported by taped recordings of each conversation and

verbatim transcripts.

The Code of Ethics for Research in Education, as issued by the Australian

Association for Research in Education (Bibby, 1997) outlines four basic ethical

principles, and these include:

i) Research consequences must be generally enhancing,

ii) Research must have an ethical element,

iii) No harm should occur to any individuals, and

iv) Full respect for the dignity and worth of persons and the welfare of

students, research participants and the public generally should take

precedence over any research self-interests (p. 116).

Consistent with these principles, this research proposal received Level 1

ethical clearance from the QUT Human Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix

7).

3.7.10 Presentation of Results

Descriptive results are initially presented in graphical form, in tables and diagrams.

Results of interview questions are presented in tabular format, and include excerpts

from statements made by the participants, in such a way that enables the creation of

thematic (categorical) models with links to specific attributes.

3.8 Limitations of the Design

The sample represented all the existing university Adult Education programs and

Ageing Research centres in Australia. In the case of Ageing Research centres,

participants were selected on the basis of performing an ongoing and active

leadership role within the centre. This selection technique may have introduced bias

in that these participants could be locked into a mode of advancing and justifying the


Chapter 3 91

positive elements of their centre, and this might generate exaggeration of the centre’s

activities and relative success factors. In addition, while the sample might have

contributed significant understanding to emerging curriculum content issues in

higher education, the small number of sites investigated might not be sufficient to

achieve credibility from some university administrators or curriculum development

policy-makers.

The interviews may not have been of sufficient length to nurture the

relationship between the interviewer and researcher, and to develop an understanding

of how the specific culture influences the lives of those participants. To alleviate

this, the interviewer paid special attention to establishing a climate of “respectful

listening” (Stage & Manning, 2003, p. 37) during the interview process.

The sites selected for the study were geographically dispersed, and the

locations of the research sites made it difficult for the researcher to physically visit

each Education Faculty or Research centre to identify the more subtle nuances and to

develop perspectives of each location. To mitigate this limitation, the researcher

visited two local Ageing Research centres to develop a sense of perspective and to

gain a deeper understanding of the typical environment, focus, demands and daily

operations of such an organisation. To develop Faculty insights, the researcher

utilised personal experience in a similar Faculty to develop a sense of operations and

an appreciation of the role of coordinators in each Faculty or School. As such, an

assumption was made that the culture of the Education Faculties and Ageing

Research centres investigated is similar to that of most Education Faculties and

Ageing Research centres in Australian university environments. This assumption

may have resulted in some of the subtleties of the Faculty or administrative culture

being overlooked, and may not have revealed the extent of industry partnerships or

involvement with other more general research centres or education providers.

The lack of face-to-face contact may also have hindered the development of

rapport between the researcher and the participants, and impacted negatively on the

willingness of the participants to participate fully in the interview. As Stage and

Manning (2003) state, “gaining participant’s trust is crucial to yielding high-quality

interview data and enhancing authentic data analysis and interpretation” (p. 38). For

this reason, specific telephone interview guidelines as proposed by Cavana et al.

(2001) were closely followed to enhance the quality of this process.


Chapter 3 92

Finally, the researcher was also aware that language and interpretation issues

might arise due to the researcher’s non-Australian heritage. Moreover, the status of

the researcher (student) relative to the participant (academic) had the potential to

influence the level of disclosure, especially in situations where identity and power

differences illuminate unique variations in the experiences of the population (Stage

& Manning, 2003, p. 42). As these authors state, authoritative relationships are

particularly relevant to “program evaluation or institutional assessment” (p. 42). To

reduce this potential obstacle, the researcher stressed the humanist philosophy

inherent the research study, which encouraged a sense of collegiality and mutual

benefit, and highlighted the need for a greater focus on older adult Australians on the

basis of acknowledged demographic change.

3.9 Summary

This study design reflects the synthesis of currently disparate disciplines and

dimensions associated with ageing, to provide a launch pad for an investigation of

educational gerontology and its application in the Australian university setting. To

conduct this investigation, a questionnaire instrument was developed to examine the

evidence of educational gerontology and an interview process was designed to

further investigate preliminary survey results. It is anticipated that the results from

these two data collection methods will also be useful in the development of a

framework for curriculum relevant to older adult education programs, and the

subsequent professional development of older adult practitioners. It is suggested that

other ancillary benefits of this research include:

� The development of an emphasis on quality standards for educational

practices relevant to older Australians, and

� Improved public awareness about the process of ageing, and the

uniqueness of every older person’s experience.

To achieve a robust design, careful consideration of methodological and

analytical procedures was followed to mitigate issues of distance such as lack of

face-to-face contact and the inability to witness idiosyncrasies and more subtle

nuances specific to each site. The design of the analysis of data collected was based

on the guiding principles provided by the theoretical framework and proposed model

of educational gerontology, where theory means “the design of research steps


Chapter 3 93

according to some relationship to the literature, policy issues, or other substantive

source” (Yin, 2003, p. 5). Finally, systematic administrative, organisational and

record-keeping protocols were employed to maintain a high level of professionalism,

to adhere to ethical standards, and to achieve a high standard of research quality.


Chapter 4 94

Chapter 4 Results and Interpretation 4.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter

The purpose of this study was to investigate Australia’s readiness for accommodating

a specialised form of older adult education known as educational gerontology. The

relevance and applicability of this field, which is concerned with education for and

about older adults, is increasing due to the emerging links between health, well-being

and social engagement in the later years. Consequently, this chapter presents the

results of an investigation into the evidence of and capacity for educational

gerontology in adult education programs offered in Australian university Adult

Education programs and in university-affiliated centres focusing on Ageing

Research. The data was collected by surveying and interviewing participants who

were coordinating adult education programs in Australian universities, and who were

actively involved in Ageing Research centres located in Australian universities.

This chapter first provides an account of the participation rates for the study,

including the rate of response by research location. This is followed by a description

of the results and interpretation framework which includes a revisit of the proposed

model of educational gerontology formulated from the literature review, and a

description of the specific elements extracted from this model that form the basis for

the investigation. Results generated by the investigation are presented in three parts.

Part One of the results focuses specifically on demographic data gleaned through the

preliminary items in the questionnaire. In Part Two, which is presented in tabular

format, results from investigation into the evidence of educational gerontology is

presented. Results of both research locations are presented simultaneously in this

section to enable the development of a comparative view of the data generated in

questionnaires and in follow-up interviews. Part Three, which is also presented in a

tabular format, details the results of investigation into the capacity of educational

gerontology, leading to a presentation of key findings which are provided in Part

Four.


Chapter 4 95

4.2 Results and Interpretation Framework

A critical component of this research was to firstly investigate the existence of

educational gerontology principles across both research sites as a means to generate

an understanding of current capacity determined necessary to cater to an ageing

demographic. This research objective is based on the definition of educational

gerontology provided by Berdes et al. (1992) which is “a field of study embracing

exclusively education for older adults, public education about ageing and the

education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of ageing” (p. 11).

Referring to this definition, together with a synthesis of literature covering sociology,

psychology, adult education and post-compulsory educational domains, a model of

the practice of educational gerontology was developed in Chapter 2, which is

reproduced here for convenience. The investigation focused on two specific areas

within this model, namely Training Delivery to and for Older Learners, and Ageing

Research and Development.


Chapter 4 96

Figure 4.1


Drawing from this model, a list of elements that have the potential to indicate

evidence of the practice of educational gerontology was generated. These include:

� Internal Staff Development

� Private Sector Projects

� Ageing Educational Research

� Community Education

� Educational Consultancy and Advice

� Evaluation and Accreditation of Educational Programs


Chapter 4 97

� Information and Guidance Services

� Creating Learning Environments

� Organisational Policy

� Professional Development and Training in Aged Sector

� Curriculum or Program Development

Similarly, a list of elements that indicate capacity for the practice of

educational gerontology was developed from the literature. These include:

� Educational Experience of the Respondent

� Interdisciplinary Research Focus of the Research Site

� Lifelong Learning Culture

� Organisational Infrastructure

� Policy and Funding

� Social Gerontology Focus

� Understanding of Educational Gerontology

� Motivation/Other

Survey questions were developed around these elements, and the interviews

were planned to enable deeper exploration of responses to the survey questions. The

link between these elements and the items in the survey instrument and the follow-up

interview is presented in Table 3.5 in Chapter 3. For ease of reference, each element

has been placed in a table, together with a short description of what the attributes (or

characteristics) of each element might be, and the corresponding survey question or

interview results. Each element concludes with an interpretation of the results, which

are used to generate the key findings of the study.

PART ONE

4.3 Demographic Results

The following section provides background details about the participating research

locations to develop an idea of their operational focus (Q1), background (Q2), the

nature and purpose of their relationship to the university with which they are

affiliated (Q3 and Q4), and to identify the existence of and platform for

interdisciplinary links specific to adult education or ageing research (Q7).


Chapter 4 98

Adult Education

Q1 Primary Research Focus

Of the seven possible research areas presented in Table 4.1, Range of Research Foci,

100% of Adult Education academics reported their primary research as Education

and Training.

Table 4.1

Range of Research Foci

Full range of potential research areas Health Biomedical

Social Gerontology

Aged Care Services

Education Training

Workplace Retirement

Multi-Disciplinary Other

100%

Q2 Length of Establishment

All of the Adult Education participants revealed that their Adult Education Schools

and programs had been established for more than 10 years.

Q3(a) University Affiliations

Not one Adult Education respondent reported a Faculty affiliation with an Ageing

Research centre.

Q4 Nature and Purpose of Affiliations

No results were provided against this item as Adult Education respondents revealing

no Faculty Affiliations in Q3(a) were instructed to move directly to Q5.

Q7 Links to Ageing Research

No links to Ageing Research centres was reported by the Adult Education academics

participating in this study.

Ageing Research Centres

Q1 Primary Research Focus


Chapter 4 99

The majority of Ageing Research centres (34%) reported that their primary research

focus was Health and Biomedical. Together, half of the participating centres

described their focus as either Multi-disciplinary (25%) or Other (25%). Those

reporting their focus as Other included an involvement in communication disability,

legal issues, and pastoral care and spirituality. No centre described their primary

research focus as social gerontology, however one centre was focused on workplace

and retirement research which included an interest in housing and intergenerational

issues.

Figure 4.1

Primary Research Focus of Ageing Research Centres

Primary Research Focus - Ageing Research Centres

34%

0%8%

0%8%25%

25% Health Biomedical

Social Gerontology

Aged Care Services

Education Training

Workplace Retirement

Multi- Disciplinary

Other

Q2 Length of Establishment

Sixty percent (60%) of the Ageing Research centres that focused on Health and

Biomedical Research had been in existence for more than ten years, with the

remainder established less than eight years. For those centres concerned with

multidisciplinary research and social gerontology, the average establishment time

was 4.4 years. One centre which focused on Aged Care and Services had been

established for more than 10 years.

Q3(b) University Affiliations

All (100%) of the Ageing Research centres reported some type of affiliation with a

university, rendering the completion of Q4 compulsory.


Chapter 4 100

Purpose of Ageing Research Centre's University Affi liation

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Pur

pose

s

Percentage

OtherCommunity LinksIndustry LinksAdministrationConsultancy & AdviceCurriculum DevelopmentResearch CollaborationFundingUniversity PolicyPostgraduate Supervision

While one Ageing Research respondent reported her centre as not having a direct

organisational affiliation to a university, this was mitigated by the existence of an

ancillary teaching (i.e. academic standing) relationship with a university, in which

this specific Ageing Research centre Director contributed towards teaching and the

review of gerontology curriculum.

Q4 Nature and Purpose of Affiliations

The entire cohort of Ageing Research participants reported research collaboration as

the purpose underpinning their university affiliation. This was followed by

postgraduate supervision (83%), funding (64%) and administration (45%). The

remaining purposes associated with the affiliation included curriculum development

(40%), consultancy and advice (40%), industry links (40%) and community links

(40%). Responses indicated that policy-making was only linked to affiliation in 18%

of participating Ageing Research centres.

Figure 4.2

Purpose of Ageing Research University Affiliation

Q7 Links to Faculty of Education

Two Ageing Research centres (16%) reported a link to Faculties of Education. The

purpose of these affiliations was reported as firstly, postgraduate supervision, and

secondly, to enhance the capabilities of a multidisciplinary Australian Research

Council research team using archival educational data.


Chapter 4 101

While one centre reported future plans to establish links for curriculum

purposes, no Ageing Research centre participating in this study currently works with

any Adult Education programs to further or develop educational gerontology as an

area of specialised study.

PART TWO

4.4 Evidence of Educational Gerontology

Introduction

Evidence of educational gerontology is defined here as an educational activity

performed for the purposes of achieving a positive educational outcome for the older

adult. This definition is consistent with the definitions of educational gerontology

practice provided in the study literature (Findsen, 2006; Glendenning, 2001;

Hiemstra, 2002; Jarvis, 2001; John, 1988; Sherron & Lumsden, 1990) where it has

been recognised that this positive educational outcome need not only be applied

directly to the older learner but also for them.

The following section, that presents the results against the list of elements

described in Chapter 2, has been presented in tabular format across the page. In

these tables, the title of each element is provided, together with a short description of

how this might been characterised as evidence of or capacity for educational

gerontology. Results relevant to the formulation of educational gerontology

curriculum are included in these tables. Results for both Adult Education Academics

and Ageing Research centre Directors are provided simultaneously in columns to

enable a comparative view of the results to emerge for each element. Questionnaire

results are provided first, followed by the interview results that often expand or

elaborate on the interview responses.

A C

ase

fo

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duc

atio

nal

Ge

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Ad

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du

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Cha

pter

4

102

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S

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itutio

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proc

ess

need

s as

soci

ated

with

thi

s bu

rgeo

ning

aud

ienc

e, d

oes

not a

ppea

r to

hav

e be

en g

ener

ated

with

in t

his

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

prog

ram

coh

ort.

Dev

elop

men

t of

suc

h an

aw

aren

ess

is f

unda

men

tal t

o ju

stify

ing

staf

f dev

elop

men

t.

Inte

rvie

ws

reve

al th

at, w

hile

sta

ff de

velo

pmen

t app

ears

to

be a

rec

ogni

zed

part

of

HR

D in

par

ticip

atin

g A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

, an

d th

e to

pics

rep

orte

d in

the

stud

y ar

e of

ten

spec

ific

to o

lder

adu

lts, t

he d

escr

iptio

n of

inte

rnal

sta

ff de

velo

pmen

t act

iviti

es d

oes

not s

ugge

st t

hat t

opic

s w

ere

educ

atio

nally

rel

evan

t to

olde

r ad

ults

. T

his

is p

roba

bly

due

to t

he n

atur

e of

the

aud

ienc

e (t

rain

ee d

octo

rs, o

r nu

rsin

g st

aff)

and

the

res

ultin

g em

phas

is o

n m

edic

al h

ealth

. Whi

le th

is is

cer

tain

ly e

duca

tion

abou

t ol

der

adul

ts, i

t do

es n

ot e

xten

d to

info

rmat

ion

abou

t the

edu

catio

n of

old

er a

dults

, nor

doe

s it

exte

nd t

o de

velo

ping

pro

cess

ski

lls n

eces

sary

for

edu

catin

g ol

der

adul

ts

dire

ctly

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

103

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Pri

vate

Sec

tor

Pro

ject

s

Thi

s el

emen

t wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teriz

ed b

y en

gage

men

t in

educ

atio

nal p

roje

cts

that

invo

lve

priv

ate

sect

or s

take

hold

ers,

incl

udin

g th

e bu

sine

ss o

r co

rpor

ate

com

mun

ity,

gove

rnm

ent d

epar

tmen

ts, o

r pr

ivat

e lo

bby

grou

ps.

The

prin

cipa

l obj

ectiv

e fo

r th

ese

educ

atio

nal p

roje

cts

wou

ld b

e co

nsis

tent

with

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy, i

.e. t

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f ol

der

adul

ts th

roug

h ed

ucat

iona

l end

eavo

urs.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

f)

No

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ants

rep

orte

d in

volv

emen

t in

priv

ate

sect

or p

roje

cts

whe

re

agei

ng-r

elat

ed is

sues

or

colla

bora

tion

with

age

ing

rese

arch

ent

ities

was

con

cern

ed.

No

evid

ence

of p

rivat

e se

ctor

pro

ject

s w

as fo

und

in th

e qu

estio

nnai

re r

espo

nse,

par

ticul

arly

w

here

thi

s ac

tivity

invo

lved

col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

dult

Edu

catio

n.

Inte

rvie

ws

No

evid

ence

of a

ny p

rivat

e se

ctor

edu

catio

nal

proj

ects

, rel

evan

t to

agei

ng, w

as fo

und

in th

e un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

inte

rvie

w r

espo

nses

.

Whi

le in

terv

iew

s w

ith A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

s re

veal

ed a

wid

e va

riet

y of

oth

er

priv

ate

sect

or e

duca

tion

proj

ects

, ran

ging

from

nur

sing

hom

es s

essi

ons

to c

onsu

ltanc

ies

and

pres

enta

tions

to p

rivat

e gr

oups

, the

topi

cs r

emai

n he

alth

-rel

ated

(i.e

. ab

out o

lder

peo

ple

and

thei

r he

alth

) an

d do

not

incl

ude

educ

atio

nal p

rinci

ples

and

pro

cess

es s

peci

fic to

the

olde

r ad

ult.

F

or e

xam

ple,

one

Dire

ctor

sta

ted

how

she

had

par

ticip

ated

in U

3A a

ctiv

ities

:

“One

of t

he th

ings

I fo

und

talk

ing

to th

e U

3A is

tha

t I p

ut w

ay to

o m

uch

info

rmat

ion

in, I

tr

ied

to c

hoos

e to

pics

that

wer

e re

leva

nt to

them

like

art

hriti

s an

d nu

triti

on in

the

el

derl

y, a

nd I

put a

lot m

ore

info

rmat

ion

into

it th

an w

as r

easo

nabl

e in

the

time

I had

at

my

disp

osal

.”

[1B

W03

08 #

2]

Ano

ther

Dir

ecto

r de

scrib

ed t

he n

atur

e of

the

ir pr

ivat

e pr

ojec

ts b

y st

atin

g:

“We

are

quite

ofte

n as

ked

by p

rivat

e nu

rsin

g ho

mes

to p

rovi

de s

essi

ons

on d

emen

tia

care

and

so

we

wor

k in

-hou

se w

ith o

ur c

linic

al n

urse

edu

cato

r to

do

exp

erie

ntia

l stu

ff,

the

exp

erie

ntia

l tra

inin

g ar

ound

dem

entia

…. W

e ar

e go

ing

in to

nur

sing

hom

es s

o it’

s fa

irly

broa

d, w

e al

so d

o th

e co

mm

unity

. Wha

t w

e w

ould

like

to d

o is

sta

rt t

o of

fer

the

Car

ers

at h

ome

som

e su

ppor

t and

adv

ice,

but

we

need

res

ourc

es f

or t

hat a

nd w

e ca

n’t

do th

at.”

[10

SD

1210

#10]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

104

ELE

ME

NT

Pri

vate

Sec

tor

Pro

ject

s c

ont.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

his

resu

lt in

dica

tes

that

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ants

hav

e no

t en

gage

d w

ith e

xter

nal a

genc

ies

in t

erm

s of

dev

elop

ing

know

ledg

e ab

out o

lder

adu

lts a

nd th

eir

educ

atio

n.

Thi

s m

ay b

e at

trib

uted

to a

lack

of a

war

enes

s of

the

cont

ribu

tion

that

thi

s di

scip

line

mig

ht m

ake

to a

n ex

tern

al o

rgan

izat

ion

or g

roup

, par

ticul

arly

whe

re

the

empo

wer

ing

purp

ose

unde

rpin

ning

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy is

link

ed to

soc

ial e

ngag

emen

t an

d th

e re

sulti

ng e

mot

iona

l wel

l-be

ing

and

succ

essf

ul a

gein

g.

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e D

irec

tors

rev

eale

d ev

iden

ce o

f nu

mer

ous

proj

ects

whe

re h

ealth

top

ics

wer

e co

ncer

ned,

but

thes

e to

pics

did

not

ext

end

to e

duca

tion

for

and

abou

t ol

der

adul

ts.

The

est

ablis

hed

proj

ect l

ist c

ould

pro

vide

a n

atur

al p

latfo

rm fo

r an

ext

ensi

on o

f top

ics

to in

clud

e ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

, whi

ch c

ould

pro

ve u

sefu

l to

the

corp

orat

e se

ctor

, par

ticul

arly

in H

RD

and

trai

ning

to in

terg

ener

atio

nal w

orkf

orce

s, a

nd to

org

anis

atio

ns in

volv

ed in

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy is

sues

suc

h as

Age

d C

are,

R

etir

emen

t an

d H

ousi

ng, a

nd c

itize

nshi

p.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

105

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Age

ing

Edu

catio

nal

Res

earc

h

Thi

s fo

rm o

f res

earc

h w

ould

inve

stig

ate

issu

es t

hat i

nvol

ve a

n am

alga

mat

ion

of b

iolo

gica

l, ps

ycho

logi

cal a

nd s

ocio

logi

cal a

gein

g co

ncep

ts w

ith

educ

atio

nal p

rinci

ples

, for

the

bene

fit o

f the

old

er a

dult.

P

artic

ipan

t res

earc

hers

wou

ld th

eref

ore

be d

raw

n fr

om b

oth

educ

atio

nal a

nd g

eron

tolo

gy-

rela

ted

disc

iplin

es, i

nclu

ding

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy, a

nd t

he r

esul

ts w

ould

be

diss

emin

ated

thr

ough

aca

dem

ic a

ctiv

ities

suc

h as

pub

licat

ions

, se

min

ars

and

wor

ksho

ps.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q1

In s

urve

ying

the

prim

ary

rese

arch

goa

ls o

f ea

ch

site

, al

l 5 A

dult

Edu

catio

n pr

ogra

m p

artic

ipan

ts

iden

tifie

d T

rain

ing

and

Dev

elop

men

t as

thei

r pr

imar

y or

gani

zatio

nal g

oal.

No

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ant r

epor

ted

any

rese

arch

rel

atin

g to

old

er

Aus

tral

ians

in a

reas

suc

h as

Hea

lth/B

iom

edic

al,

Soc

ial G

eron

tolo

gy,

Age

d C

are,

Wor

kpla

ce a

nd

Ret

irem

ent,

Mul

tidis

cipl

inar

y or

Oth

er a

reas

.

Fou

r A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

foc

used

on

Hea

lth/B

iom

edic

al r

esea

rch,

one

focu

sed

on

Wor

kpla

ce a

nd R

etir

emen

t, th

ree

cond

ucte

d M

ultid

isci

plin

ary

rese

arch

, an

d th

ree

desc

ribe

d th

eir

rese

arch

focu

s as

Oth

er (

e.g.

Com

mun

icat

ion

disa

bilit

y, S

pirit

ualit

y, L

egal

issu

es).

N

one

of th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

part

icip

ants

iden

tifie

d T

rain

ing

and

Dev

elop

men

t as

a

prim

ary

rese

arch

focu

s.

Q7

In in

vest

igat

ing

evid

ence

of c

olla

bora

tive

links

to

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es, o

ne A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

rep

orte

d a

link

to a

n A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre.

N

one

of th

e re

mai

ning

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

repo

rted

hav

ing

links

to A

gein

g R

esea

rch.

Tw

o A

gein

g R

esea

rch

part

icip

ants

rep

orte

d lin

ks to

Edu

catio

n.

Q8(

a)

In in

vest

igat

ing

the

type

and

ext

ent

of

Col

labo

ratio

n be

twee

n F

acul

ty a

nd A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

, one

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nt r

epor

ted

min

or in

volv

emen

t in

curr

icul

um r

evie

w.

No

colla

bora

tion

for

rese

arch

pu

rpos

es w

as r

epor

ted.

One

res

pond

ent h

ad li

nks

to a

Fac

ulty

of

Edu

catio

n th

roug

h a

rese

arch

gra

nt, w

here

the

C

entr

e w

as u

sing

arc

hiva

l edu

catio

nal d

ata,

and

ano

ther

Cen

tre

repo

rted

link

s fo

r po

stgr

adua

te s

uper

visi

on p

urpo

ses.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

106

ELE

ME

NT

Age

ing

Edu

catio

nal

Res

earc

h c

ont.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

One

of t

he u

nive

rsity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

repo

rted

an

inci

dent

al a

ssoc

iatio

n w

ith a

Doc

tora

l st

uden

t who

se th

esis

focu

sed

on a

gein

g ed

ucat

iona

l res

earc

h. In

terv

iew

det

ails

rev

eale

d th

at th

e re

spon

dent

was

aw

are

of a

stu

dent

who

w

as s

tudy

ing

in th

e ar

ea.

How

ever

, th

e A

cade

mic

was

not

dir

ectly

invo

lved

in

this

res

earc

h.

In a

dditi

on,

one

othe

r un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nt w

as a

war

e of

a g

over

nmen

t-sp

onso

red

rese

arch

pro

ject

led

by a

mem

ber

of

the

Fac

ulty

whe

re t

he fo

cus

was

on

olde

r w

orke

rs

in lo

cal g

over

nmen

t. H

owev

er,

no o

ther

age

ing

rese

arch

invo

lvin

g th

e ed

ucat

ion

of o

lder

adu

lts

was

evi

dent

in th

e re

mai

ning

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onse

s.

Non

e of

the

resp

onde

nts

from

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es r

epor

ted

any

rese

arch

pro

ject

s th

at in

clud

ed e

duca

tiona

l inv

estig

atio

ns, a

dult

educ

atio

n or

ger

agog

y co

ncep

ts o

r ap

plic

atio

ns r

elev

ant t

o ol

der

adul

ts.

No

othe

r ag

eing

edu

catio

nal r

esea

rch

activ

ities

wer

e re

port

ed, a

lthou

gh o

ne r

esea

rch

proj

ect i

nvol

ved

a re

tired

edu

catio

nalis

t as

part

of t

he

rese

arch

tea

m.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

his

resu

lt in

dica

tes

that

, am

ong

thes

e pa

rtic

ipan

ts, t

here

is n

o ev

iden

ce o

f a c

olla

bora

tive

rese

arch

cul

ture

bet

wee

n A

dult

Edu

catio

n an

d A

gein

g R

esea

rch,

whe

re

the

two

disc

iplin

es m

ight

wor

k sy

nerg

istic

ally

to g

ener

ate

inno

vativ

e re

sear

ch q

uest

ions

that

enh

ance

our

und

erst

andi

ng a

t the

nex

us o

f ed

ucat

ion

and

agei

ng, w

here

th

e em

piric

al fi

ndin

gs w

ill u

ltim

atel

y be

nefit

the

olde

r ad

ult.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

107

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Com

mun

ity

Edu

catio

n E

vide

nce

of t

his

elem

ent

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teri

sed

by e

duca

tiona

l act

iviti

es u

nder

take

n fo

r th

e be

nefit

of t

he o

lder

adu

lt co

mm

unity

, and

wou

ld a

lso

invo

lve

dire

ct p

artic

ipat

ion

by m

embe

rs o

f thi

s co

mm

unity

. W

hile

ack

now

ledg

ing

that

ther

e ex

ists

som

e po

ssib

le

over

lap

with

thi

s el

emen

t and

the

elem

ent E

duca

tiona

l Con

sulta

ncy

and

Adv

ice,

it is

impo

rtan

t to

note

that

the

audi

ence

and

ben

efic

iarie

s of

this

sp

ecifi

c el

emen

t are

lim

ited

to t

he o

lder

adu

lt co

mm

unity

, and

act

iviti

es m

ay b

e vo

lunt

ary,

i.e.

not

und

erta

ken

on a

fee

-for

-ser

vice

bas

is.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q4

N

o ev

iden

ce o

f affi

liatio

n to

age

ing

rese

arch

en

titie

s fo

r th

e pu

rpos

e of

com

mun

ity e

duca

tion

was

rep

orte

d.

No

affil

iatio

n to

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

for

com

mun

ity e

duca

tion

was

rep

orte

d.

Q6

No

evid

ence

of a

dult

educ

atio

n an

d tr

aini

ng

prog

ram

s sp

ecifi

c to

the

olde

r ad

ult w

as r

epor

ted.

H

alf (

50%

) of

res

pond

ents

dev

elop

ed e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

pro

gram

s ho

wev

er,

only

one

w

as a

pplic

able

to

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

bey

ond

heal

th is

sues

. Thi

s pr

ogra

m w

as d

escr

ibed

as

IT fo

r C

arer

s.

Q8(

g)

No

evid

ence

of c

olla

bora

tive

links

for

the

purp

ose

of e

valu

atin

g co

mm

unity

edu

catio

nal p

rogr

ams

was

rep

orte

d.

No

evid

ence

of t

his

elem

ent w

as r

epor

ted.

Q8(

i) N

o ev

iden

ce o

f ger

agog

ical

trai

ning

inte

rven

tions

or

pro

gram

del

iver

y w

as r

epor

ted.

N

o ev

iden

ce o

f thi

s el

emen

t was

rep

orte

d.

Inte

rvie

ws

No

spec

ific

men

tion

was

mad

e of

any

age

ing-

rela

ted

com

mun

ity e

duca

tion

proj

ects

aris

ing

out

of th

e un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

prog

ram

s, o

r un

dert

aken

by

part

icip

atin

g A

dult

Edu

catio

n ac

adem

ics.

One

par

ticip

ant i

dent

ified

a p

ossi

ble

enga

gem

ent

in th

e fo

llow

ing

way

:

“I w

rite

loca

l his

torie

s an

d th

at s

ort o

f thi

ng.

In th

e co

mm

unity

writ

ing

grou

p, m

ade

up o

f ol

der

peop

le, I

’m a

judg

e fo

r th

eir

awar

d so

an

ythi

ng li

ke th

at is

my

inte

rest

” [5R

S13

09#7

]

Gen

eral

com

mun

ity e

ngag

emen

t was

wid

espr

ead

acro

ss a

ll of

the

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es’ a

ctiv

ities

, ev

en in

thos

e C

entr

es w

ith a

str

ictly

bio

med

ical

sta

nce.

As

one

Dire

ctor

not

ed:

“I h

ave

been

invi

ted

to s

peak

at t

he U

nive

rsity

of t

he T

hird

Age

. T

hat w

as m

ore

abou

t to

pics

the

y ch

ose

that

they

wan

ted

to k

now

mor

e ab

out b

ut it

was

mor

e lik

e an

in

vita

tion

and

I did

n’t p

lan

it. I

trie

d to

cho

ose

topi

cs th

at w

ere

rele

vant

to th

em li

ke

arth

ritis

and

nut

ritio

n in

the

elde

rly,

and

I pu

t a

lot m

ore

info

rmat

ion

into

it th

an w

as

reas

onab

le in

the

time

I had

at m

y di

spos

al. I

am

use

d to

tal

king

to u

nder

grad

uate

s w

here

you

pac

k as

muc

h in

form

atio

n in

and

talk

ing

to a

n ol

der

grou

p th

ey d

idn’

t w

ant

all t

hat i

nfor

mat

ion

they

wan

ted

a ge

nera

l ove

rvie

w a

nd a

few

tak

e-ho

me

poin

ts.”

[1B

W03

08#1

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

108

ELE

ME

NT

Com

mun

ity

Edu

catio

n c

ont.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

One

Dire

ctor

exp

ress

ed s

ome

desi

re to

dev

elop

a c

omm

unity

par

ticip

atio

n sc

hem

e in

the

sc

hool

sec

tor,

by

stat

ing:

“Loo

k I d

on’t

know

if th

ese

thin

gs a

re le

gisl

ativ

ely

or p

olic

y po

ssib

le,

but i

t see

ms

to m

e th

at it

wou

ld b

e a

very

goo

d th

ing

to p

rovi

de s

ome

sort

of p

rogr

am w

hich

wou

ld a

llow

pe

ople

who

had

ret

ired

, to

actu

ally

com

e ba

ck in

to th

e cl

assr

oom

to

teac

h pe

rhap

s on

e cl

ass

a w

eek

or to

act

ually

hav

e so

me

enga

gem

ent

with

you

ng p

eopl

e… I

thin

k it

mig

ht b

e a

muc

h m

ore

attr

activ

e th

ing

for

olde

r pe

ople

to

do, t

o be

abl

e to

go

into

the

sc

hool

per

haps

one

hou

r a

day

or s

omet

hing

like

that

. And

eve

n if

they

are

tea

chin

g liv

ing

skill

s or

wha

teve

r, s

ome

way

in w

hich

we

can

crea

te g

reat

er o

ppor

tuni

ties

for

inte

rgen

erat

iona

l int

erac

tion,

I th

ink

has

enor

mou

s lo

ng t

erm

ben

efits

for

our

soci

ety.

”

[4D

O07

09#7

]

And

fina

lly,

one

Age

ing

Res

earc

h re

spon

dent

rei

tera

ted

how

crit

ical

com

mun

ity e

ngag

emen

t is

to

ongo

ing

feas

ibili

ty b

y st

atin

g:

“I t

hink

any

Cen

tre

on A

gein

g ne

eds

to h

ave

the

enga

gem

ent o

f the

com

mun

ity to

m

ake

it.”

[3H

B24

08#1

3]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

C

omm

unity

eng

agem

ent t

hat i

nvol

ves

educ

atio

nal e

ndea

vour

s ha

s th

e po

tent

ial t

o im

prov

e th

e liv

es o

f ol

der

peop

le.

Thi

s re

sult

indi

cate

s th

at th

e po

tent

ially

si

gnifi

cant

con

trib

utio

n by

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

acad

emic

s to

the

bett

erm

ent

of s

ocie

ty is

bei

ng m

isse

d, a

lthou

gh s

ome

part

icip

ants

hav

e st

arte

d to

iden

tify

oppo

rtun

ities

. W

hile

com

mun

ity e

ngag

emen

t thr

ough

Age

ing

Res

earc

h en

titie

s w

as r

evea

led

as w

ides

prea

d in

thi

s st

udy,

and

is c

onsi

dere

d cr

ucia

l to

ongo

ing

surv

ival

, the

bre

adth

an

d sc

ale

of th

e co

mm

unity

pro

gram

s ha

ve b

een

reve

aled

as

open

to

augm

enta

tion

by in

corp

orat

ing

olde

r ad

ult e

duca

tion

spec

ialis

ts in

to t

he p

roje

ct r

eper

toire

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

109

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Edu

catio

nal

Con

sulta

ncy

and

Adv

ice

Thi

s el

emen

t is

char

acte

rised

by

the

prov

isio

n of

fee-

for-

serv

ice

cons

ulta

ncy

serv

ices

and

pro

fess

iona

l adv

ice

to b

oth

inte

rnal

and

ext

erna

l bo

dies

, whe

re t

he b

asis

of t

he c

onsu

ltanc

y an

d ad

vice

is a

n ad

vanc

ed k

now

ledg

e of

, and

ski

lls r

elev

ant t

o, t

he e

duca

tiona

l dev

elop

men

t of t

he

olde

r ad

ult.

Whi

le a

ckno

wle

dgin

g th

ere

exis

t so

me

over

laps

with

this

ele

men

t, P

rivat

e S

ecto

r P

roje

cts,

and

Info

rmat

ion

and

Gui

danc

e S

ervi

ces,

th

is c

onsu

ltanc

y or

adv

ice

is li

kely

to b

e m

ore

of a

n ac

adem

ic n

atur

e an

d co

uld

inco

rpor

ate

for

exam

ple,

con

sulta

tion

with

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es o

r ot

her

univ

ersi

ty F

acul

ties

such

as

Hea

lth o

r B

usin

ess.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

a-k)

N

o ev

iden

ce o

f ed

ucat

iona

l con

sulta

ncy

and

advi

ce w

as r

epor

ted.

N

o ev

iden

ce o

f thi

s el

emen

t was

rep

orte

d.

Inte

rvie

ws

Fol

low

-up

inte

rvie

ws

with

par

ticip

atin

g A

dult

Edu

catio

n ac

adem

ics

did

not

yiel

d ev

iden

ce o

f ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

rel

ated

con

sulta

ncy

or

advi

ce.

Whi

le A

gein

g R

esea

rch

inte

rvie

ws

did

not y

ield

evi

denc

e of

con

sulta

ncie

s sp

ecifi

c to

ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

, par

ticip

ants

rev

eale

d ot

her

ongo

ing

activ

ities

in th

is r

egar

d. A

s on

e D

irec

tor

stat

ed:

“You

kno

w, t

he h

ot to

pic

wou

ld b

e el

der

abus

e, b

ut w

e ar

e he

re t

o co

nsul

t on

a r

ange

of

issu

es. I

n th

e pu

blic

are

na, i

f the

rad

io w

ants

to r

ing

us u

p th

en w

e w

ould

pro

vide

th

at in

form

atio

n, b

ut m

ostly

it’s

con

sulti

ng w

ith o

ur a

ffilia

tes

and

our

asso

ciat

es w

ith

advi

ce th

at th

ey m

ight

nee

d co

ncer

ning

thos

e pa

rtic

ular

issu

es.”

[6JB

2709

#7]

One

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

iden

tifie

d ho

w a

con

sulta

ncy

of th

is ty

pe m

ight

ben

efit

her

orga

niza

tion,

by

sta

ting:

“I t

hink

we

need

to

star

t loo

king

mor

e cl

osel

y at

whe

ther

the

univ

ersi

ty e

nviro

nmen

t is

mee

ting

the

need

s fo

r al

l age

s.”

[3H

B24

08#1

0]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

It

is p

ossi

ble

that

this

lack

of e

vide

nce

of c

onsu

ltanc

ies

indi

cate

s th

at t

he m

arke

tabi

lity

of s

uch

a se

rvic

e to

oth

er F

acul

ties

has

not y

et b

een

fully

rec

ogni

zed

by th

e A

dult

Edu

catio

n co

hort

. H

owev

er,

to m

arke

t thi

s se

rvic

e, th

e sp

ecifi

c na

ture

of t

he e

duca

tiona

l pro

duct

or

serv

ice

need

s to

be

iden

tifie

d. D

evel

opin

g th

is s

ervi

ce

offe

ring

crea

tes

the

pote

ntia

l for

bro

aden

ing

the

reac

h of

old

er a

dult

educ

atio

n sp

ecia

list i

nto

othe

r di

scip

lines

whi

ch in

tur

n ca

n tr

ansl

ate

into

pro

gram

inno

vatio

ns.

Fro

m a

n A

gein

g R

esea

rch

pers

pect

ive,

whi

le t

he b

asis

of t

he c

onsu

ltanc

y an

d ad

vice

is n

ot e

duca

tion,

pro

visi

on o

f ext

erna

l con

sulta

ncy

is a

wel

l-es

tabl

ishe

d pr

oces

s ex

cept

for

thos

e C

entr

es w

ith a

str

ictly

bio

med

ical

orie

ntat

ion

whe

re t

he a

udie

nce

is fo

cuse

d on

ger

iatr

ic e

duca

tion.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

110

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Eva

luat

ion

and

A

ccre

dita

tion

of

Edu

catio

nal

Pro

gram

s

App

reci

atin

g th

at p

rogr

am e

valu

atio

n co

mpr

ises

wel

l-es

tabl

ishe

d st

eps

and

syst

ems

such

as

prop

osed

by

Bra

dy (

1990

) in

cur

ricul

um

deve

lopm

ent,

this

ele

men

t wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teriz

ed b

y ev

alua

tions

that

focu

s on

con

tent

rel

evan

t to

olde

r ad

ults

as

lear

ners

, and

old

er a

dult

lear

ning

pro

cess

es a

nd in

stru

ctio

nal s

trat

egie

s. A

ccre

dita

tion

wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teri

zed

by t

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f ac

cred

itatio

n st

atus

for

edu

catio

nal

prog

ram

s th

roug

h th

e re

leva

nt V

ET

age

ncy,

whe

re t

he to

pic

of th

e pr

ogra

m is

of b

enef

it to

old

er a

dults

. W

hile

ack

now

ledg

ing

that

som

e ov

erla

p ex

ists

with

the

ele

men

t of

Org

anis

atio

nal P

olic

y, C

urric

ulum

or

Pro

gram

Dev

elop

men

t, th

is s

peci

fic e

lem

ent

wou

ld b

e ap

plie

d to

pro

gram

s th

at

alre

ady

exis

t or

that

hav

e be

en d

evel

oped

by

othe

rs.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

g,h)

N

o ev

iden

ce r

epor

ted.

N

o ev

iden

ce r

epor

ted.

Inte

rvie

ws

No

evid

ence

of

eval

uatio

n or

acc

redi

tatio

n of

ag

eing

-rel

ated

pro

gram

s pr

oduc

ts w

as r

epor

ted

in u

nive

rsity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

inte

rvie

w r

espo

nses

.

The

re w

as n

o ev

iden

ce o

f an

y fo

rm o

f ev

alua

tive

chec

ks fo

r ag

eing

-rel

ated

pro

gram

s de

velo

ped

at th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

loca

tions

. N

onet

hele

ss, s

ome

educ

atio

nal p

rodu

cts

in

the

form

of r

ecog

nize

d sh

ort c

ours

es h

ad a

lrea

dy b

een

deve

lope

d fo

r th

e w

ider

pub

lic a

nd

ther

e w

ere

futu

re p

lans

for

the

deve

lopm

ent

of c

ompe

tenc

ies

arou

nd h

ealth

edu

catio

n,

depe

ndan

t on

res

ourc

es.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

In

here

nt in

und

erta

king

eva

luat

ive

proc

edur

es is

an

in-d

epth

kno

wle

dge

of t

he s

ubje

ct m

atte

r un

derp

inni

ng th

e cu

rric

ulum

. A r

esul

t of t

his

natu

re r

evea

ls th

at A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

s ha

ve n

ot y

et d

evel

oped

a f

ull u

nder

stan

ding

of

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy s

uffic

ient

for

eval

uatio

n of

pro

gram

s ac

cord

ing

to e

duca

tiona

l ge

ront

olog

y pr

inci

ples

. In

term

s of

Age

ing

Res

earc

h pa

rtic

ipan

ts, t

his

resu

lt su

gges

ts th

at th

is a

ctiv

ity m

ay b

e to

o sp

ecifi

c, i.

e. e

duca

tiona

lly f

ocus

ed, f

or a

pplic

atio

n by

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es a

nd w

ell o

utsi

de th

e sc

ope

of th

eir

mis

sion

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

111

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Info

rmat

ion

and

Gui

danc

e S

ervi

ces

Whi

le o

verla

ppin

g w

ith E

duca

tiona

l Con

sulta

ncy

and

Adv

ice,

and

ack

now

ledg

ing

that

thi

s el

emen

t co

uld

also

occ

ur d

urin

g C

omm

unity

Edu

catio

n,

this

ele

men

t is

spec

ifica

lly c

hara

cter

ised

by

a fo

cus

on th

e pr

ovis

ion

of o

lder

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

thro

ugh

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f re

sour

ces,

e.g

. web

site

s or

web

-bas

ed it

ems

whe

re t

he r

esou

rces

mig

ht b

e av

aila

ble

to a

nd a

cces

sed

by a

wid

e va

riet

y of

aud

ienc

es in

clud

ing

olde

r ad

ults

, ac

adem

ics,

indu

stry

bod

ies,

com

mun

ity g

roup

s an

d in

divi

dual

s.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q

N/A

N

/A

Inte

rvie

ws

No

info

rmat

ion

or g

uida

nce

serv

ices

wer

e re

port

ed

in th

e un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

inte

rvie

w

resp

onse

s.

In th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

the

maj

ority

of t

he C

entr

e D

irect

ors

inte

rvie

wed

indi

cate

d th

at th

ey p

rovi

ded

agei

ng-r

elat

ed in

form

atio

n bo

th in

tern

ally

and

ext

erna

lly, i

n a

vari

ety

of

way

s. F

or e

xam

ple,

one

Dire

ctor

sta

ted:

“I

n m

y C

entr

e I h

ad a

dat

abas

e of

800

peo

ple

who

reg

ular

ly w

ante

d to

kno

w a

bout

wha

t th

ings

wer

e ha

ppen

ing.

I w

as v

ery

muc

h a

regu

lar

reso

urce

for

a lo

t of

peop

le t

hey

wou

ld r

ing

me

and

say

“Who

wou

ld I

talk

to a

bout

suc

h an

d su

ch?”

and

wha

teve

r, a

nd

the

site

got

abo

ut 4

0 00

0 hi

ts a

yea

r.”

[4D

O07

09#3

]

The

var

iety

of i

nfor

mat

ion

diss

emin

atio

n m

etho

ds w

as d

escr

ibed

by

one

Dir

ecto

r in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“C

erta

inly

if th

e pu

blic

wan

ts o

ur a

dvic

e, th

ey a

ppro

ach

us. I

mea

n w

e do

n’t g

o ou

t and

‘s

prui

k.’ B

ut w

e ar

e m

ore

than

will

ing

if a

part

icul

ar is

sue

aris

es. I

n th

e pu

blic

are

na, i

f th

e ra

dio

wan

ts to

rin

g us

up

then

we

wou

ld p

rovi

de th

at in

form

atio

n, b

ut m

ostly

it’s

co

nsul

ting

with

our

affi

liate

s an

d ou

r as

soci

ates

with

adv

ice

that

they

mig

ht n

eed

conc

erni

ng th

ose

part

icul

ar is

sues

.”

[6JB

2709

#7]

A f

urth

er s

trat

egy

for

info

rmat

ion

and

guid

ance

was

des

crib

ed t

hus:

“W

e ha

ve ju

st w

ritte

n fo

r ex

ampl

e, a

han

dboo

k fo

r cr

eatin

g de

men

tia-f

riend

ly p

hysi

cal

and

soci

al e

nviro

nmen

ts, a

nd s

o w

e ar

e st

artin

g to

wor

k to

war

ds u

sing

that

as

an

educ

atio

nal t

ool.”

[10S

D12

10#1

0]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

112

ELE

ME

NT

Info

rmat

ion

and

Gui

danc

e S

ervi

ces

con

t.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

P

rovi

ding

info

rmat

ion

and

advi

ce is

inte

gral

to

the

deve

lopm

ent

of o

lder

adu

lts, a

nd is

com

mon

ly d

eliv

ered

thr

ough

edu

catio

n. T

his

resu

lt re

veal

s th

at A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

s ha

ve y

et to

dev

elop

a c

apab

ility

to

offe

r in

form

atio

n to

the

wid

er c

omm

unity

abo

ut o

lder

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion.

T

he n

eed

for

such

a c

apab

ility

is e

vide

nced

by

the

resp

onse

s fr

om th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

whi

ch p

rove

s th

at th

e pu

blic

is a

ppre

ciat

ive

of s

uch

a re

sour

ce.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

113

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Cre

atin

g Le

arni

ng

Env

ironm

ents

To

deve

lop

a le

arni

ng e

nviro

nmen

t su

itabl

e to

old

er a

dult

lear

ners

req

uire

s a

cons

ider

atio

n of

bot

h th

e ph

ysic

al s

pace

and

the

inst

ruct

iona

l pr

oces

s (c

ogni

tive

stim

ulan

t) to

acc

omm

odat

e th

e ne

eds

of th

e ol

der

adul

t. E

vide

nce

of s

uch

a co

nsid

erat

ion

wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teris

ed b

y en

viro

nmen

tal i

ssue

s su

ch a

s se

atin

g, li

ghtin

g, v

olum

e an

d vi

sibi

lity

in th

e co

ntex

t of

dec

linin

g ph

ysic

al a

bilit

ies.

Ins

truc

tiona

lly, t

his

elem

ent

wou

ld b

e ev

iden

ced

by th

e in

clus

ion

of s

trat

egie

s ba

sed

on g

erag

ogy,

and

bas

ed o

n a

criti

cal o

rien

tatio

n to

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

whe

re t

he d

iver

sity

of

lear

ners

and

thei

r ne

eds

is a

ckno

wle

dged

and

inco

rpor

ated

into

the

lear

ning

set

ting.

The

ove

rarc

hing

con

cept

to

effe

ctiv

e ol

der

adul

t lea

rnin

g en

viro

nmen

ts is

em

pow

erm

ent o

f the

old

er le

arne

r.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

i) N

one

repo

rted

N

one

repo

rted

Inte

rvie

ws

Whi

le a

ckno

wle

dgin

g a

basi

s fo

r un

ders

tand

ing

adul

t ed

ucat

ion

lear

ning

env

iron

men

ts a

mon

gst

this

coh

ort,

the

inte

rvie

w p

artic

ipan

ts fr

om

univ

ersi

ty A

dult

Edu

catio

n pr

ogra

ms

did

not

indi

cate

any

invo

lvem

ent i

n or

kno

wle

dge

of

crea

ting

lear

ning

env

iron

men

ts s

peci

fic to

old

er

adul

ts.

No

evid

ence

of a

ny s

peci

fic c

onsi

dera

tion

of le

arni

ng e

nviro

nmen

ts s

uch

as s

ettin

gs a

nd

stim

ulan

ts w

as f

ound

in A

gein

g R

esea

rch

resp

onse

s, a

lthou

gh s

ome

refe

renc

e w

as m

ade

to th

e po

ssib

ility

of f

utur

e pa

rtic

ipat

ion

of s

enio

r ci

tizen

s in

the

univ

ersi

ty b

uilt

envi

ronm

ent

(i.e.

on

cam

pus)

. T

his

Dir

ecto

r st

ated

:

“Y

ou h

ave

the

oppo

rtun

ity fo

r se

nior

citi

zens

to

enga

ge in

wha

t the

uni

vers

ity o

ffer

s th

roug

h so

me

spec

ial c

hann

els

and

agai

n w

here

the

uni

vers

ity e

nviro

nmen

t ca

ters

for

th

at.”

[3H

B24

08#1

2]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

his

resu

lt in

dica

tes

that

cur

rent

ly, A

dult

Edu

catio

n pa

rtici

pant

s ar

e un

able

to id

entif

y th

e un

ique

ness

of l

earn

ing

envi

ronm

ents

tha

t are

spe

cific

ally

des

igne

d to

cat

er

to th

e ne

eds

of o

lder

adu

lt le

arne

rs.

Thi

s re

sult

indi

cate

s th

at a

sim

ilar

situ

atio

n ex

ists

with

in th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

part

icip

ants

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

114

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Org

anis

atio

nal

Pol

icy

To

adva

nce

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy, o

rgan

izat

iona

l and

inst

itutio

nal p

olic

ies

wou

ld b

e ch

arac

teriz

ed b

y di

rect

ives

that

ref

lect

: em

ergi

ng s

ocia

l ne

eds

aris

ing

out o

f de

mog

raph

ic c

hang

e; th

e ch

angi

ng le

arni

ng n

eeds

of i

ncre

asin

g nu

mbe

rs o

f old

er a

dult

lear

ners

and

thos

e th

at s

uppo

rt

them

; and

edu

catio

nal s

yste

ms

and

proc

edur

es t

hat s

uppo

rt c

olla

bora

tive

activ

ities

bet

wee

n co

ntrib

utin

g ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

dis

cipl

ines

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q10

75

% o

f Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

iden

tifie

d an

org

anis

atio

nal b

arrie

r to

inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y co

llabo

rativ

e ac

tiviti

es in

volv

ing

olde

r ad

ult

educ

atio

n.

Aris

ing

out o

f pol

icy

dire

ctiv

es,

thes

e in

clud

ed:

• D

ista

nce

from

oth

er

Fac

ultie

s/S

choo

ls

• F

undi

ng fo

r pr

ogra

ms

wou

ld n

eed

to b

e ba

sed

on s

tude

nt n

umbe

rs

• F

undi

ng n

eede

d fo

r co

llabo

rativ

e en

deav

ours

•

Tim

e av

aila

ble

Age

ing

Res

earc

h re

spon

dent

s id

entif

ied

seve

ral b

arri

ers

to c

olla

bora

tion

with

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

in o

rder

to a

dvan

ce e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

. Aris

ing

out

of p

olic

y di

rect

ives

, the

se

incl

uded

: • T

ime

and

reso

urce

s •

The

nee

d to

pre

pare

our

ow

n st

aff e

duca

tiona

lly

• U

nfam

iliar

ity w

ith r

esea

rche

rs in

edu

catio

n •

Com

mitm

ent f

rom

uni

vers

ity a

nd D

ean

• La

ck o

f int

eres

t an

d ex

pert

ise

of A

dult

Edu

catio

n in

Age

ing

Issu

es

• U

ncer

tain

ben

efits

for

a re

sear

ch o

rgan

izat

ion

• N

eed

for

mut

ual r

espe

ct fo

r ea

ch o

ther

’s a

rea

of e

xper

tise

and

sim

ilar

valu

e sy

stem

s.

Inte

rvie

ws

Inte

rvie

ws

did

not y

ield

any

furt

her

expa

nsio

n of

th

is e

lem

ent.

One

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nt

did

stat

e ho

wev

er t

hat t

he c

urric

ulum

pol

icy

was

no

t ref

lect

ive

enou

gh o

f soc

ial c

hang

e.

He

stat

ed:

“.

..ou

r co

urse

s ar

e re

view

ed e

very

five

ye

ars

so th

ere’

s a

five

year

cyc

le f

or e

ach

cour

se to

be

look

ed a

t, us

ually

in a

way

that

re

spon

ds to

dem

and

and

so o

n fr

om o

ur

cons

umer

s, s

o I t

hink

we’

ve d

one

that

but

of

cou

rse

we’

ve m

isse

d ou

t rat

her

poor

ly o

n th

e ge

ront

olog

y is

sue.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

]

The

uni

vers

ity p

olic

y em

phas

is o

n sc

ient

ific

and

biom

edic

al r

esea

rch

and

rela

ted

fund

ing

was

sta

ted

by o

ne A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Dir

ecto

r in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“I

mea

n ag

eing

is a

lway

s go

ing

to b

e a

prio

rity

but h

avin

g sa

id t

hat i

t’s n

ot a

dis

ease

, its

no

t you

kno

w,

a ne

w k

ind

of n

ano-

tech

nolo

gy in

vent

ion.

It’s

a b

road

chu

rch

and

that

cr

eate

s so

me

diffi

culty

in it

s ow

n rig

ht, i

n te

rms

of tr

ying

to

serv

e th

e un

iver

sity

the

re is

so

muc

h to

do.

A

nd C

entr

es o

nly

get f

unde

d he

re in

tern

ally

for

five

year

s an

d th

en th

ey

are

supp

osed

to b

e up

and

run

ning

. So

you

know

, ext

erna

l fun

ding

is b

ecom

ing

mor

e im

port

ant.”

[3H

B24

08#4

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

115

ELE

ME

NT

Org

anis

atio

nal

Pol

icy

con

t.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

he r

espo

nses

for

mul

ated

aga

inst

thi

s el

emen

t su

gges

t tha

t the

typ

e of

pol

icy

need

ed t

o su

ppor

t edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy h

as n

ot b

een

evid

ence

d in

the

se s

peci

fic

rese

arch

loca

tions

. Thi

s is

bec

ause

thes

e re

sults

sug

gest

that

cur

ricul

um p

olic

y do

es n

ot a

dequ

atel

y ad

dres

s ch

angi

ng s

ocia

l nee

ds.

In a

dditi

on, r

esul

ts in

dica

te th

at

fund

ing

polic

y is

pre

dica

ted

upon

the

educ

atio

n-as

-pro

duct

req

uire

men

t whi

ch is

hig

hly

depe

ndan

t on

stu

dent

num

bers

, and

ove

rlook

s th

e ex

pand

ing

soci

o-cu

ltura

l an

d ps

ycho

-soc

ial b

enef

its o

f old

er a

dult

lear

ning

. E

vide

nce

also

rev

eals

tha

t fun

ding

is o

ften

skew

ed t

owar

ds b

iom

edic

al r

esea

rch

whi

ch c

ontr

adic

ts t

he n

eed

for

deve

lopm

ent o

f int

erdi

scip

linar

y re

sear

ch te

ams

whi

ch a

re f

unda

men

tal t

o th

e ap

plic

atio

n of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

116

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Pro

fess

iona

l D

evel

opm

ent &

T

rain

ing

in t

he

Age

d S

ecto

r

Act

iviti

es a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith th

is e

lem

ent i

nclu

de u

pdat

ing

the

know

ledg

e an

d sk

ills

of a

ged

sect

or e

mpl

oyee

s ab

out

olde

r ad

ults

as

lear

ners

, the

bi

opsy

chos

ocia

l asp

ects

of o

lder

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion,

and

the

ger

agog

ical

str

ateg

ies

rele

vant

to e

ffect

ive

olde

r ad

ult l

earn

ing

and

empo

wer

men

t. T

his

info

rmat

ion

coul

d be

pro

vide

d th

roug

h a

vari

ety

of a

ctiv

ities

incl

udin

g pr

ogra

ms,

sem

inar

s, w

orks

hops

and

onl

ine

prod

ucts

to e

nhan

ce t

he

educ

atio

nal c

apab

ilitie

s of

em

ploy

ees

with

in, a

nd o

f tho

se p

rovi

ding

ser

vice

s to

, the

age

d se

ctor

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

e)

No

evid

ence

of

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy r

elat

ed

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t an

d tr

aini

ng a

ctiv

ities

to

the

aged

sec

tor

was

rep

orte

d.

No

evid

ence

of t

his

elem

ent w

as r

epor

ted.

Inte

rvie

ws

Whi

le a

ckno

wle

dgin

g th

at p

rofe

ssio

nal

deve

lopm

ent i

s an

inte

gral

par

t of

acad

emic

life

, no

pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t ac

tiviti

es r

elev

ant t

o th

e ed

ucat

iona

l nee

ds o

f the

age

ing

popu

latio

n or

ol

der

adul

t lea

rner

s w

ere

repo

rted

in in

terv

iew

s w

ith u

nive

rsity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts.

Whi

le n

ot fo

cuse

d on

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy to

pics

, tea

chin

g in

the

agei

ng a

rena

was

w

ides

prea

d am

ongs

t the

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es, w

ith th

e m

ajor

ity o

f thi

s oc

curr

ing

inte

rnal

ly a

s te

achi

ng to

enr

olle

d ge

ront

olog

y or

ger

iatr

ic m

edic

ine

stud

ents

.

Pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t w

as p

rovi

ded

in a

sys

tem

atic

man

ner

in th

ose

Cen

tres

as

soci

ated

with

the

heal

th s

ervi

ce. A

n ex

ampl

e of

sys

tem

ic a

ppro

ache

s to

pro

fess

iona

l de

velo

pmen

t to

the

heal

th s

ervi

ce in

clud

ed a

n in

-hou

se A

cade

mic

Sem

inar

Ser

ies,

de

scri

bed

in th

is w

ay:

“O

ne o

f the

issu

es o

f cou

rse

bein

g w

ithin

the

heal

th s

ervi

ce is

tha

t sta

ff ve

ry s

eldo

m g

et

to g

o to

con

fere

nces

and

rar

ely

get t

he o

ppor

tuni

ty t

o he

ar p

eopl

e in

aca

dem

ic s

peak

. S

o on

e of

the

thin

gs w

e cl

earl

y w

ante

d to

do

was

to

be a

ble

to p

rovi

de e

xpos

ure

to th

e ki

nds

of th

ings

we

hear

at c

onfe

renc

es..

.. S

o w

e pa

id p

artic

ular

atte

ntio

n to

bui

ldin

g th

e A

cade

mic

Sem

inar

Ser

ies.

Whe

n I f

irst a

rriv

ed it

was

larg

ely

for

peop

le w

ithin

the

orga

niza

tion

who

wer

e do

ing

thei

r P

hDs

or th

at w

ere

linke

d to

the

ger

iatr

ic n

ursi

ng,

who

w

ere

com

ing

in a

nd te

lling

peo

ple

wha

t the

y w

ere

doin

g w

ithin

our

org

aniz

atio

n an

d th

e ho

spita

l. W

e th

ough

t the

y ne

eded

a p

lace

to

hear

oth

er t

hing

s th

at w

ould

exp

and

thei

r m

ind,

that

wou

ld c

halle

nge

the

clin

ical

per

spec

tive,

and

ena

ble

them

to ta

p in

muc

h m

ore

read

ily to

thi

ngs

you

and

I mig

ht ta

ke fo

r gr

ante

d. L

ast m

onth

we

had

a ke

y sp

eake

r, o

ne o

f the

dev

elop

ers

of th

e Q

ualit

y of

Life

Mea

sure

men

t T

ool,

it w

as

som

ethi

ng v

ery

prac

tical

and

cer

tain

ly s

omet

hing

they

had

nev

er h

eard

of b

efor

e.

Bef

ore

that

we

had

thre

e pe

ople

fro

m S

wed

en t

alki

ng a

bout

dem

entia

car

e. B

efor

e th

at

we

had

a C

anad

ian

talk

ing

abou

t soc

ial r

esea

rch.

”

[10

SD

1210

#6]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

117

ELE

ME

NT

Pro

fess

iona

l D

evel

opm

ent &

T

rain

ing

in t

he

Age

d S

ecto

r

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

O

ne C

entr

e D

irect

or r

emar

ked

how

uni

vers

ity s

taff

them

selv

es n

eed

prof

essi

onal

de

velo

pmen

t as

a re

sult

of th

e ag

eing

of t

he s

tude

nt b

ody,

by

stat

ing:

“E

spec

ially

, I m

ean,

if w

e lo

ok a

t the

coh

ort o

f P

hD s

tude

nts.

We’

ve f

ound

that

PhD

st

uden

ts in

age

ing

are

on a

vera

ge a

lot

olde

r th

an th

e ge

nera

l PhD

stu

dent

bod

y. A

nd

you

know

, the

ir le

arni

ng n

eeds

are

qui

te d

iffer

ent.

One

of t

he s

tudi

es I

wan

ted

to d

o w

as,

we

wro

te a

pro

posa

l for

som

e se

ed f

undi

ng a

nd d

idn’

t get

it. B

ut a

ctua

lly I

wan

ted

to lo

ok a

t old

er s

tude

nts

in th

e un

iver

sity

, loo

k at

thei

r le

arni

ng n

eeds

. B

ecau

se t

he

aver

age

age

of s

tude

nts

in t

he u

nive

rsity

has

gon

e up

. It w

ould

be

a fo

rm o

f pr

ofes

sion

al d

evel

opm

ent

of t

he u

nive

rsity

sta

ff w

ho n

ow h

ave

sixt

y ye

ar o

ld P

hD

stud

ents

und

er t

heir

Sup

ervi

sion

. S

o yo

u kn

ow I

thin

k w

e ne

ed t

o st

art l

ooki

ng m

ore

clos

ely

at w

heth

er th

e un

iver

sity

env

ironm

ent i

s m

eetin

g th

e ne

eds

for

all a

ges.

”[3H

B24

08#1

0]

Des

pite

rev

ealin

g a

dist

inct

ly h

ealth

and

bio

med

ical

focu

s, o

ne C

entr

e D

irec

tor

expl

aine

d th

e ne

ed f

or p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent i

n th

e ag

ed s

ecto

r in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“I

thi

nk th

e he

alth

ser

vice

is a

par

ticul

ar a

rea

that

wou

ld le

nd it

self

wel

l to

that

bec

ause

w

hat y

ou h

ave

to k

eep

in m

ind

in a

ged

care

par

ticul

arly

is th

at o

ur w

orkf

orce

is

pred

omin

antly

ove

r 50

. A

nd I

hear

a lo

t of ‘

Oh

I’m to

o ol

d to

lear

n th

at, I

’ve

been

a n

urse

fo

r 25

yea

rs a

nd I

am to

o ol

d to

lear

n an

ythi

ng n

ew,’

and

I thi

nk it

’s a

bsol

utel

y rig

ht fo

r th

at p

rofe

ssio

nal p

repa

ratio

n to

occ

ur.”

[1

0SD

1210

#15]

Oth

er p

rofe

ssio

nal d

evel

opm

ent

was

pro

vide

d fr

om a

lega

l per

spec

tive,

with

a C

entr

e D

irec

tor

com

men

ting:

“O

ur a

ctiv

ities

mus

t hav

e a

lega

l fla

vour

, and

of c

ours

e th

e la

w u

nder

pins

eve

ryth

ing

that

we

do. I

t’s p

repa

ring

peop

le to

wor

k in

the

sect

or, w

e ta

rget

peo

ple,

you

kno

w, t

he

retir

emen

t vill

age

indu

stry

, ind

ustr

y, u

m c

onsu

mer

s, th

e ca

rers

of

olde

r pe

ople

, so

it’s

a

bit o

f ev

eryt

hing

.”

[8S

F09

10#1

1]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

118

ELE

ME

NT

Pro

fess

iona

l D

evel

opm

ent &

T

rain

ing

in t

he

Age

d S

ecto

r

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

A

noth

er C

entr

e D

irec

tor

rega

rded

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f the

PhD

coh

ort a

s a

form

of

prof

essi

onal

dev

elop

men

t for

the

agei

ng s

ecto

r, p

artic

ular

ly in

the

dev

elop

men

t of

care

er

traj

ecto

ries

and

res

earc

h pa

thw

ays.

As

the

Dir

ecto

r no

ted:

“I

n te

rms

of p

rovi

ding

a c

ondu

it to

the

outs

ide

wor

ld fo

r a

lot o

f res

earc

hers

, w

ho c

an

prom

ote

thei

r w

ork

thro

ugh

our

collo

quiu

m s

erie

s an

d be

exp

osed

to

all f

orm

s of

pol

icy

mak

ers

and

com

mun

ity o

rgan

izat

ions

. Its

abo

ut b

uild

ing

care

er p

athw

ays,

car

eer

traj

ecto

ries

, rea

lly m

arke

ting

wha

t tho

se m

ight

be,

wha

t are

as o

f the

wor

kfor

ce m

ight

be

attr

acte

d to

, and

wha

t out

com

e th

ere

wou

ld b

e fo

r st

uden

ts h

avin

g co

mpl

eted

po

stgr

adua

te r

esea

rch

in a

gein

g.”

[3H

B24

08#3

]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

he la

ck o

f ev

iden

ce o

f pro

fess

iona

l dev

elop

men

t an

d tr

aini

ng in

the

aged

sec

tor

prov

ided

by

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

sugg

ests

that

ther

e ha

s no

t yet

bee

n re

cogn

ition

of t

he e

xpan

ding

bod

y of

kno

wle

dge

abou

t age

ing

issu

es a

nd o

lder

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

to w

arra

nt th

ese

activ

ities

. R

esul

ts a

lso

sugg

est t

hat t

he g

row

ing

emph

asis

on

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gy a

nd th

e im

pact

of s

ocia

l iss

ues

on o

lder

adu

lts h

as n

ot b

een

tran

slat

ed in

to e

duca

tiona

l mat

eria

ls o

r pr

ogra

ms

for

the

aged

sec

tor,

w

here

the

se p

rogr

ams

are

desi

gned

to e

mpo

wer

the

olde

r A

ustr

alia

n.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

119

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Cur

ricul

um o

r P

rogr

am

Dev

elop

men

t

Cur

ricul

um o

r pr

ogra

m d

evel

opm

ent f

ocus

ed o

n ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

prin

cipl

es w

ould

inco

rpor

ate

two

pers

pect

ives

: firs

tly, c

onte

nt a

bout

ol

der

adul

ts a

nd t

heir

educ

atio

n, in

clud

ing

biop

sych

osoc

ial i

ssue

s, a

nd s

econ

dly,

be

desi

gned

to b

e ap

plie

d th

roug

h in

stru

ctio

nal m

etho

ds th

at a

re

base

d on

the

proc

ess

of g

erag

ogy.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q6

No

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nt r

epor

ted

cond

uctin

g th

e de

sign

or

deve

lopm

ent o

f an

y ad

ult

educ

atio

n or

trai

ning

pro

gram

s sp

ecifi

cally

for

or to

th

e ol

der

adul

t. N

o pr

ogra

ms

deal

ing

with

ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

as

an a

rea

of s

tudy

was

re

port

ed.

Hal

f (50

%)

of th

e pa

rtic

ipat

ing

Cen

tres

rep

orte

d de

velo

ping

trai

ning

pro

gram

s fo

r ex

tern

al

audi

ence

s an

d 33

% w

orke

d w

ith th

eir

affil

iate

d un

iver

sity

for

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f ge

ront

olog

ical

cur

ricu

lum

con

tent

. Non

e of

thes

e pr

ogra

ms

wer

e re

late

d to

edu

catio

nal

cont

ent a

nd is

sues

ass

ocia

ted

with

old

er a

dult

educ

atio

n. T

here

was

no

evid

ence

of

curr

icul

um d

evel

opm

ent b

ased

on

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy p

rinci

ples

and

pro

cess

es.

Inte

rvie

ws

No

evid

ence

of a

ny a

gein

g-re

late

d cu

rric

ulum

or

prog

ram

dev

elop

men

t was

fou

nd t

o ex

ist i

n un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onse

s.

The

re w

ere

a va

riet

y of

edu

catio

nal m

ater

ials

dev

elop

ed t

hrou

gh th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

. T

hese

incl

uded

pra

ctic

al m

ater

ials

suc

h as

tool

kits

for

care

rs,

and

a ha

ndbo

ok o

n cr

eatin

g de

men

tia-f

rien

dly

phys

ical

and

soc

ial e

nviro

nmen

ts, d

escr

ibed

by

a ce

ntre

Dir

ecto

r th

is w

ay:

“B

ecau

se w

e w

ere

quite

ofte

n as

ked

by p

rivat

e nu

rsin

g ho

mes

to p

rovi

de s

essi

ons

on

dem

entia

car

e, t

he C

entr

e m

any

year

s ag

o w

rote

a m

anua

l for

the

exp

erie

ntia

l stu

ff,

with

a v

ideo

tha

t it s

old.

I m

ean,

it is

stil

l sel

ling

and

it ne

eds

seri

ous

upda

ting.

We

have

ju

st w

ritte

n fo

r ex

ampl

e, a

han

dboo

k fo

r cr

eatin

g de

men

tia-f

riend

ly p

hysi

cal a

nd s

ocia

l en

viro

nmen

ts,

and

so w

e ar

e st

artin

g to

wor

k to

war

ds u

sing

that

as

an e

duca

tiona

l to

ol.”

[10S

D12

10#1

0]

Thi

s sa

me

Dire

ctor

invo

lved

in a

gein

g re

sear

ch a

lso

desc

ribed

ano

ther

pro

gram

that

the

cent

re h

ad d

evel

oped

:

“O

ne o

f the

thin

gs w

e al

so h

ave

is th

e E

nhan

cing

Pra

ctic

e pr

ogra

m. B

ecau

se w

e ar

e a

cent

re t

hat i

s pr

omot

ing

heal

th in

depe

nden

ce,

we

got e

xtra

mon

ey t

o do

som

e gr

ound

wor

k in

edu

catio

n. W

hat w

e ha

ve d

one

is r

oll o

ut E

nhan

cing

Pra

ctic

e ac

ross

the

entir

e S

tate

, it i

s a

very

fund

amen

tal s

tep

but i

t’s a

bout

rai

sing

aw

aren

ess

of h

ow p

eopl

e tr

eat o

lder

peo

ple.

It’s

don

e in

the

con

text

of,

it’s

a bi

t lik

e re

flect

ive

prac

tice,

and

so

the

conc

ept

of p

erso

n-ce

ntre

d ca

re is

def

ined

, its

don

e on

the

basi

s of

tryi

ng to

app

ly th

e co

ncep

ts o

f per

son-

cent

red

care

to w

hat t

hey

actu

ally

do

in p

ract

ice,

and

then

get

ting

them

to w

ork

thro

ugh

that

, it’s

a 6

-wee

k co

urse

.”

[10S

D12

10#7

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

120

ELE

ME

NT

Cur

ricul

um o

r P

rogr

am

Dev

elop

men

t co

nt.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

T

he D

irec

tor

of a

mul

ti-di

scip

linar

y ce

ntre

art

icul

ated

her

vis

ion

for

a co

re c

urric

ulum

thus

:

“I id

entif

ied

a ne

ed t

o pr

ofile

age

ing

bett

er in

the

curr

icul

um, t

o in

tegr

ate

it ac

ross

the

disc

iplin

es a

nd t

o pr

ovid

e an

opp

ortu

nity

for

stu

dent

s w

ho w

ant

a po

st-g

radu

ate

educ

atio

n in

age

ing

with

a c

ore

foun

datio

n pr

ogra

m.”

[3H

B24

08#1

5]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

his

resu

lt in

dica

tes

that

ther

e ha

s no

t yet

bee

n a

form

ulat

ion

of a

bod

y of

con

tent

abo

ut e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

by

this

par

ticip

atin

g co

hort

. T

he n

eces

sary

in

terd

isci

plin

ary

colla

bora

tion

that

cou

ld o

ptim

ise

this

cur

ricul

um c

onte

nt d

oes

not a

ppea

r to

hav

e oc

curr

ed, a

nd w

hile

the

evi

denc

e in

dica

tes

that

the

rang

e an

d na

ture

of p

rogr

ams

are

sign

ifica

nt, t

hey

are

limite

d to

hea

lth r

elat

ed t

opic

s.

Thi

s re

sult

from

this

stu

dy in

dica

tes

that

no

prog

ram

spe

cific

ally

add

ress

ing

educ

atio

nal

gero

ntol

ogy

conc

epts

and

prin

cipl

es h

as y

et b

een

deve

lope

d.


Chapter 4 121

PART THREE

4.5 Capacity for Educational Gerontology

Introduction

For the purposes of this study, capacity for educational gerontology is viewed as a

predictor of the ability to apply educational gerontology. While this capacity might

be ascertained through the existence of relevant knowledge and skills, this study is

also concerned with investigating factors that foster and nurture interdisciplinary and

collaborative potential which the literature has revealed as underpinning educational

gerontology. These factors include organisational infrastructure, philosophical

approaches aligned with lifelong learning and sociology, and personal motivations

for the adoption of educational gerontology into mainstream adult education.

In this section, the results obtained for each element has been drawn mainly

from interviews that explored the relationship between the evidence presented in Part

Two, and the potential for the advancement of educational gerontology in the future.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

122

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Edu

catio

nal

Exp

erie

nce

of

Res

pond

ent

To

gene

rate

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

pot

entia

l for

adv

anci

ng e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

as

an a

rea

of s

tudy

or

as a

pra

ctic

e, p

artic

ipan

ts w

ere

inte

rvie

wed

abo

ut t

heir

educ

atio

nal q

ualif

icat

ions

, exp

erie

nce

and

back

grou

nd.

It is

ack

now

ledg

ed t

hat t

here

exi

sts

som

e ov

erla

p w

ith K

now

ledg

e of

Edu

catio

nal G

eron

tolo

gy, b

ecau

se it

is a

ssum

ed in

this

stu

dy th

at k

now

ledg

e of

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

thro

ugh

qual

ifica

tions

and

exp

erie

nce

cons

titut

es a

sig

nific

ant a

dvan

tage

and

nat

ural

spr

ingb

oard

for

unde

rsta

ndin

g an

d ap

plyi

ng e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

prin

cipl

es in

the

futu

re.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q

N/A

N

/A

Inte

rvie

ws

The

res

pond

ents

ref

lect

ed a

mix

of

educ

atio

nal

back

grou

nds.

As

expe

cted

, al

l of t

he u

nive

rsity

A

dult

Edu

catio

n pa

rtic

ipan

ts h

ad p

ostg

radu

ate

qual

ifica

tions

in e

duca

tion

and

had

exte

nsiv

e w

orki

ng e

xper

ienc

e in

adu

lt le

arni

ng, i

nclu

ding

T

echn

ical

and

Fur

ther

Edu

catio

n (T

AF

E)

and

scho

ol te

achi

ng e

xper

ienc

e. A

s on

e re

spon

dent

no

ted:

“I

’ve

been

an

adul

t edu

cato

r fo

r 30

yea

rs in

V

icto

ria w

orki

ng w

ith p

eopl

e w

ho a

re r

etur

ning

to

stu

dy a

fter

a co

nsid

erab

le ti

me

out o

f the

w

orkf

orce

, mos

tly w

omen

but

occ

asio

nally

m

en w

ho a

re lo

okin

g fo

r a

chan

ge in

car

eer

and

so o

n.”

[7P

R02

10#7

]

In a

dditi

on t

o m

anag

ing

olde

r ad

ult s

tude

nts

retu

rnin

g to

stu

dy fo

r ca

reer

cha

nges

, par

ticip

ants

w

ere

resp

onsi

ble

for

the

post

grad

uate

de

velo

pmen

t of t

each

ers

look

ing

for

a m

id-c

aree

r bo

ost,

and

for

teac

hers

pra

ctic

ing

in t

he T

AF

E a

nd

VE

T s

ecto

r.

Thi

rty

perc

ent (

30%

) of

the

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es th

at p

artic

ipat

ed w

ere

led

by

educ

atio

nally

-qua

lifie

d D

irect

ors.

T

hese

Cen

tres

are

con

cern

ed w

ith r

esea

rch

outs

ide

the

biom

edic

al p

arad

igm

, and

focu

s on

the

anal

ysis

and

app

licat

ion

of s

ocia

l iss

ues

in t

he w

ider

ar

ena.

For

exa

mpl

e, o

ne C

entr

e fo

cuse

d on

spi

ritua

lity

and

past

oral

car

e in

age

ing,

one

co

ncen

trat

ed o

n le

gal i

ssue

s re

leva

nt t

o ol

der

peop

le, a

nd t

he o

ther

on

broa

d, e

xper

ient

ial

educ

atio

nal a

ctiv

ities

in th

e he

alth

car

e co

ntex

t. A

s on

e of

thes

e C

entr

e D

irec

tors

sta

ted:

“W

ell i

t’s b

een

a lo

ng 1

7 ye

ars.

I ha

ve a

Mas

ters

of A

dult

Edu

catio

n, in

Age

ing,

and

that

le

d m

e on

to t

he P

hD s

tuff

and

cert

ainl

y I h

ave

been

tea

chin

g in

it a

ll th

at ti

me.

My

thes

is

was

look

ing

at h

ealth

-rel

ated

dec

isio

n m

akin

g in

old

er p

eopl

e… In

my

Bac

helo

r of

Art

s I

did

a m

ajor

in B

ehav

iour

al S

cien

ce t

here

and

whe

n I l

ook

back

at t

hat t

here

was

qui

te a

bi

t of

agei

ng s

tuff

in it

whi

ch I

was

del

ight

ed a

bout

…. I

taug

ht n

ursi

ng f

or y

ears

and

I ra

n an

und

ergr

adua

te h

ealth

edu

catio

n co

urse

”

[12L

M01

11#5

]

Fur

ther

evi

denc

e of

a s

olid

edu

catio

nal b

ackg

roun

d w

as p

rovi

ded

by a

noth

er C

entr

e D

irec

tor,

who

rep

orte

d:

“I

tea

ch E

lder

Law

. And

I m

ean,

my

back

grou

nd, m

y M

aste

rs is

in C

urric

ulum

D

evel

opm

ent a

nyw

ay a

nd s

o it’

s de

velo

ping

the

cour

se E

lder

Law

…. W

ell,

my

first

qu

alifi

catio

n w

as a

Dip

lom

a in

Edu

catio

n, in

nur

se e

duca

tion,

and

I’ve

tau

ght e

very

thin

g fr

om s

kill

shar

e to

pos

tgra

d, a

nd I

also

hav

e a

Cer

tific

ate

4 in

Wor

kpla

ce T

rain

ing”

[8S

F09

10#4

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

123

ELE

ME

NT

Edu

catio

nal

Exp

erie

nce

of

Res

pond

ent

co

nt.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

The

re w

as s

tron

g co

mm

ents

and

dis

cuss

ion

abou

t th

eir

pass

ion

for

thei

r te

achi

ng a

rea

and

for

the

deve

lopm

ent a

nd e

mpo

wer

men

t of i

ndiv

idua

ls.

Thi

s is

evi

denc

ed b

y a

typi

cal s

tate

men

t:

“T

hat’s

one

of t

he g

reat

thin

gs a

bout

wor

king

w

ith a

dults

, the

re is

a w

hole

ran

ge o

f pla

ces

whe

re p

eopl

e ar

e di

sem

pow

ered

and

(fo

r th

em)

to r

ealiz

e th

at it

s no

t due

to th

eir

lack

of

inte

llige

nce

or a

bilit

y or

wha

teve

r, I

mea

n th

at

is t

he c

ase

for

som

e bu

t the

re a

re m

any

who

ju

st h

ave

had

bad

life

circ

umst

ance

s. O

nce

the

real

izat

ion

is t

here

that

they

can

act

ually

go

ahe

ad w

ith w

hat t

hey’

ve g

ot, t

hen

it’s

just

th

e m

ost i

ncre

dibl

e ex

peri

ence

as

an

educ

ator

.”

[7P

R02

10#1

2]

The

re w

as a

sig

nific

ant f

ocus

on

prep

arin

g te

ache

rs fo

r th

e T

AF

E e

nviro

nmen

t, an

d of

the

agei

ng s

taffi

ng is

sues

with

in t

he te

achi

ng s

ecto

r ge

nera

lly. R

ecog

nitio

n of

the

incr

easi

ng n

umbe

r of

ol

der

teac

hers

was

app

aren

t, w

ith o

ne r

espo

nden

t no

ting:

“A

s it

is a

t the

mom

ent I

go

out

and

obse

rve

thes

e yo

ung

TA

FE

teac

hers

, our

stu

dent

te

ache

rs w

hen

they

go

out a

nd th

ey a

re

alm

ost

alw

ays

inev

itabl

y as

sign

ed to

an

olde

r te

ache

r be

caus

e th

ey a

re t

he o

nes

that

do

min

ate

this

sec

tor

curr

ently

.”

[5R

S13

09#2

]

Fin

ally

, one

res

pond

ent w

ith a

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy b

ackg

roun

d re

itera

ted

the

Cen

tre’

s co

ntri

butio

n to

edu

catio

n in

the

heal

th c

are

setti

ng, b

y st

atin

g:

“I

am

affi

liate

d w

ith th

e un

iver

sity

as

I hav

e ac

adem

ic s

tatu

s an

d I t

each

onl

ine

post

grad

uate

wor

k, a

nd w

e ha

ve a

lot o

f inp

ut in

to th

e ho

spita

l in-

serv

ice

educ

atio

n be

caus

e fir

st o

f al

l we

sit

on th

e ed

ucat

ion

com

mitt

ee, a

nd s

econ

dly

we

prov

ide

som

e of

th

at o

urse

lves

, in-

serv

ice

educ

atio

n, s

o w

e ar

e dr

ivin

g so

me

of th

e cu

rric

ulum

with

in th

e he

alth

ser

vice

.”

[10S

D12

10#2

]

No

furt

her

inte

rvie

w c

omm

ents

wer

e fo

rthc

omin

g.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

124

ELE

ME

NT

Edu

catio

nal

Exp

erie

nce

of

Res

pond

ent

co

nt.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

Sig

nific

ant k

now

ledg

e of

the

fram

ewor

k of

A

ustr

alia

n V

ocat

iona

l Edu

catio

n an

d T

rain

ing

(VE

T)

sect

or w

as r

evea

led,

eve

n in

clud

ing

a hi

stor

ical

per

spec

tive,

with

one

res

pond

ent

stat

ing:

“.

.as

part

of m

y P

hD I

wro

te a

sto

ry o

n vo

catio

nal e

duca

tion

and

adul

t edu

catio

n in

V

icto

ria a

nd h

ow te

ache

rs, w

ho d

idn’

t hav

e an

y fo

rmal

qua

lific

atio

ns…

. w

ere

requ

ired

to

join

the

VE

T s

ecto

r.”

[7P

R02

10#1

6]

One

of t

he r

espo

nden

ts c

o-or

dina

ted

prog

ram

s on

ly th

roug

h di

stan

ce e

duca

tion,

whi

ch li

mite

d th

e ab

ility

to

com

men

t on

perc

eptio

ns a

bout

the

chan

ging

nat

ure

adul

t edu

catio

n du

e to

an

agei

ng

dem

ogra

phic

. H

owev

er, t

his

part

icul

ar r

espo

nden

t re

mar

ked:

“…

we

cert

ainl

y ha

ven’

t loo

ked

at w

hat i

t wou

ld

be li

ke to

wor

k w

ith o

lder

wor

kers

.”

[7P

R02

10#2

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

125

ELE

ME

NT

Edu

catio

nal

Exp

erie

nce

of

Res

pond

ent

co

nt.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

One

res

pond

ent h

ad s

ome

exp

erie

nce

teac

hing

ol

der

adul

ts.

The

des

crip

tion

of th

e ex

per

ienc

e in

clud

ed:

“I

kno

w w

hen

I wor

k w

ith o

lder

peo

ple,

ther

e is

an

ass

umpt

ion

mad

e ab

out t

he m

ode

of

inst

ruct

ion

bein

g fa

irly

dida

ctic

. It’s

like

‘you

tel

l m

e w

hat I

nee

d to

kno

w u

ntil

I rea

lize

I kn

ow

mor

e th

an y

ou d

o’ a

nd th

en y

ou k

ind

of b

ack

off t

hat a

nd th

ey h

ave

the

sudd

en r

ealiz

atio

n th

at th

ey a

re k

now

ledg

eabl

e pe

ople

… a

nd

once

the

y re

aliz

e th

ey c

an m

ake

conn

ectio

ns

betw

een

life

exp

erie

nce

and

theo

ry o

r w

hate

ver

it m

ight

be,

it ju

st u

nbel

ieva

ble

to

see

the

rate

at w

hich

the

ir se

lf-es

teem

roc

kets

, an

d th

ey s

ay ‘H

ey I

do k

now

mor

e th

an th

at

Yea

r 12

gra

duat

e.’ I

’ve

seen

tha

t tim

e an

d tim

e ag

ain.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

0]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

he n

umer

ous,

and

com

preh

ensi

ve in

terv

iew

com

men

ts fr

om p

artic

ipan

ts r

evea

l a d

eep

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

conc

epts

and

ext

ensi

ve e

xper

ienc

e in

ac

hiev

ing

a ra

nge

of th

e po

sitiv

e ou

tcom

es fo

r ad

ults

as

lear

ning

exp

ands

the

ir ho

rizo

n. T

his

resu

lt su

gges

ts th

at, w

hile

no

evid

ence

of

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy w

as

pres

ente

d by

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ants

in P

art T

wo,

a s

olid

fou

ndat

ion

is in

pla

ce fo

r ex

tend

ing

andr

agog

y in

to g

erag

ogy.

A s

igni

fican

t num

ber

of A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

rs h

ave

back

grou

nd q

ualif

icat

ions

in e

duca

tion,

how

ever

res

ults

sho

w t

hat t

hese

par

ticip

ants

are

lim

ited

to

Res

earc

h C

entr

es w

ith r

esea

rch

inte

rest

s ou

tsid

e th

e bi

omed

ical

par

adig

m. I

n ad

ditio

n, t

hese

spe

cific

par

ticip

ants

do

not r

evea

l day

-to-

day

appl

icat

ion

of th

eir

educ

atio

nal k

now

ledg

e in

the

ir re

spec

tive

Cen

tres

. W

hile

pro

vidi

ng a

nat

ural

foun

datio

n fo

r un

ders

tand

ing

adul

t edu

catio

n, t

he r

esul

t doe

s no

t ind

icat

e th

at th

e pa

rtic

ipan

ts fr

om th

is r

esea

rch

loca

tion

have

ext

ende

d th

eir

educ

atio

nal k

now

ledg

e to

incl

ude

issu

es s

peci

fic to

old

er a

dult

lear

ning

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

126

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y R

esea

rch

Foc

us

Cap

acity

for

inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y re

sear

ch w

ould

be

evid

ence

d by

col

labo

rativ

e re

sear

ch c

apab

ilitie

s on

the

basi

s of

join

t app

licat

ions

for

res

earc

h fu

ndin

g an

d gr

ants

, and

the

com

posi

tion

of r

esea

rch

team

mem

bers

dra

wn

from

dis

cipl

ines

ack

now

ledg

ed a

s co

ntri

butin

g to

adv

anci

ng

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy a

s an

are

a of

stu

dy a

nd a

s pr

actic

e.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q3

Not

one

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ant r

epor

ted

any

rese

arch

affi

liatio

n w

ith a

uni

vers

ity A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre.

One

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e re

port

ed a

res

earc

h af

filia

tion

with

a F

acul

ty o

f Edu

catio

n.

Q4

N/A

T

he p

urpo

se b

ehin

d th

is a

ffilia

tion

was

for

usin

g ar

chiv

al e

duca

tiona

l dat

a.

Q7

No

othe

r lin

ks to

Age

ing

Res

earc

h w

as

repo

rted

. N

o ot

her

links

to A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

port

ed.

Q8(

k)

No

colla

bora

tive

appl

icat

ions

for

gran

ts o

r fu

ndin

g re

port

ed.

No

evid

ence

of t

his

activ

ity r

epor

ted.

Inte

rvie

ws

Ver

y lit

tle in

terd

isci

plin

ary

rese

arch

was

ev

iden

t in

uni

vers

ity A

dult

Edu

catio

n pr

ogra

ms.

O

ne r

espo

nden

t hel

d a

mem

bers

hip

to a

mul

ti-di

scip

linar

y re

sear

ch c

entr

e, in

whi

ch th

e fo

cus

was

on

prof

essi

onal

pra

ctic

e ac

ross

five

fa

culti

es, b

ut n

o ag

eing

-rel

ated

res

earc

h ha

d be

en c

ondu

cted

with

in th

is f

orum

. T

his

acad

emic

not

ed:

“I

am

a m

embe

r of

a r

esea

rch

grou

p th

at

look

s at

the

impl

icat

ions

of t

rans

disc

iplin

ary

prac

tice…

but

I kn

ow th

at r

esea

rch

cent

re

cert

ainl

y do

esn’

t loo

k at

tho

se (

agei

ng)

issu

es. B

ut I

don’

t thi

nk g

eron

tolo

gy

appe

ars

anyw

here

in th

e re

sear

ch

findi

ngs.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

]

Whi

le th

e A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

wer

e al

l foc

used

ver

y di

stin

ctly

on

agei

ng r

esea

rch,

so

me

wer

e m

ore

limite

d in

thei

r re

sear

ch s

cope

than

oth

ers.

For

exa

mpl

e, o

ne D

irect

or

desc

ribe

d th

e fo

cus

of h

is C

entr

e in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“I

ts p

urel

y a

rese

arch

cen

tre,

we

don’

t tea

ch a

ny c

ours

es.…

I be

lieve

it s

tart

ed o

ut a

s ve

ry m

uch

a re

sear

ch c

entr

e fo

r ps

ychi

atric

epi

dem

iolo

gy b

ut n

ow it

’s a

cen

tre

conc

erne

d w

ith m

enta

l hea

lth r

esea

rch.

The

re’s

bee

n no

col

labo

ratio

n w

ith o

ther

re

sear

cher

s an

d ot

her

inst

itutio

ns, b

ut g

ener

ally

foc

used

bro

adly

in th

e ps

ycho

logy

and

ag

eing

are

as.

Bec

ause

we

are

com

plet

ely

depe

ndan

t on

gra

nt m

oney

we

have

to b

e ve

ry f

ocus

ed o

n w

hat

we

do to

mak

e su

re o

ur r

esea

rch

activ

ities

are

like

ly to

enh

ance

ou

r op

port

unity

to g

et m

oney

in t

he fu

ture

, but

at t

he s

ame

time

it al

so m

eans

that

we

are

open

to

colla

bora

tions

that

mig

ht a

gain

ser

ve th

ose

goal

s. It

wou

ld d

epen

d on

wha

t m

utua

l ben

efit

was

ava

ilabl

e fr

om a

ny c

olla

bora

tion

of t

hat t

ype.

”

[9T

W11

10#1

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

127

ELE

ME

NT

Inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y R

esea

rch

Foc

us

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

One

res

pond

ent r

epor

ted

som

e pr

evio

us

invo

lvem

ent i

n an

age

ing

rese

arch

pro

ject

, st

atin

g:

“I

’ve

wor

ked

on th

e ed

ge o

f som

e of

the

se

prog

ram

s, o

n a

cam

pus

whe

re t

hey

trai

n ru

ral d

octo

rs a

nd th

ey h

ave

som

e pr

ojec

ts,

ther

e’s

a de

mog

raph

ic p

roje

ct I

was

in

volv

ed w

ith o

n th

e m

argi

ns o

ver

the

last

co

uple

of y

ears

and

they

wer

e as

sess

ing

the

need

s of

the

agei

ng d

emog

raph

ic

acro

ss th

e ci

ty o

f [Lo

catio

n D

elet

ed],

in

term

s of

the

faci

litie

s, e

duca

tiona

l op

port

uniti

es, a

ccom

mod

atio

n op

tions

and

th

at s

ort

of th

ing.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

0]

Ano

ther

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

r st

ated

:

“W

hat w

e ha

ve a

rea

l foc

us o

n is

res

earc

h in

to a

gein

g th

at h

ave

part

ners

hip

appr

oach

es

and

that

’s p

artn

ersh

ips

with

gov

ernm

ent a

t all

leve

ls,

with

com

mun

ity o

rgan

isat

ions

and

no

n-go

vern

men

t pro

vide

r ag

enci

es. I

thin

k w

hat w

e ar

e do

ing

incr

easi

ngly

is o

peni

ng u

p op

port

uniti

es fo

r co

llabo

ratio

n ac

ross

dis

cipl

ines

. As

a re

sear

ch c

entr

e ou

r pr

imar

y go

al

is n

ot to

teac

h, it

’s to

res

earc

h….”

[3H

B24

08#5

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

128

ELE

ME

NT

Inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y R

esea

rch

Foc

us

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

One

uni

vers

ity A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

de

scri

bed

an in

volv

emen

t in

agei

ng r

esea

rch

whi

ch w

as b

orn

out o

f gov

ernm

ent g

rant

s,

busi

ness

inte

rest

s an

d es

tabl

ishe

d co

nsul

tanc

ies.

How

ever

, no

link

s to

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

prog

ram

s or

act

iviti

es w

ere

mad

e fr

om th

is r

esea

rch

whi

ch w

as a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

an a

gein

g lo

cal g

over

nmen

t wor

kfor

ce. T

he

resp

onde

nt d

escr

ibed

how

res

earc

h fin

ding

s w

ould

be

diss

emin

ated

to s

take

hold

ers,

who

th

en h

ad t

he fr

eedo

m to

app

ly th

e fin

ding

s in

an

y w

ay th

ey c

hose

. C

omm

ents

incl

uded

:

“Y

eah

it is

sha

red.

Peo

ple

who

are

goi

ng to

pr

ovid

e th

e fu

nds

cert

ainl

y w

ant s

omet

hing

fo

r th

eir

mon

ey a

nd s

o yo

u w

ould

go

back

an

d sh

are

the

resu

lts o

f you

r re

sear

ch

cert

ainl

y an

d re

port

to

them

. Oth

ers.

.. ca

n pi

ck u

p th

e in

form

atio

n th

at’s

bee

n dr

awn

out o

f tha

t res

earc

h th

roug

h pu

blic

atio

ns

that

com

e fr

om th

at p

iece

of r

esea

rch.

”

[2IJ

0708

#4]

Som

e ho

wev

er,

wer

e m

ore

succ

essf

ul a

t ex

pand

ing

colla

bora

tion

for

rese

arch

pur

pose

s. F

or

exam

ple,

one

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

not

ed:

“M

y in

tere

st w

as t

o fo

cus

on a

bro

ader

focu

s of

aca

dem

ic r

esea

rch

abou

t age

ing

in th

e un

iver

sitie

s. U

p un

til, y

ou k

now

, cer

tain

ly s

ay 5

yea

rs a

go, a

ll re

sear

ch a

bout

age

ing

has

been

abo

ut p

atho

logi

es o

f age

ing,

it w

as in

the

Med

ical

Fac

ulty

, per

haps

Hea

lth o

r C

omm

unity

Hea

lth, o

r ev

en t

o a

smal

l ext

ent

Soc

ial w

ork.

So

I w

as v

ery

keen

, an

d so

se

ven

year

s ag

o, I

got t

he u

nive

rsity

to a

llow

me

to p

ut to

geth

er a

mul

ti-fa

culty

cen

tre

to

focu

s on

the

broa

der

issu

es o

f res

earc

h ab

out t

he d

emog

raph

ic c

hang

es in

Aus

tral

ia

and

our

agei

ng p

opul

atio

n. T

he F

acul

ties

invo

lved

wer

e th

e F

acul

ties

of A

rts

and

Soc

ial

Sci

ence

s, th

e F

acul

ty o

f Com

mer

ce, t

he F

acul

ty o

f Bui

lt E

nviro

nmen

t, th

e F

acul

ty o

f La

w.

And

I di

d in

vite

the

Fac

ulty

of M

edic

ine.

And

so

that

was

abo

ut p

uttin

g to

geth

er a

ll th

e pe

ople

in v

ario

us a

reas

who

wer

e lo

okin

g at

the

ran

ge o

f iss

ues

whi

ch w

ould

be

both

op

port

uniti

es a

nd c

halle

nges

, co

ncer

ning

our

age

ing

popu

latio

n. S

o I r

an t

he c

entr

e fo

r se

ven

year

s. T

he d

egre

e of

sup

port

from

the

othe

r fa

culti

es h

as b

een

abso

lute

ly z

ero

beca

use

of th

e na

ture

of

com

petit

ive

fund

ing

has

been

that

they

, th

e ot

her

Dea

ns, h

ave

been

unw

illin

g to

allo

w th

eir

staf

f to

do p

ublic

atio

ns a

nd g

rant

s th

roug

h th

is C

entr

e be

caus

e th

en t

hey

won

’t ge

t the

res

earc

h qu

antu

m. S

o it’

s th

e co

mpe

titiv

e na

ture

of

univ

ersi

ty fu

ndin

g w

hich

has

ver

y m

uch

cons

trai

ned

the

oppo

rtun

ity fo

r re

ally

sig

nific

ant

inte

r-di

scip

linar

y re

sear

ch w

hich

is w

hat I

thin

k is

nec

essa

ry.”

[4D

O07

09#1

]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

D

ata

obta

ined

from

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ants

indi

cate

that

ther

e is

littl

e or

no

reco

gniti

on o

f the

pos

sibi

litie

s fo

r ad

vanc

ing

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy th

roug

h co

llabo

ratio

n w

ith A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

. T

he r

easo

ns o

r pu

rpos

es u

nder

pinn

ing

such

col

labo

ratio

n m

ay n

ot y

et b

e fu

lly u

nder

stoo

d du

e to

the

curr

ent

unfa

mili

arity

with

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy c

once

pts

or th

e ra

nge

of c

ontr

ibut

ing

disc

iplin

es.

Whi

le A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

dis

play

a w

illin

gnes

s to

col

labo

rate

, and

ge

nera

lly w

elco

me

inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y re

sear

ch p

roje

cts,

the

resu

lts in

dica

te s

ome

barr

iers

exi

st to

this

occ

urrin

g. T

hese

bar

riers

incl

ude

fund

ing

allo

catio

ns, a

nd a

m

easu

re o

f dis

trus

t in

the

degr

ee o

f co

ntrib

utio

n A

dult

Edu

catio

n ca

n m

ake

to A

gein

g R

esea

rch,

whi

ch s

ugge

sts

a po

tent

ial l

ack

of a

ppre

ciat

ion

for

or u

nfam

iliar

ity

with

the

pote

ntia

l con

trib

utio

n a

spec

ialis

t in

olde

r ad

ult e

duca

tion

mig

ht m

ake

to th

e re

sear

ch e

ffort

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

129

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Life

long

Le

arni

ng C

ultu

re

Dis

play

ing

a ca

paci

ty fo

r th

e ad

optio

n of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy th

roug

h a

lifel

ong

lear

ning

cul

ture

wou

ld b

e ev

iden

ced

by a

con

nect

ed s

yste

m

that

cov

ers

all p

urpo

sefu

l lea

rnin

g ac

tivity

, whe

re t

hose

act

iviti

es a

im to

impr

ove

know

ledg

e an

d co

mpe

tenc

ies.

Ove

rlap

ping

with

Soc

ial

Ger

onto

logy

Foc

us a

nd U

nder

stan

ding

of E

duca

tiona

l Ger

onto

logy

, the

cul

ture

dis

cuss

ed h

ere

wou

ld b

e fo

cuse

d on

old

er a

dult

lear

ners

, the

ir ch

angi

ng le

arni

ng n

eeds

, in

tern

al m

otiv

atio

ns a

nd le

arni

ng c

onte

xts,

and

be

base

d on

mul

tiple

edu

catio

nal o

bjec

tives

and

inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y pe

rspe

ctiv

es.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q8(

j) N

o ev

iden

ce o

f the

gen

eral

app

licat

ion

of

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy p

rinci

ples

was

rep

orte

d.

No

evid

ence

of t

his

elem

ent w

as r

epor

ted.

Inte

rvie

ws

The

top

ic o

f life

long

lear

ning

was

men

tione

d re

peat

edly

dur

ing

the

univ

ersi

ty A

dult

Edu

catio

n in

terv

iew

s, a

nd w

as a

lso

incl

uded

in a

des

crip

tion

of th

e ov

erar

chin

g ap

proa

ch t

o cu

rric

ulum

de

velo

pmen

t. O

ne A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

de

scri

bed

his

appr

oach

as:

“the

fram

ewor

k th

at’s

bui

lt ar

ound

my

teac

hing

in

thos

e un

its a

nd t

he w

ritin

g of

tho

se u

nits

, is

all a

bout

life

long

lear

ning

.”

[2IJ

0708

#1]

Des

crip

tions

of l

ifelo

ng le

arni

ng p

rese

nted

the

co

ncep

t as

an

issu

e of

acc

ess,

whe

re le

arni

ng

oppo

rtun

ities

had

littl

e to

do

with

chr

onol

ogic

al

age.

One

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

desc

ript

ion

conc

lude

d th

at: “

the

prin

cipl

e of

life

long

lear

ning

allo

ws

peop

le f

rom

any

age

to

deve

lop

beyo

nd th

at

age.

Life

long

lear

ning

… a

llow

s pe

ople

the

free

dom

to le

arn

whi

chev

er w

ay th

ey d

esire

.”

[2IJ

0708

#1]

Whi

le o

ne A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

resp

onde

nt id

entif

ied

the

need

for

ret

iree

s to

sta

y in

telle

ctua

lly a

ctiv

e an

d ke

en t

o pr

ove

to t

heir

child

ren

that

the

y w

ere

still

“with

it…

, an

d ab

le to

hav

e so

me

sort

of a

ccre

dita

tion”

[4D

O07

09#5

]

No

spec

ific

lifel

ong

lear

ning

cul

ture

or

unde

rpin

ning

phi

loso

phy

with

in t

he A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

was

art

icul

ated

. F

rom

an

orga

niza

tiona

l per

spec

tive,

one

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

r ac

know

ledg

ed t

he n

eed

for

com

mun

ity e

ngag

emen

t in

educ

atio

nal a

ctiv

ities

and

the

link

to

lifel

ong

lear

ning

by

stat

ing:

“Ano

ther

par

t of t

he v

isio

n fo

r m

e is

the

oppo

rtun

ity f

or s

enio

r ci

tizen

s to

eng

age

in w

hat

the

univ

ersi

ty o

ffers

, the

y do

n’t h

ave

to d

o a

form

al d

egre

e, a

lthou

gh s

ome

do.

But

the

re

is s

ome

flexi

bilit

y in

the

sys

tem

whe

reby

they

can

opt

into

diff

eren

t co

urse

s an

d fo

r pa

rts

of c

ours

es a

nd h

ave

redu

ced

fees

and

so

on.

But

I m

ean

that

’s a

diff

eren

t mat

ter.

Tha

t’s

abou

t life

long

lear

ning

, bu

t it a

ll re

late

s an

d I t

hink

any

Cen

tre

on A

gein

g ne

eds

to h

ave

the

enga

gem

ent o

f the

com

mun

ity t

o m

ake

it, y

ou k

now

to h

ave

that

app

lied

kind

of

focu

s an

d I t

hink

tha

t’s o

ne w

ay o

f doi

ng it

.”

[3H

B24

08#1

2]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

130

ELE

ME

NT

S

Life

long

Le

arni

ng C

ultu

re

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

D

urin

g th

e in

terv

iew

, on

e C

entr

e D

irect

or a

gree

d in

tens

ely

with

the

impo

rtan

ce o

f life

long

le

arni

ng, r

ecou

ntin

g a

pers

onal

exp

erie

nce

in th

e fo

llow

ing

way

:

“My

part

ner

is 6

6. H

e’s

retir

ed n

ow. I

am

tryi

ng t

o ge

t him

inte

rest

ed in

som

ethi

ng. H

e’s

been

a m

an w

ho h

as b

een

activ

e ph

ysic

ally

, but

no

long

er h

as th

e ca

paci

ty to

do

so,

so

he h

as n

othi

ng t

o do

. H

e is

get

ting

bore

d, s

o I h

ave

been

try

ing

to g

et h

im in

volv

ed in

th

e in

tern

et. Y

ou k

now

, to

get

him

invo

lved

in c

ompu

ting.

He’

s an

inte

rest

ing

man

, he’

s kn

owle

dgea

ble,

he

wou

ld h

ave

inte

rest

s. N

ow it

’s e

xtre

mel

y di

fficu

lt be

caus

e th

e pe

ople

w

ho a

re r

unni

ng a

lot o

f the

se c

ours

es h

ave

neve

r ta

ught

old

er p

eopl

e. T

he in

stru

ctor

as

sum

ed a

who

le la

yer

of k

now

ledg

e w

hich

he

didn

’t ha

ve, a

nd w

hen

he d

idn’

t hav

e it,

he

was

mad

e to

fee

l lik

e a

child

. A

nd s

o he

sai

d, I’

m n

ot g

oing

aga

in.

So

now

he

won

’t go

.”

[4D

O07

09#1

1]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

Thi

s da

ta in

dica

tes

that

whi

le a

gro

unde

d kn

owle

dge

of t

he te

nets

of l

ifelo

ng le

arni

ng a

re u

nder

stoo

d an

d ap

prec

iate

d by

bot

h re

sear

ch c

ohor

ts, t

he fu

ll re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n lif

elon

g le

arni

ng a

nd e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

hav

e no

t yet

bee

n ex

trap

olat

ed a

nd u

nder

stoo

d by

thos

e pa

rtic

ipat

ing

in th

is s

tudy

.

Ane

cdot

al e

vide

nce

prov

ided

in th

e in

terv

iew

s re

veal

that

life

eve

nts

inev

itabl

y in

volv

e le

arni

ng a

t the

late

r st

age

of li

fe,

and

prov

ide

conf

irmat

ion

that

edu

catio

nal

gero

ntol

ogy

has

a si

gnifi

cant

rol

e to

pla

y in

impr

ovin

g th

e sk

ills

of th

ose

wor

king

with

old

er a

dult

lear

ners

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

131

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Org

anis

atio

nal

Infr

astr

uctu

re

The

cap

acity

for

the

stud

y or

app

licat

ion

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

can

be

enha

nced

, or

cons

trai

ned,

by

orga

niza

tiona

l sys

tem

s, p

olic

ies

and

proc

edur

es th

at in

clud

e re

port

ing

stru

ctur

es, d

ecis

ion-

mak

ing

path

way

s, d

ivis

ion

of r

espo

nsib

ilitie

s an

d po

licy-

mak

ing

proc

esse

s. T

his

elem

ent

wou

ld

be d

eter

min

ed a

s su

ppor

tive

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

by

prov

idin

g st

ruct

ures

tha

t ena

ble

deci

sion

s on

the

basi

s of

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy p

rinci

ples

w

here

edu

catio

nal o

utco

mes

are

for

the

ben

efit

of o

lder

adu

lts. F

or t

his

reas

on, t

here

is s

ome

over

lap

to d

ata

obta

ined

in in

vest

igat

ing

the

Soc

ial

Ger

onto

logy

Foc

us.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q10

O

ne A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

iden

tifie

d “i

nstit

utio

nal r

igid

ities

” as

a b

arrie

r to

adv

anci

ng

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy.

Oth

er b

arrie

rs r

epor

ted

incl

uded

:

• ge

ogra

phic

al r

emot

enes

s;

• tim

e, a

nd

• fu

ndin

g.

One

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e D

irect

or d

id n

ot id

entif

y an

y ba

rrie

rs t

o co

llabo

ratio

n w

ith A

dult

Edu

catio

n. T

he r

emai

ning

par

ticip

ants

iden

tifie

d a

varie

ty o

f bar

riers

incl

udin

g:

• T

ime

and

reso

urce

s •

Ver

y sp

ecia

lized

are

a, n

eed

to p

repa

re o

ur o

wn

staf

f edu

catio

nally

; •

Unf

amili

arity

with

res

earc

hers

in e

duca

tion;

•

Tim

e an

d co

mm

itmen

t fro

m u

nive

rsity

Adm

inis

trat

ion

and

Dea

n;

• La

ck o

f int

eres

t an

d ex

pert

ise

in a

gein

g is

sues

; •

Unc

erta

in b

enef

its fo

r a

rese

arch

org

aniz

atio

n;

• N

eed

for

colla

bora

tors

to

have

a g

ood

rela

tions

hip

and

resp

ect f

or e

ach

othe

r’s a

rea

of

expe

rtis

e, a

nd s

imila

r va

lue

syst

ems.

Inte

rvie

ws

All

of th

e un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

wer

e pl

aced

in S

choo

ls w

ithin

F

acul

ties,

and

this

org

aniz

atio

nal s

egm

enta

tion

appe

ared

to

limit

the

oppo

rtun

ity fo

r co

llabo

ratio

n ac

ross

dis

cipl

ines

for

the

pur

pose

s of

age

ing-

rela

ted

curr

icul

um r

evie

w, p

rogr

am

deve

lopm

ent,

entr

epre

neur

ialis

m o

r re

sear

ch

initi

ativ

es. I

n ex

plai

ning

the

stru

ctur

e, o

ne A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

sta

ted:

“We’

re a

Sch

ool w

ithin

a F

acul

ty o

f A

rts.

The

S

choo

l tha

t is

mor

e in

tere

sted

in th

e ag

eing

ar

ea is

the

Sch

ool o

f Soc

ial S

cien

ce a

nd

Art

s.”

[5R

S13

09#6

]

Res

pond

ents

iden

tifie

d se

vera

l per

ceiv

ed b

arrie

rs to

col

labo

ratio

n. T

he m

ajor

ity o

f the

se b

arri

ers

rela

ted

to la

ck o

f kno

wle

dge

of e

duca

tiona

l res

earc

h is

sues

.

As

a D

irect

or n

oted

“The

re a

re s

truc

tura

l bar

riers

to in

terd

isci

plin

ary

colla

bora

tion,

just

com

ing

up w

ith a

n ap

proa

ch

that

is a

ccep

tabl

e to

eve

rybo

dy a

nd o

verc

omin

g so

me

of t

he s

truc

tura

l bar

rier

s to

doi

ng th

at.”

[3H

B24

08#7

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

132

ELE

ME

NT

Org

anis

atio

nal

Infr

astr

uctu

re c

ont

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

Lim

itatio

ns fo

r cu

rric

ulum

rev

iew

opp

ortu

nitie

s w

ere

also

men

tione

d as

par

t of t

he A

dult

Edu

catio

n or

gani

zatio

nal s

yste

m, d

escr

ibed

in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“Our

cou

rses

are

rev

iew

ed e

very

five

yea

rs

so th

ere’

s a

five

year

cyc

le fo

r ea

ch c

ours

e to

be

look

ed a

t, us

ually

in a

way

that

re

spon

ds to

dem

and

and

so o

n fr

om o

ur

cons

umer

s, s

o I t

hink

we’

ve d

one

that

but

of

cou

rse

we’

ve m

isse

d ou

t rat

her

poor

ly o

n th

e ge

ront

olog

y is

sue.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

]

Whi

le a

ckno

wle

dgin

g th

at s

enio

r F

acul

ty

mem

bers

mig

ht b

e m

ore

fam

iliar

with

the

over

arch

ing

mis

sion

and

goa

ls o

f the

ir co

rres

pond

ing

prog

ram

s th

an in

divi

dual

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

unit

co-o

rdin

ator

s, a

sen

se o

f is

olat

ion

from

dec

isio

n-m

akin

g an

d cu

rric

ulum

de

velo

pmen

t was

evi

dent

in th

e re

spon

ses.

O

ne r

espo

nden

t des

crib

ed h

is le

vel w

ithin

the

un

iver

sity

hie

rarc

hy in

the

follo

win

g w

ay:

“I f

ound

that

with

you

r qu

estio

nnai

re I

was

n’t

able

to a

nsw

er m

any

of th

e qu

estio

ns c

lear

ly b

ecau

se I

am o

nly

at th

e S

choo

l lev

el…

”

[2IJ

0708

#5]

In te

rms

of o

rgan

izat

iona

l com

posi

tion

supp

ortin

g ed

ucat

iona

l ger

onto

logy

, one

Dire

ctor

, a q

ualif

ied

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gist

, de

scri

bed

her

Cen

tre

as b

eing

wel

l-res

ourc

ed fo

r re

spon

ding

to

soci

al c

hang

e by

sta

ting:

“I r

egar

d th

e ce

ntre

as

one

staf

fed

by s

ocia

l sci

entis

ts.”

[10S

D12

10#1

]

How

ever

, th

ere

was

no

evid

ence

of p

lann

ed r

ecru

itmen

t rel

evan

t to

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gy, w

ithin

A

gein

g R

esea

rch

part

icip

ants

. R

athe

r, e

duca

tiona

l pra

ctic

es w

ere

dele

gate

d to

hea

lth e

duca

tors

, or

acad

emic

(te

achi

ng)

staf

f, ev

iden

ced

by th

e fo

llow

ing

stat

emen

t:

“Bec

ause

we

wer

e qu

ite o

ften

aske

d by

priv

ate

nurs

ing

hom

es to

pro

vide

ses

sion

s on

dem

entia

ca

re,

and

so w

e w

ork

in-h

ouse

with

our

clin

ical

nur

se e

duca

tor

to d

o ex

peri

entia

l stu

ff.”

[10S

D12

10#1

0]

Whe

n th

is c

entr

e D

irec

tor

was

ask

ed if

ther

e w

as a

n or

gani

zatio

nal o

ppor

tuni

ty fo

r th

e de

ploy

men

t of

edu

catio

nal s

peci

alis

ts in

the

cent

re, t

he r

espo

nse

was

:

“I t

hink

res

ourc

ing

wou

ld b

e th

e is

sue.

”

[10

SD

1210

#15]

Ano

ther

cen

tre

Dire

ctor

des

crib

ed th

e st

ruct

ure

of h

er id

eal r

esea

rch

orga

nisa

tion

in t

he fo

llow

ing

way

: “Wel

l, it

wou

ld b

e an

Inst

itute

. It

wou

ld b

e a

muc

h bi

gger

bea

st o

pera

ting

as w

e do

now

but

in a

m

uch,

muc

h m

ore

seri

ous

way

in w

hich

we

wou

ld in

tegr

ate

rese

arch

and

edu

catio

n, in

whi

ch w

e w

ould

bec

ome

both

ver

y in

volv

ed in

und

ergr

adua

te a

nd p

ostg

radu

ate

teac

hing

and

de

velo

pmen

t. Y

ou k

now

wha

t hol

ds u

s ba

ck is

we

don’

t hav

e th

e re

sour

ces.

”

[3H

B24

08#1

1]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

133

ELE

ME

NT

Org

anis

atio

nal

Infr

astr

uctu

re c

ont

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

he in

vest

igat

ion

of th

is e

lem

ent r

evea

led

a di

spar

ity b

etw

een

the

two

rese

arch

loca

tions

in r

espe

ct o

f abi

lity

to c

omm

ent o

n th

e or

gani

zatio

nal i

nfra

stru

ctur

e, w

hich

lim

ited

the

rang

e of

res

pons

es.

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

part

icip

ants

rep

orte

d op

erat

ing

at a

leve

l fai

rly d

ista

nt fr

om o

rgan

izat

iona

l dec

isio

n-m

akin

g, w

hile

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e D

irect

ors

wer

e di

rect

ly r

espo

nsib

le f

or c

ontr

ibut

ing

to t

he o

rgan

izat

iona

l iss

ues

of th

eir

resp

ectiv

e C

entr

es.

A r

esul

t of t

his

natu

re in

dica

tes

that

som

e hi

erar

chic

al im

pedi

men

ts e

xist

in

part

icip

atin

g A

dult

Edu

catio

n lo

catio

ns w

hich

has

the

pote

ntia

l to

nega

te t

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f tim

ely

soci

ally

-res

pons

ive

inno

vatio

ns s

uch

as e

duca

tiona

l iss

ues

for

an a

gein

g de

mog

raph

ic, p

artic

ular

ly w

here

gov

erna

nce

mig

ht d

icta

te th

e fo

cus

of in

nova

tions

and

fund

ing

prio

ritie

s.

For

the

Age

ing

Res

earc

h pa

rtic

ipan

ts, i

t was

app

aren

t tha

t the

re e

xist

som

e or

gani

zatio

nal o

bsta

cles

to c

olla

bora

tion,

incl

udin

g fu

ndin

g an

d re

sour

cing

for

staf

f and

exp

ansi

on

of th

e R

esea

rch

Cen

tre.

U

ltim

atel

y th

eref

ore,

pro

posa

ls to

adv

ance

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy w

ould

hav

e to

be

clos

ely

alig

ned

with

org

aniz

atio

nal a

rran

gem

ents

and

be

min

dful

or

str

uctu

ral b

arrie

rs in

the

way

of

esta

blis

hing

this

cap

acity

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

134

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Pol

icy

and

Fun

ding

C

lose

ly li

nked

to O

rgan

isat

iona

l Inf

rast

ruct

ure,

thi

s el

emen

t is

spec

ific

to th

e na

ture

and

em

phas

is o

n fu

ndin

g fo

r th

e ad

vanc

emen

t of e

duca

tiona

l ge

ront

olog

y th

roug

h in

terd

isci

plin

ary

colla

bora

tion.

It is

ass

umed

her

e th

at a

link

bet

wee

n th

e m

issi

on a

nd g

oals

of t

he o

rgan

izat

ion,

and

the

prim

ary

rese

arch

focu

s ex

ists

as

it ha

s th

e po

tent

ial t

o ha

ve a

n im

pact

on

the

scop

e (a

nd r

ange

) of

fund

ing

appl

icat

ions

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q1

100%

of t

he A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

s id

entif

ied

Tra

inin

g an

d D

evel

opm

ent

as th

eir

prim

ary

orga

nisa

tiona

l foc

us.

A w

ide

rang

e of

res

earc

h fo

ci w

as r

epor

ted

.

Inte

rvie

ws

All

resp

onde

nts

refe

rred

to

a di

rect

rel

atio

nshi

p be

twee

n fu

ndin

g an

d th

e fu

ture

com

men

cem

ent o

f an

y in

itiat

ive

in t

he e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

are

a.

The

nee

d fo

r a

mar

ket-

driv

en a

ppro

ach

was

ev

iden

t, a

s w

as th

e se

nse

that

the

univ

ersi

ty

adm

inis

trat

ors

wer

e no

t par

ticul

arly

rec

eptiv

e to

so

cial

ly-d

riven

age

ing

rela

ted

curr

icul

um

deve

lopm

ent,

proj

ects

or

cons

ulta

ncie

s, w

ithou

t si

gnifi

cant

cos

t-ju

stifi

catio

n. T

o co

nfirm

this

, it

was

no

ted

that

:

“I

t w

ould

dep

end

on th

e re

turn

for

us a

s a

Sch

ool.

If it

was

a g

roup

of p

eopl

e co

min

g al

ong

to d

o th

at (

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy

prog

ram

) w

e w

ould

cer

tain

ly p

ick

it up

and

we

wou

ld d

evel

op s

omet

hing

for

the

grou

p, b

ut

agai

n it

all d

epen

ds o

n fu

ndin

g an

d co

sts

and

hirin

g an

d en

gagi

ng p

eopl

e to

get

invo

lved

in

that

way

. It’s

got

to

be w

orth

our

whi

le,

I mea

n,

it m

eans

that

it’s

got

to b

e so

me

sort

of

fund

ing

arra

ngem

ent f

or th

is t

o ta

ke p

lace

. If

its o

ne s

ingl

e ex

pres

sion

of i

nter

est

we

wou

ld

inve

stig

ate

a pl

ace

for

them

to g

o an

d ta

lk t

o so

meo

ne e

lse.

To

get i

nvol

ved

then

, w

e w

ould

ne

ed s

omet

hing

a li

ttle

mor

e su

bsta

ntia

l tha

n ju

st o

ne p

erso

n or

two

peop

le c

omin

g al

ong.

”

[2IJ

0708

#9]

Com

men

ts r

evea

l tha

t age

ing

is a

rec

ogni

zed

rese

arch

are

a, a

nd s

ome

univ

ersi

ty p

olic

ies

have

bee

n ab

le t

o ge

nera

te s

eed

fund

ing

for

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of

the

se C

entr

es.

As

one

Dir

ecto

r st

ated

:

“A

gein

g ha

s al

read

y be

en id

entif

ied

as a

prio

rity

area

with

in th

e un

iver

sity

. So

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of

the

Cen

tre

is v

ery

muc

h ab

out f

ulfil

ling

that

vis

ion

of h

avin

g a

Cen

tre

of E

xcel

lenc

e in

Age

ing.

I m

ean

agei

ng is

alw

ays

goin

g to

be

a pr

iorit

y bu

t hav

ing

said

th

at it

’s a

ver

y br

oad

chur

ch. I

t’s n

ot a

dis

ease

, it’

s no

t you

kno

w,

a ne

w k

ind

of n

ano-

tech

nolo

gy in

vent

ion.

It’s

a b

road

chu

rch

and

that

cre

ates

som

e di

fficu

lty in

its

own

righ

t, in

ter

ms

of tr

ying

to

serv

e th

e un

iver

sity

the

re is

so

muc

h to

do.

It’s

suc

h a

huge

an

d da

untin

g ta

sk.

And

Cen

tres

onl

y ge

t fun

ded

here

inte

rnal

ly fo

r fiv

e ye

ars

and

then

th

ey a

re s

uppo

sed

to b

e up

and

run

ning

. S

o yo

u kn

ow, e

xter

nal f

undi

ng is

bec

omin

g m

ore

impo

rtan

t.”

[3H

B24

08#2

]

No

evid

ence

of p

olic

y th

at s

uppo

rted

a m

utua

lly-b

enef

icia

l rel

atio

nshi

p be

twee

n ag

eing

re

sear

ch a

nd a

dult

educ

atio

n w

as r

epor

ted.

One

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

r re

veal

ed c

once

rns

at th

is

by s

tatin

g:

“I

nter

estin

gly,

the

y ha

ve n

ever

sho

wn

any

inte

rest

, the

y do

n’t s

end

me

any

stud

ents

. I

have

act

ually

spo

ken

to t

he H

ead

of E

duca

tion

and

said

“W

hy d

on’t

som

e of

you

r st

uden

ts d

o m

y S

ocio

logy

of A

gein

g co

urse

?” a

nd h

e sa

id n

o, b

ecau

se t

heir

prog

ram

is

ful

l and

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al r

espo

nsib

ilitie

s, y

ou k

now

the

ir so

rt o

f cur

ricul

um, i

s se

t.”

[4D

O07

09#6

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

135

ELE

ME

NT

Pol

icy

and

Fun

ding

con

t.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

Lim

ited

soci

al a

war

enes

s or

com

mun

ity

resp

onsi

vene

ss w

as e

vide

nt in

cur

rent

pol

icy.

Dat

a re

veal

ed t

hat p

olic

y ch

ange

was

dep

enda

nt o

n ec

onom

ic r

atio

nale

s an

d vi

ewed

fro

m a

n or

gani

zatio

nal p

rodu

ctiv

ity p

ersp

ectiv

e. E

xam

ples

fr

om tw

o un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts:

“We’

ve k

ind

of lo

oked

at i

t fro

m th

e ot

her

way

, w

e ha

ven’

t lo

oked

at t

he n

eeds

of o

lder

peo

ple,

bu

t w

e ar

e ce

rtai

nly

sayi

ng;

wha

t hap

pens

to

the

TA

FE

edu

catio

nal s

yste

m w

hen

fifty

pe

rcen

t of

thei

r st

aff i

s go

ing

to r

etir

e w

ithin

the

ne

xt 5

yea

rs?”

[7P

R02

10#2

]

And

…

“The

aca

dem

ic b

oard

bef

ore

last

, w

e w

ere

soun

ded

out

on th

e po

ssib

ility

of a

sui

te o

f aw

ards

tha

t bui

lt in

par

t of t

hat

wor

d ge

ront

olog

y fo

r th

e ol

der

lear

ner.

It w

as

sign

alle

d by

the

Sch

ool o

f S

ocia

l Sci

ence

and

A

rts

to th

e un

iver

sity

-wid

e go

vern

ing

body

. T

hey

wer

e no

t en

thus

iast

ic b

ut th

eir

ears

sor

t of

pric

ked

up a

littl

e bi

t –

I thi

nk th

ey a

re c

urio

us to

kn

ow m

ore

abou

t the

opp

ortu

nitie

s.” [5R

S13

09#3

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

136

ELE

ME

NT

Pol

icy

and

Fun

ding

con

t.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

F

undi

ng w

ithin

the

part

icip

atin

g A

dult

Edu

catio

n ac

adem

ics

was

rev

eale

d to

be

depe

ndan

t on

sig

nific

ant c

ost j

ustif

icat

ion.

Pol

icy

such

as

that

ass

ocia

ted

with

the

curr

icul

um r

evie

w p

olic

y id

entif

ied

appe

ars

to h

ave

a le

ngth

y tim

e-fr

ame

and

does

not

app

ear

to h

ave

a cl

ose

alig

nmen

t with

wid

er s

ocia

l cha

nge.

For

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es,

a di

stin

ct e

mph

asis

on

fund

ing

for

scie

ntifi

c or

hea

lth-r

elat

ed e

ndea

vour

s em

erge

d fr

om th

e da

ta,

and

this

sug

gest

s th

at, d

ue t

o th

e re

lianc

e on

fund

ing,

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es’ a

bilit

y to

bro

aden

the

ir ac

tiviti

es to

incl

ude

inte

rdis

cipl

inar

y in

nova

tions

app

ears

to

be im

paire

d.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

137

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Soc

ial

Ger

onto

logy

F

ocus

A s

ocia

l ger

onto

logy

focu

s w

ould

be

char

acte

rised

by

cons

ider

atio

n of

the

way

in w

hich

soc

ial a

nd s

ocio

-cul

tura

l con

ditio

ns im

pact

on

the

proc

ess

of a

gein

g an

d on

wha

t the

soc

ial c

onse

quen

ces

of th

is p

roce

ss m

ight

be,

e.g

. he

alth

and

long

term

car

e, th

e w

orkp

lace

, pe

nsio

n an

d re

tirem

ent

prac

tices

, co

mm

unity

faci

litie

s, h

ousi

ng,

and

patte

rns

of g

over

nmen

t and

priv

ate

spen

ding

. In

add

ition

, so

cio-

polit

ical

str

uctu

res

that

affe

ct t

he

char

acte

ristic

s of

old

er a

dults

are

als

o co

nsid

ered

e.g

. civ

ic e

ngag

emen

t ini

tiativ

es. E

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

is a

nat

ural

con

sequ

ence

of

soci

al

gero

ntol

ogy

as it

sup

port

s ol

der

adul

ts’ a

dapt

atio

n to

out

date

d ve

rsio

ns o

f lat

er li

fe a

nd c

hang

ing

soci

al p

atte

rns

of e

ngag

emen

t.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q1

No

rese

arch

focu

s on

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy w

as

repo

rted

. O

ne c

entr

e id

entif

ied

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gy, a

nd w

orkp

lace

and

ret

irem

ent,

as a

res

earc

h fo

cus.

Inte

rvie

ws

Whi

le o

ne r

espo

nden

t ide

ntifi

ed th

e ro

le th

at th

e so

cial

sci

ence

s m

ight

per

form

in d

evel

opin

g kn

owle

dge

abou

t age

ing

and

olde

r pe

ople

, an

othe

r w

as a

war

e th

at s

ome

gero

ntol

ogic

al

inte

rest

was

com

ing

from

this

dis

cipl

ine.

How

ever

, no

t one

res

pond

ent r

evea

led

any

know

ledg

e of

how

or

why

the

soc

iolo

gica

l asp

ects

of

age

ing

mig

ht b

e in

tegr

ated

into

a f

orm

aliz

ed

prog

ram

for

deve

lopi

ng c

apac

ity fo

r th

e ag

eing

po

pula

tion.

An

awar

enes

s of

em

ergi

ng s

ocia

l ne

eds

was

indi

cate

d, w

ith o

ne r

espo

nden

t sta

ting:

“The

re a

re o

ppor

tuni

ties.

For

exa

mpl

e, a

n ai

rpor

t he

re h

as b

een

re-d

evel

oped

as

a gr

ay

nom

ad c

arav

an p

arki

ng p

lace

- le

ave

the

cara

van

here

and

driv

e in

to S

ydne

y an

d pi

ck it

up

on

the

way

out

- b

ut a

lso

from

ther

e as

a

larg

e sc

ale

flexi

ble

retir

emen

t hom

e. A

nd th

e co

unci

l the

re is

look

ing

for

activ

ities

that

cou

ld

be s

uita

ble

for

the

educ

atio

n of

thes

e pe

ople

w

hich

is d

iffer

ent f

rom

U3A

but

with

a lo

t of

flexi

bilit

y an

d in

depe

nden

ce t

hat t

hese

peo

ple

still

feel

, so

som

ethi

ng c

ould

be

offe

red

ther

e.”

[5R

S13

09#5

]

In A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

, the

re w

as a

com

mon

und

erst

andi

ng o

f soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy

amon

gst t

hose

Cen

tres

that

focu

sed

thei

r ef

fort

s on

edu

catio

nal a

ctiv

ities

, tea

chin

g in

the

hum

aniti

es, a

nd o

n re

sear

ch o

utsi

de o

f the

clin

ical

par

adig

m. A

s on

e C

entr

e D

irect

or s

tate

d:

“One

of t

he r

easo

ns w

hy w

e al

so m

aint

ain

quite

a u

niqu

e st

atus

is th

at w

e br

ing

a so

cial

, I’d

like

to

say

soci

olog

ical

, pe

rspe

ctiv

e to

thin

gs th

at a

re la

rgel

y cl

inic

al.”

[10

SD

1210

#3]

The

ext

ent

of c

onte

nt k

now

ledg

e in

the

area

of s

ocio

logy

was

evi

dent

, sup

port

ed b

y st

atem

ents

suc

h as

:

“I h

ave

a ba

ckgr

ound

from

way

bac

k in

my

own

stud

ies

that

I lo

oked

at s

ocia

l ge

ront

olog

y.”

[12

LM01

11#1

]

And

“I t

each

a c

ours

e, th

e S

ocio

logy

of A

gein

g.”

[4D

O07

09#4

]

Evi

denc

e of

exp

erie

nce

and

qual

ifica

tions

in s

ocia

l ger

onto

logy

em

erge

d, a

s st

ated

:

“I t

augh

t at t

he C

entr

e fo

r S

ocia

l Ger

onto

logy

at K

eele

Uni

vers

ity, E

ngla

nd.”

[10

SD

1210

#5]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

138

ELE

ME

NT

Soc

ial

Ger

onto

logy

F

ocus

con

t.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

A

noth

er c

omm

unity

nee

d w

as id

entif

ied,

but

with

a

mor

e re

gion

al fo

cus.

Thi

s A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

sta

ted:

“We’

ve g

ot a

bod

y of

ret

ired

teac

hers

, usu

ally

ve

ry s

tron

g on

es, w

ho w

ish

to d

o m

ore,

in

part

icul

ar u

nive

rsity

Tut

orin

g or

um

, be

an

advi

sory

in S

choo

ls,

so I’

ve b

een

thin

king

of

that

are

a an

d ho

w o

ne m

ight

pre

sent

som

e so

rt

of tr

ansi

tion

for

peop

le w

ho a

re la

te c

aree

r, s

o I

thou

ght I

’d li

ke to

add

ress

, say

, a p

rinci

pal’s

as

soci

atio

n, w

here

the

prin

cipa

ls a

re w

ithin

5

year

s of

ret

irem

ent…

Wha

t I w

ould

be

pres

entin

g th

ere

is a

pos

t-ca

reer

pat

hway

into

a

part

-tim

e ca

reer

pat

h, a

nd h

ow e

ven

som

e fu

rthe

r qu

alifi

catio

ns w

ould

aid

them

in th

is a

nd

wha

t sor

t of o

ptio

ns th

ere

wer

e…It

wou

ld b

e ha

lf m

arke

ting

and

half

com

mun

ity s

ervi

ce.”

[5R

S13

09#1

0]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

139

ELE

ME

NT

Soc

ial

Ger

onto

logy

F

ocus

con

t.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

P

erso

nal i

nter

ests

wer

e ex

pres

sed

as a

mot

ivat

ion

for

part

icip

atin

g in

fut

ure

com

mun

ity p

rogr

ams,

pa

rtic

ular

ly w

here

per

sona

l int

eres

ts w

ere

of

rele

vanc

e, a

nd w

here

som

e m

utua

lly b

enef

icia

l ou

tcom

e m

ight

aris

e. F

or e

xam

ple:

“I w

rite

loca

l his

torie

s an

d th

at s

ort o

f thi

ng. I

n th

e co

mm

unity

writ

ing

grou

p, I’

m a

judg

e fo

r th

eir

awar

d so

any

thin

g lik

e th

at is

my

inte

rest

. In

thes

e la

rger

gro

ups

of o

lder

peo

ple

that

are

ou

t the

re. I

don

’t kn

ow if

the

re is

a c

ours

e ou

t th

ere,

it’s

mor

e an

ant

icip

atio

n of

wha

t mig

ht

happ

en.”

[5R

S13

09#7

]

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

T

here

is e

vide

nce

here

tha

t rec

ogni

tion

of a

sig

nific

ant s

ocia

l cha

nge

exis

ts a

mon

g th

e A

dult

Edu

catio

n co

hort

, and

in s

ome

inst

ance

s th

ere

is a

lso

evid

ence

of

reco

gniti

on o

f how

dem

ogra

phic

cha

nge

is c

reat

ing

educ

atio

nal o

ppor

tuni

ties.

How

ever

, da

ta s

ugge

sts

that

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gy a

nd o

lder

ad

ult

educ

atio

n ha

s no

t yet

bee

n fu

lly u

nder

stoo

d by

thes

e pa

rtic

ipan

ts.

Thi

s is

als

o tr

ue o

f the

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e re

spon

dent

s. H

owev

er,

ther

e w

as r

ecog

nitio

n of

the

exis

tenc

e of

the

field

of

soci

al g

eron

tolo

gy,

even

tho

ugh

ther

e w

as n

o ev

iden

ce o

f any

Age

ing

Res

earc

h ce

ntre

fully

ope

ratio

nalis

ing

this

dis

cipl

ine

with

in th

eir

port

folio

of s

ervi

ces

and

activ

ities

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

140

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Und

erst

andi

ng o

f E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy

A c

apac

ity f

or u

nder

stan

ding

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy w

ould

be

char

acte

rise

d by

firs

tly, a

leve

l of f

amili

arity

with

the

fiel

d, a

nd th

en b

y an

abi

lity

to

artic

ulat

e th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n co

ntrib

utin

g di

scip

lines

and

an

expl

anat

ion

of h

ow t

his

tran

slat

es in

to th

e de

velo

pmen

t (an

d em

pow

erm

ent)

of t

he

olde

r ad

ult t

hrou

gh e

duca

tiona

l end

eavo

urs

that

incl

ude

the

conc

ept

of g

erag

ogy.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q5

One

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nt d

escr

ibed

the

ir kn

owle

dge

of E

duca

tiona

l Ger

onto

logy

as

very

fa

mili

ar.

How

ever

, tw

o re

spon

dent

s de

scrib

ed

thei

r kn

owle

dge

as s

light

ly fa

mili

ar a

nd t

wo

repo

rted

no

know

ledg

e of

the

area

.

The

se r

esul

ts a

re s

how

n gr

aphi

cally

in F

igur

e 4.

4.

Leve

l of

Fam

iliar

ity o

f A

dult

Edu

catio

n A

cade

mic

w

ith E

duca

tiona

l Ger

onto

logy

.

In in

vest

igat

ing

the

leve

l of k

now

ledg

e of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy, t

wo

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e re

spon

dent

s de

scri

bed

thei

r un

ders

tand

ing

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

as

very

fam

iliar

, thr

ee

resp

onde

nts

rate

d th

eir

know

ledg

e as

fam

iliar

, thr

ee a

s sl

ight

ly fa

mili

ar a

nd t

he r

emai

ning

four

re

port

ed n

o kn

owle

dge

of th

e ar

ea.

The

se r

esul

ts a

re p

rese

nted

gra

phic

ally

in F

igur

e 4.

5 Le

vel o

f Fam

iliar

ity o

f Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e w

ith E

duca

tiona

l Ger

onto

logy

.

Fig

ure

4.3

Leve

l of F

amili

arity

of A

dult

Edu

catio

n A

cade

mic

wi

th

Edu

catio

nal G

eron

tolo

gy

0

0.51

1.52

Num

ber

Non

eS

light

Fam

iliar

Ver

y

Leve

l

Que

stio

n #5

Fig

ure

4.4

Leve

l of F

amili

arity

of A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

with

Edu

catio

nal

Ger

onto

logy

0

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

Num

ber

Non

eS

light

Fam

iliar

Ver

y

Leve

l

Que

stio

n #5

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

141

ELE

ME

NT

Und

erst

andi

ng o

f E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy c

ont.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

Inte

rvie

w d

ata

reve

aled

tha

t the

ext

ent

of

know

ledg

e of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy in

un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

prog

ram

s w

as li

mite

d to

ane

cdot

al in

put.

As

one

resp

onde

nt n

oted

:

“It [

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy] i

s us

ually

com

ing

acro

ss id

ly in

con

vers

atio

n w

ith c

olle

ague

s or

be

ing

pick

ed u

p th

roug

h th

e m

edia

. I w

ould

cl

aim

no

expe

rtis

e in

hav

ing

cons

ulte

d th

e re

sear

ch li

tera

ture

, it’s

just

whe

n I

occa

sion

ally

co

me

acro

ss it

and

I ha

ve f

riend

s w

orki

ng in

th

e fie

ld a

nd it

’s c

erta

inly

an

issu

e an

d a

star

ter

of c

onve

rsat

ion.

”

[7P

R02

10#3

]

In A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

, kn

owle

dge

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

was

lim

ited

to th

ose

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

rs w

ith a

n ed

ucat

iona

l bac

kgro

und,

or

with

a s

olid

und

erst

andi

ng o

f soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy. I

n on

e in

stan

ce, t

his

exp

erie

nce

was

of t

he h

ighe

st in

tern

atio

nal c

alib

re, e

vide

nced

by

the

follo

win

g st

atem

ent:

“I w

orke

d ve

ry c

lose

ly w

ith F

rank

Gle

nden

ning

who

was

edi

tor

of E

duca

tiona

l Ger

onto

logy

, and

so

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy w

as th

e na

tura

l ord

er o

f thi

ngs.

And

I ta

ught

at

the

Cen

tre

for

Soc

ial G

eron

tolo

gy a

t K

eele

Uni

vers

ity, E

ngla

nd.”

[10S

D12

10#4

]

Thi

s sa

me

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

als

o ar

ticul

ated

som

e sp

ecifi

c ed

ucat

iona

l goa

ls fo

r he

r C

entr

e, w

hich

in

clud

ed th

e fo

llow

ing:

“Wha

t I w

ould

like

, is

to u

se m

y C

entr

e as

a c

ondu

it fo

r pr

ovid

ing

the

know

ledg

e an

d un

ders

tand

ing

that

wou

ld f

eed

skill

s te

ams

that

wou

ld g

o in

and

use

men

torin

g an

d ac

adem

ic

deta

iling

, in

prac

tice,

on

the

war

ds, s

o th

at in

divi

dual

s w

ho w

ere

lear

ning

this

way

cou

ld p

ass

that

on

to n

ew s

taff

so it

was

sus

tain

able

. We

spen

d a

lot o

f tim

e re

peat

ing

educ

atio

nal

sess

ions

bec

ause

the

re h

as b

een

a m

ajor

tur

nove

r in

sta

ff. A

nd I

belie

ve t

hat i

s a

poor

use

of

the

educ

atio

nal c

apac

ity o

f the

org

aniz

atio

n. I

abso

lute

ly th

ink

it ha

s be

en t

oo c

lass

room

-ba

sed.

”

[10S

D12

10#1

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

142

ELE

ME

NT

Und

erst

andi

ng o

f E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy c

ont.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

con

t.

One

uni

vers

ity A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

rat

ed

thei

r kn

owle

dge

of th

is a

rea

as v

ery

fam

iliar

in th

e qu

estio

nnai

re r

espo

nse,

but

this

was

not

va

lidat

ed in

the

inte

rvie

w.

No

evid

ence

was

pr

ovid

ed o

f any

kno

wle

dge

of th

e ph

iloso

phy

unde

rpin

ning

the

pra

ctic

e, o

r of

the

pra

ctic

al

appl

icat

ion

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

prin

cipl

es.

In c

onve

rsat

ion

it w

as r

evea

led

that

the

exte

nt o

f kn

owle

dge

was

lim

ited

to m

anag

emen

t of

clas

sroo

m b

ehav

iour

, w

ith th

e re

spon

dent

co

mm

entin

g:

“Wel

l it’s

rea

lly e

xper

ienc

e fo

r m

e, a

lthou

gh I

have

n’t

had

the

oppo

rtun

ity to

be

invo

lved

with

an

y st

ruct

ured

lear

ning

par

ticul

arly

for

the

olde

r ag

eing

pop

ulat

ion…

. W

e ap

prec

iate

, in

clas

ses,

whe

re w

e ha

ve a

lot

of y

oung

er

peop

le,

we

find

that

the

olde

r fo

lk c

erta

inly

se

ttle

the

grou

p do

wn.

”

[2I

J070

8#2]

In te

rms

of fu

ture

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy in

volv

emen

t, on

e C

entr

e D

irec

tor

stat

ed th

at a

Fac

ulty

of

Edu

catio

n co

uld

mak

e a

sign

ifica

nt c

ontr

ibut

ion

to th

e C

entr

e’s

futu

re c

urric

ulum

pla

ns.

She

sai

d:

“The

re h

ave

been

dis

cuss

ions

with

pop

ulat

ion

heal

th, w

ith p

hysi

othe

rapy

, w

ith p

sych

olog

y, w

ith

soci

al w

ork

and

now

we’

ve g

ot n

ursi

ng o

n bo

ard

in t

he u

nive

rsity

cou

rse,

they

wou

ld b

e th

ere

too,

and

um

, reh

ab s

cien

ces,

they

wou

ld b

e th

ere

too.

The

Sch

ool o

f E

duca

tion

coul

d de

finite

ly

mak

e a

cont

ribut

ion.

I m

ean,

I’ve

bee

n qu

ite s

urpr

ised

that

the

re’s

bee

n no

nat

ural

sor

t of

syne

rgie

s th

at h

ave

aris

en.

But

you

kno

w I

have

spo

ken

with

peo

ple

in e

duca

tion

who

’ve

had

a so

rt o

f fle

etin

g in

tere

st in

age

ing

or d

isab

ility

and

ther

e ar

e ve

ry c

lear

sub

ject

con

tent

co

nnec

tions

that

cou

ld b

e pu

rsue

d. B

ut I

thin

k al

so in

term

s of

edu

catio

nal s

trat

egie

s, y

ou

know

, the

y w

ould

hav

e a

cont

ribu

tion

to m

ake

as w

ell.”

[3H

B24

08#8

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

143

ELE

ME

NT

Und

erst

andi

ng o

f E

duca

tiona

l G

eron

tolo

gy c

ont.

INT

ER

PR

ET

AT

ION

D

ata

indi

cate

s th

at th

ere

exis

ts a

low

leve

l of k

now

ledg

e ab

out t

he p

rinci

ples

and

pra

ctic

es o

f edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy a

mon

gst t

he p

artic

ipat

ing

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

acad

emic

s.

Whi

le th

e qu

estio

nnai

re r

esul

ts in

dica

ted

that

one

res

pond

ent f

rom

this

coh

ort d

escr

ibed

thei

r le

vel o

f fam

iliar

ity a

s “v

ery

fam

iliar

,” th

is p

artic

ular

par

ticip

ant

did

not

agre

e to

be

inte

rvie

wed

. It

was

ther

efor

e im

poss

ible

to a

scer

tain

how

wel

l thi

s st

atem

ent r

efle

cts

a br

oade

r kn

owle

dge

of th

e to

pic.

Ove

rall,

this

res

ult i

s co

nsis

tent

with

oth

er r

esul

ts th

at

indi

cate

tha

t thi

s co

hort

rev

eal a

pau

city

of

evid

ence

reg

ardi

ng: t

he d

evel

opm

ent o

f tra

inin

g pr

ogra

ms

to a

nd fo

r ol

der

adul

ts; i

nter

disc

iplin

ary

rese

arch

col

labo

ratio

ns;

an

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

soc

ial g

eron

tolo

gy a

nd it

s re

latio

nshi

p w

ith e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

; and

the

theo

retic

al c

ompl

emen

tarit

ies

that

exi

st b

etw

een

adul

t ed

ucat

ion

and

educ

atio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy.

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

e re

spon

dent

s de

scri

bing

thei

r kn

owle

dge

of e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

as

none

or

slig

htly

fam

iliar

in th

e su

rvey

did

not

rep

ort o

n th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

any

adul

t tra

inin

g an

d de

velo

pmen

t pro

gram

s sp

ecifi

c to

old

er a

dults

. One

res

pond

ent f

rom

this

cat

egor

y di

d de

scrib

e th

e ba

ckgr

ound

to a

pro

gram

dev

elop

ed f

or c

areg

iver

s, b

ut

the

cont

ent

was

bas

ed a

roun

d in

form

atio

n te

chno

logy

and

is c

onsi

dere

d no

t app

licab

le.

Res

pond

ents

in t

hese

tw

o ca

tego

ries

also

did

not

indi

cate

any

col

labo

rativ

e lin

ks to

un

iver

sity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

for

the

deve

lopm

ent

of T

rain

ing

Pro

gram

s.

The

thr

ee A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tre

resp

onde

nts

desc

ribi

ng th

eir

know

ledg

e of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy a

s fa

mili

ar d

id n

ot r

epor

t an

y lin

ks to

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion,

des

pite

list

ing

a va

riety

of t

rain

ing

prog

ram

topi

cs d

evel

oped

thr

ough

the

ir ce

ntre

. The

se t

opic

s in

clud

e E

nhan

cing

Age

d C

are

Pra

ctic

e, D

emen

tia, H

ealth

Ser

vice

Eva

luat

ion,

and

Sem

inar

s.

Oth

er to

pics

incl

uded

aw

ard

prog

ram

s in

Age

ing,

and

the

deve

lopm

ent

of o

nlin

e sh

ort c

ours

es in

Pub

lic H

ealth

Impl

icat

ions

of a

n A

gein

g S

ocie

ty, a

nd th

e de

velo

pmen

t of a

va

riety

of

educ

atio

nal m

ater

ials

.

Of t

he t

wo

resp

onde

nts

very

fam

iliar

with

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy, o

ne r

espo

nden

t dev

elop

ed p

rogr

ams

arou

nd le

gal i

ssue

s af

fect

ing

seni

ors,

but

had

no

link

to u

nive

rsity

A

dult

Edu

catio

n an

d w

as n

ot c

olla

bora

ting

with

an

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

prog

ram

in a

ny w

ay.

The

oth

er r

espo

nden

t ver

y fa

mili

ar w

ith e

duca

tiona

l ger

onto

logy

rep

orte

d a

gene

ral

link

to a

Fac

ulty

of

Edu

catio

n, to

geth

er w

ith f

utur

e pl

ans

to in

tegr

ate

agei

ng c

onte

nt a

cros

s ge

nera

l uni

vers

ity c

urric

ulum

, but

did

not

rep

ort a

ny c

urre

nt c

olla

bora

tive

effo

rts

or

spec

ific

rela

tions

hip

with

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

prog

ram

s.

Res

ults

from

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es th

eref

ore

indi

cate

that

, w

hile

the

re is

gro

win

g re

cogn

ition

of t

he r

ole

that

edu

catio

n m

ight

pla

y in

dai

ly C

entr

e ac

tiviti

es, a

nd s

ome

core

co

ncep

ts a

bout

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy c

ompo

nent

s, t

here

is n

o ev

iden

ce o

f the

ope

ratio

nalis

atio

n of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy in

to th

e pa

rtic

ipat

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es,

and

ther

e ap

pear

s to

be

a cu

rren

t lac

k of

und

erst

andi

ng o

f how

this

mig

ht o

ccur

as

a m

eans

to e

xpan

d th

e ac

tiviti

es a

nd c

apab

ilitie

s of

the

rese

arch

org

anis

atio

n.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

144

ELE

ME

NT

A

TT

RIB

UT

ES

OR

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

Mot

ivat

ion/

Oth

er

Mot

ivat

ion

unde

rpin

s al

l hum

an a

ctiv

ities

and

cap

abili

ties.

For

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy h

owev

er, m

otiv

atio

n w

ould

be

char

acte

rize

d by

evi

denc

e of

a m

ore

hum

anis

tic p

hilo

soph

y of

edu

catio

n, w

here

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

activ

ities

are

pre

dica

ted

on th

e m

oral

impe

rativ

e of

em

pow

erm

ent

of d

isad

vant

aged

old

er

adul

ts w

here

age

ism

mig

ht p

reva

il. It

is a

lso

char

acte

rised

by

an a

ppre

ciat

ion

of th

e w

ider

ben

efits

of s

ocia

l eng

agem

ent t

hrou

gh le

arni

ng fo

r th

e ol

der

pers

on, i

nclu

ding

psy

chol

ogic

al,

phys

ical

and

spi

ritua

l ben

efits

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Q9

60%

of r

espo

nden

ts c

onsi

dere

d fu

ture

co

llabo

ratio

ns to

be

of b

enef

it to

thei

r in

stitu

tion.

The

ful

l ran

ge o

f per

ceiv

ed b

enef

its g

lean

ed f

rom

Q

uest

ion

9 is

illu

stra

ted

in T

able

4.4

Per

ceiv

ed

Ben

efits

to C

olla

bora

tion

with

Age

ing

Res

earc

h C

entr

es.

75%

of r

espo

nden

ts c

onsi

dere

d fu

ture

col

labo

ratio

n w

ith a

n A

dult

Edu

catio

n to

be

of v

alue

to

thei

r or

gani

zatio

n.

The

ful

l lis

t is

illus

trat

ed in

Tab

le 4

.5 P

erce

ived

Ben

efits

to

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

dult

Edu

catio

n P

rogr

ams.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

145

Tab

le 4

.2

Per

ceiv

ed B

enef

its to

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

Per

ceiv

ed B

enef

its to

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

No

com

men

t.

Par

tner

ship

for

desi

gnin

g pr

ogra

ms

for

the

olde

r ad

ult w

here

spe

cific

pr

ogra

ms

for

olde

r ad

ults

are

req

uest

ed.

Fut

ure

plan

s m

ight

incl

ude

colla

bora

tion

with

a d

evel

opin

g ag

eing

rese

arch

cen

tre

for

deve

lopi

ng n

ew u

nits

with

a g

eron

tolo

gy

pers

pect

ive.

Cou

ld p

rovi

de s

tude

nts

for

our

Deg

ree

prog

ram

s.

Non

e pe

rcei

ved.

Tab

le 4

.3

Per

ceiv

ed B

enef

its to

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

dult

Edu

cat

ion

Pro

gram

s

Per

ceiv

ed B

enef

its to

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith A

dult

Edu

cat

ion

Pro

gram

s

Col

labo

ratio

n in

res

earc

h gr

ant a

pplic

atio

ns in

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy &

cu

rric

ulum

dev

elop

men

t.

Stu

dent

sup

ervi

sion

.

Edu

catin

g th

e pu

blic

abo

ut g

eron

tolo

gy

Cur

ricul

um d

evel

opm

ent,

teac

hing

trai

ning

and

pra

ctic

e

Com

ing

from

a N

ursi

ng e

duca

tion

back

grou

nd, I

onl

y se

e be

nef

its if

the

F

acul

ty o

f Edu

catio

n ha

d a

soun

d gr

ound

ing

in g

eron

tolo

gy.

Col

labo

rativ

e re

sear

ch o

n le

arni

ng a

spir

atio

ns a

nd r

equi

rem

ents

of o

lder

ad

ults

.

Cur

ricul

um d

evel

opm

ent,

teac

hing

trai

ning

and

pra

ctic

e

Uns

ure

No

idea

Col

labo

rativ

e re

sear

ch a

nd c

ours

e de

velo

pmen

t

Inve

stig

ate

outc

omes

of s

hort

cou

rse

Not

cle

ar,

perh

aps

addi

ng c

ours

ewor

k to

res

earc

h tr

aini

ng d

egre

e

Dev

elop

ing

adul

t ed

ucat

ion

stra

tegi

es fo

r ol

der

adul

ts.

We

have

the

pro

fess

iona

l exp

ertis

e in

com

mun

icat

ion

and

agei

ng a

nd

wou

ld p

roba

bly

bene

fit fr

om th

e ex

per

tise

of th

ose

in e

duca

tion

abou

t how

to

pro

mot

e ef

fect

ive

com

mun

icat

ion

for

olde

r pe

ople

.

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

146

ELE

ME

NT

Mot

ivat

ion/

Oth

er

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

Inte

rvie

ws

The

re w

as u

nani

mou

s su

ppor

t ex

pres

sed

amon

gst t

he u

nive

rsity

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

for

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f edu

catio

nal

gero

ntol

ogy

emer

ging

out

of c

urre

nt a

dult

educ

atio

n of

ferin

gs,

and

for

a fu

ture

pro

gram

w

here

old

er a

dults

wer

e fe

atur

ed m

ore

stro

ngly

in

educ

atio

nal p

olic

y fo

rmul

atio

n an

d so

cial

in

clus

iven

ess.

Com

men

ts in

clud

ed:

“You

hav

e ju

st p

ut a

ligh

t bul

b on

and

I th

ink

wel

l thi

s is

goi

ng t

o be

com

e a

real

ly im

port

ant

issu

e, w

heth

er it

s ab

out d

ealin

g w

ith th

e ne

eds

of o

lder

Aus

tral

ians

dire

ctly

or

whe

ther

its

as

you

said

bef

ore,

how

new

peo

ple

com

ing

into

an

are

a ar

e go

ing

to b

e pr

epar

ed t

o de

al w

ith

olde

r st

aff.

I thi

nk it

’s ju

st a

que

stio

n w

e ha

ven’

t as

ked.

”

[7P

R02

10#1

3]

“My

mod

el f

or th

e fu

ture

is fo

r so

met

hing

like

th

e U

3A in

tha

t the

ext

ra ti

me

and

thou

ght j

ust

give

s th

em m

ore

oppo

rtun

ity t

o pu

rsue

the

ir ow

n in

tere

sts

but i

n th

e sh

orte

r te

rm th

at it

w

ould

be

linke

d m

ore

to g

ainf

ul, m

aybe

par

t-tim

e em

ploy

men

t of

a s

ort t

hat i

s go

ing

to b

e m

ore

stim

ulat

ing

and

less

dra

inin

g.”

[

5RS

1309

#12]

The

re w

as w

ides

prea

d su

ppor

t for

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy to

be

inco

rpor

ated

into

age

ing

rese

arch

in

the

futu

re.

One

Cen

tre

Dire

ctor

sai

d:

“Ano

ther

par

t of t

hat

visi

on is

whe

re th

e un

iver

sity

act

ually

inco

rpor

ates

U3A

. S

o yo

u kn

ow, y

ou

have

the

opp

ortu

nity

for

seni

or c

itize

ns t

o en

gage

in w

hat t

he u

nive

rsity

offe

rs th

roug

h so

me

spec

ial c

hann

els

and

agai

n w

here

the

uni

vers

ity e

nvir

onm

ent c

ater

s fo

r th

at. I

rea

d on

e ve

ry

inte

rest

ing

artic

le w

here

the

y ha

ve a

ctua

lly c

reat

ed a

hal

l of r

esid

ence

for

Sen

iors

.”

[3H

B24

08#1

2]

Thi

s vi

ew w

as d

iffer

ent i

n C

entr

es w

here

edu

catio

nal s

ervi

ces

wer

e ap

plie

d di

rect

ly to

sta

ff in

the

nurs

ing

and

heal

th s

ecto

r. A

s on

e C

entr

e D

irec

tor

stat

ed:

“Qui

te fr

ankl

y I h

ave

som

e re

serv

atio

ns a

bout

str

aigh

t edu

catio

n be

ing

tran

sfor

mat

ive

and

chan

ging

atti

tude

s. I

thin

k ed

ucat

ion

is th

e ap

prop

riate

con

text

, the

y ne

ed t

hat,

but t

he p

robl

em

is,

and

this

is n

ot s

o m

uch

an e

duca

tiona

l pro

blem

as

a la

ck o

f un

ders

tand

ing

of h

ow a

pplie

d ge

ront

olog

y w

orks

or

the

appl

icat

ion

of k

now

ledg

e w

orks

. M

anag

emen

t with

in t

he o

rgan

isat

ion,

th

e po

licy-

mak

ers

thin

k if

you

give

them

edu

catio

n th

ey w

ill g

o aw

ay a

nd th

ey p

ut it

into

pra

ctic

e,

than

k yo

u ve

ry m

uch

we

have

don

e pe

rson

-cen

tred

car

e. W

hen

in fa

ct w

hat y

ou h

ave

is p

eopl

e w

ho h

ave

been

giv

en th

at e

duca

tion,

are

put

bac

k in

a s

yste

m th

at d

oes

not l

end

itsel

f w

ell t

o th

at

appr

oach

and

then

they

get

frus

trat

ed w

hen

they

can

’t ap

ply

that

kno

wle

dge.

We

need

a m

uch

mor

e gr

ound

ed a

ppro

ach,

and

par

tly th

is is

wha

t ou

r C

entr

e tr

ies

to d

o. W

e tr

y an

d w

ork

thou

gh

som

e of

this

stu

ff w

ith th

e pe

ople

. T

hey

don’

t ful

ly c

ompr

ehen

d th

e im

pact

that

a d

ysfu

nctio

nal

syst

em c

an h

ave

on tr

ying

to im

plem

ent

chan

ge.

The

re’s

not

rea

lly a

ful

l com

mitm

ent t

o cu

ltura

l ch

ange

. T

hey

do th

ink

a bi

t of e

duca

tion

will

sor

t it o

ut,

but t

hey

real

ly d

o ha

ve to

und

erst

and

that

ap

plyi

ng k

now

ledg

e is

ver

y im

port

ant.”

[10S

D12

10#8

]

A C

ase

fo

r E

duc

atio

nal

Ge

ron

tolo

gy in

Ad

ult E

du

catio

n

Cha

pter

4

147

ELE

ME

NT

Mot

ivat

ion/

Oth

er

cont

.

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Ad

ult

Ed

ucat

ion

A

gei

ng

Res

earc

h

T

he p

rosp

ect o

f pos

tgra

duat

e re

sear

ch in

the

field

of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy w

as w

elco

med

by

the

maj

ority

of A

dult

Edu

catio

n re

spon

dent

s. O

ne c

o-or

dina

tor

of p

ostg

radu

ate

prog

ram

s in

adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

stat

ed:

“I’d

be

delig

hted

if s

omeo

ne w

ante

d to

do

a P

hD in

this

fiel

d, a

bsol

utel

y de

light

ed.

I thi

nk it

’s, u

m, p

artic

ular

ly s

ince

you

’ve

sent

ou

t you

r su

rvey

its

mad

e m

e th

ink

quite

de

eply

abo

ut th

ese

and

it ha

s be

en in

my

thou

ghts

in a

num

ber

of o

ther

are

as a

nd I

have

tho

ught

: W

hy d

on’t

we?

Abs

olut

ely

why

do

n’t

we

do s

omet

hing

abo

ut th

is?

I thi

nk y

ou’re

ont

o so

met

hing

ver

y im

port

ant.”

[7P

R02

10#4

]

Wor

kloa

d ch

alle

nges

from

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

resp

onde

nts

wer

e in

dica

ted

by th

is c

omm

ent:

“It’s

the

sort

of t

hing

that

I m

ight

mov

e on

if I

had

the

time

and

the

incl

inat

ion

at th

at ti

me

to

cont

ribu

te to

it in

som

e fo

rm…

. Tha

t’s w

hy I

sign

al t

hat c

ompe

ting

prio

ritie

s, I

’m n

ot s

ure,

so

I’ll

cast

my

eye

on t

hat o

ne a

nd s

ee w

hat

kind

of

cove

rage

is a

lrea

dy t

here

bec

ause

I do

n’t

wan

t to

repl

icat

e w

hat’s

alr

eady

bee

n do

ne,

and

whe

re I

mig

ht v

alua

bly

add

som

ethi

ng w

ithou

t ove

r-co

mm

ittin

g m

ysel

f.”

[5R

S13

09#8

]

In te

rms

of a

dult

lear

ning

spe

cial

ist’s

futu

re p

artic

ipat

ion

in A

gein

g R

esea

rch

Cen

tres

, one

Cen

tre

Dir

ecto

r su

ppor

ted

this

by

stat

ing:

“I d

o, I

see

an a

dult

lear

ning

spe

cial

ist f

ittin

g in

. I th

ink

ther

e is

sig

nific

ant s

cope

for

this

. I th

ink

we

have

bee

n fa

r to

o re

liant

on

disc

iplin

e-sp

ecifi

c th

ings

like

clin

ical

nur

se e

duca

tors

, I th

ink

that

kin

d of

spe

cial

ist c

ould

lend

itse

lf ve

ry w

ell t

o ho

w t

o ap

ply

that

kin

d of

edu

catio

nal g

eron

tolo

gy, t

hat

wou

ld b

e ve

ry g

ood.

I th

ink

the

ques

tion

com

es d

own

to r

esou

rces

, it

wou

ld p

roba

bly

have

to b

e do

ne o

n a

cons

ulta

ncy

basi

s, b

ecau

se I

am n

ot s

ure

if H

ealth

Ser

vice

s ar

e re

ady

to p

rovi

de

reso

urce

s fo

r th

at, b

ut h

avin

g sa

id th

at th

ough

, the

y ar

e ve

ry k

een

to b

ring

in c

onsu

ltant

s.”

[10

SD

1210

#14]

Thi

s is

a v

iew

rei

tera

ted

by m

any

of th

e C

entr

e D

irect

ors,

for

exa

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Chapter 4 149

PART FOUR

4.6 Key Findings

4.6.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology

From the data received from the participating Adult Education academics, the findings

are that there is little to no evidence of any educational gerontology strategies within

participating Adult Education programs that develop internal staff about older adult

education or that support ageing educational research. In addition, there is no evidence

of the development of educational gerontology curriculum or programs that include

consideration of geragogical issues underpinning the creation of age-friendly learning

environments.

Moreover, there is no evidence of social structures within participating Adult

Education locations that support the advancement of educational gerontology through

engagement with external stakeholders. This includes engagement through private sector

projects such as community education, information and guidance services, and

consultancies. In addition, there is no evidence of organisational structures that enable

development or accreditation of curriculum for the purposes of professional

development and training in the aged sector.

In Ageing Research centres, data revealed some evidence of activities consistent

with educational gerontology practices, and targeted towards development of the older

person. This was particularly evident in centres led by Directors with a social

gerontology background, or where the centre welcomed a broad range of disciplines

(including the social sciences) into the setting. However, the educational programs

identified did not include concepts of geragogy, and no evidence of applied expertise in

educational gerontology is evident. The preparation of adult educators specifically for

older adults is therefore not evident in the ageing research arena. There is also evidence

of numerous social structures in place that might support the advancement of

educational gerontology. These include established private sector collaborations,

community involvement for educational purposes, information and guidance services

and an established track record of internal development through seminars and short

courses.


Chapter 4 150

4.6.2 Capacity for Educational Gerontology

Results reveal that some personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education

academics for the advancement of educational gerontology on the basis of established

educational knowledge and experience, and the incorporation of a lifelong learning

culture into institutional orientations. In addition, there exists recognition of benefits for

a specialisation in educational gerontology, and appreciation of the moral imperative

underpinning education for social and emotional well-being. The personal capacity of

Ageing Research participants for advancing educational gerontology was also evident,

based on a fundamental orientation towards health information, and in some instances

based on a highly developed understanding of social gerontology and the link to adult

education.

However, data indicates that there is currently limited organisational capacity

within participating Adult Education settings to integrate the discipline of social

gerontology into established adult education conceptualisations, to collaborate across

disciplines, or to develop new curriculum specifically for and about older adults.

Organisationally, the Ageing Research centers display a natural springboard for

generating capacity for educational gerontology due to established educational

mechanisms and dissemination networks.

Findings indicate that the professional capacity to apply educational gerontology

in Adult Education programs is hindered by a low level of familiarity with educational

gerontology concepts, and the existence of organisational impediments which reduce

availability of resources and that constrict educational innovations. This is a result

mirrored in the Ageing Research results, where the lack of focus on geragogy and the

general lack of knowledge regarding the field of educational gerontology is exacerbated

by organizational impediments such as funding priorities and sponsor requirements that

are orientated towards a biomedical orientation to research and education.

4.6.3 Educational Gerontology Curriculum

Results reveal that Adult Education programs represented by participants in this study

can be enhanced by curriculum review which includes elements of educational

gerontology, and that consider issues specific to and for older adults. In addition, the


Chapter 4 151

findings reveal that there is a need for professional development activities that introduce

educational gerontology concepts and processes to a wide variety of professionals in the

workplace which will ultimately benefit the older adult.


Chapter 5 152

Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation s

5.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter

This study is placed in the context of an ageing Australian population and the

implications for education and training of older adults. The study has been drawn from a

synthesis of literature relating to contemporary theories in adult learning, lifelong

learning, social gerontology and the process of geragogy (Formosa, 2002; John, 1988;

Lemieux & Martinez, 2000). Research findings indicate that educational gerontology

practices are inextricably linked to older adult learners reaching their full potential

across a range of learning contexts, including both leisure and work (Wahrendorf et al.,

2006) and there are empirical findings that reinforce the link between good health and

social engagement through learning (Herzog & House, 1991). Drawing on an

overarching purpose of empowerment for the older learner (Cusack, 1999), the study is

predicated on the broad principles of educational gerontology presented in Chapter 2

which incorporates knowledge about older learners and knowledge for direct benefit of

older learners (Walker, 1996). It is not clear however to what extent Australian

universities have responded to this demographic imperative. By developing a proposed

model of educational gerontology out of existing definitions of this field, the intention of

this study was to investigate educational gerontology in Australian university Adult

Education and Ageing Research, to determine how these two sites complement the

advancement of education specifically for the older adult. To achieve this, the study

asked:

� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in Australian

university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres?

� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application of

educational gerontology principles?

� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the development of

curriculum content that extends current adult learning concepts for those preparing to

work in the aged sector?


Chapter 5 153

This chapter firstly discusses the findings regarding an investigation of the evidence

of educational gerontology which determined whether a range of educational activities

were aligned with a focus on the older adult. This is followed by a discussion of the data

collected to determine capacity for educational gerontology that can be advanced in the

two research locations. In order to achieve a comprehensive perspective of educational

gerontology capacity, the findings are then applied against a typology of the concept of

capacity, including: internal and organisational capacity, external capacity and other

influencing factors such as contextual and societal forces. A discussion of the

professional capacity underpinning the advancement of educational gerontology in

Australian universities then generates a platform for discussing the framework of an

educational gerontology curriculum, and in identifying the content elements necessary

for developing educational gerontology as an extension of Adult Education programs in

Australian universities. Following a summary of the findings, the chapter is finalised by

a translation of the study outcomes into a sequence of conclusions and

recommendations.

5.2 Conceptual Framework

To understand how an ageing population has become the catalyst for a specialised focus

on the older adult learner, the following diagram Figure 5.1 Effects of Demographic

Change on Education and Training to and for the Older Adult illustrates how changing

lifecycle dimensions translate into older adult training needs.


Chapter 5 154

Figure 5.1

Effects of Demographic Change on Education and Trai ning to and for the Older Adult

This diagram also identifies how the discipline of social gerontology, which is

concerned with the way in which ageing affects older people and the social structures

that surround them, encompasses human behaviour patterns, social conventions, and

government policy. Changing patterns of behaviour in work for example has the

potential to create opportunities for older workers’ education and training, where new

work roles emerge as older people adjust to new technologies, transitions to retirement,

or opportunities for knowledge sharing. Social issues such as contemporary

perspectives of successful ageing can create powerful forces that influence older

people’s activities where it is desirable to be viewed as a “successful older adult.” The

literature has shown that purposeful engagement is a cornerstone of successful ageing

and can impact on life satisfaction (Dorin, 2007) which has the potential to emphasise

older adults’ engagement in education or training. Finally, government legislation can

create opportunities for education and training, particularly where these policies affect

active citizenry, and where the role of the older adult as a productive member of society

is seen as affecting the economy.


Chapter 5 155

By implication, then, these forces have the potential to impact on adult education

practices. In Figure 5.2 The Contribution of University Adult Education towards

Education to and for the Older Adult illustrates the range of possible strategies that

Adult Education might adopt as a response to an ageing population.

Figure 5.2

The Contribution of University Adult Education towa rds Education to and for the Older

Adult

These strategies can be applied externally and involve community and other

stakeholders, institutionally where students become skilled in understanding older adults

as learners and skilled in geragogical techniques, and internally in the form of staff

development. It has been argued that by advancing educational gerontology, which is

“the study of how and why older adults learn; an interface between adult education and

social gerontology” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 334), university adult education can

play a vital role in assisting older adult reach their potential.

It is within this conceptual framework, developed from the literature, that the key

findings to this study are presented.


Chapter 5 156

5.3 Key Findings

In investigating evidence of educational gerontology, this study has found:

� There is little to no evidence of educational gerontology activities or

strategies within participating Adult Education programs and Ageing

Research Centres;

� There is little to no evidence of social structures within participating Adult

Education and Ageing Research locations that support the advancement of

educational gerontology.

In examining the capacity for educational gerontology, results indicate:

� Some personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education academics and

Ageing Research Centre Directors for the advancement of educational gerontology;

� There is currently limited organisational capacity within participating Adult

Education and Ageing Research respondents to advance educational gerontology;

� The professional capacity to apply educational gerontology within participating

Adult Education and Ageing Research settings is hindered by a range of internal and

external factors.

In determining curriculum elements necessary to advance educational gerontology,

the study has found:

� Adult Education programs represented in this study can be enhanced by including

educational gerontology constructs;

� Ageing Research Centres represented in this study can be enhanced by professional

development that introduces educational gerontology to their staff and client base.

5.4 Discussion

5.4.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology

While the overarching philosophy of educational gerontology is that of advocacy for the

improvement of older adults’ lives, educational gerontology can be operationalised

through a variety of adult education activities. Firstly, teaching instructional processes

relevant to geragogy would provide evidence of an educational gerontology orientation,


Chapter 5 157

together with the creation of age-friendly learning environments. Other activities include

training programs for internal staff development and to benefit older adults directly, and

participation in ageing educational research all represent the variety of educational

gerontology applications which might emanate from adult education. This research

investigated whether evidence of these activities could be found in the two research

locations. The first finding generated from this investigation is that:

Finding One:

There is little to no evidence of educational gerontology activities or strategies within

participating Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres

This finding means that details about the inherent activities in educational gerontology

as noted by Engelbrecht (2006), Findsen (2006), Ilmarinen (2005), Lumsden (1985) and

Withnall and Percy (1994) do not exist in Adult Education programs and Ageing

Research Centres, based on the data provided by the respondents for this investigation.

The range of potential educational gerontology activities and strategies drawn from the

literature include:

� internal staff development,

� ageing educational research,

� the creation of age-friendly learning environments, and

� the development of curriculum or programs to and for the older adult learner.

The literature has indicated that economic implications of an ageing population

are undeniable and inevitable. However, as more adults’ age, additional lifecycle

dimensions such as educational activities, retirement patterns, savings patterns and

leisure activities will become more apparent (Bloom & Canning, 2006). This social

upheaval has been the driving force behind the development of the emerging discipline

of social gerontology (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002). However, in addition to obvious

behavioral changes, new conceptualisations of old age where the older adult is viewed in

a biopsychosocial framework (Whitbourne, 2001) and where active ageing is the goal

(Herzog & House, 1991), has altered the way older adults and their learning is viewed.


Chapter 5 158

For example, while older learners are acknowledged as experiencing some sensory

decline (Albinet et al., 2007), this is tempered with the growing recognition that learning

can be achieved through adaptive strategies and can even delay cognitive decline

(Schneider, 2003). Purposeful mental engagement can also contribute to a sense of well-

being and improve health outcomes (Wahrendorf et al., 2006). Seen together, this can

only be described as a rapid expansion of synthesised, interdisciplinary knowledge

relevant to the education of older adults. This study has argued that educational

gerontology, which has emerged as an outcome of this synthesized approach, is an

appropriate theoretical platform from which to develop adult educators to better meet

emerging older adult learning needs.

It is therefore concerning that the findings of this study reveal that no internal

staff development regarding older adults is evident in the participating Adult Education

settings. There is also no evidence of ageing educational research. This indicates that in

these settings there exists a serious delay in acknowledgement of this growing body of

content in accepting the need for a wider disciplinary perspective and in understanding

the applicability of this information to effective instruction for older adults. It is

essential therefore that future staff development seminars or focus groups be developed

to introduce concepts that extend adult education programs by integrating with other

disciplines including gerontology and social gerontology. Collaborative research

projects between Adult Education and other ageing-related disciplines can expand

knowledge of ageing, introduce innovative ways to approach challenges, and by

implication, serve as a university role model in community social development. Of

particular importance to Adult Education staff development programs, is the inclusion of

the concept of geragogy and its relationship to effective learning environments because

it automatically provides a focus for older adult learners.

Geragogy

Geragogical strategies are focused specifically on process strategies for the older adult

(John, 1988) and represent a move beyond strategies in adult learning, or andragogy

(Knowles, 1980). Justifying the need for a more focused treatment of older adult

education, Cusack (1999) states that “we agree that teaching older adults is qualitatively


Chapter 5 159

different from teaching adults, because the social circumstances and developmental tasks

of third-age persons in today’s world are unique” (p. 22).

The findings of this study indicate that no identifiable geragogical strategies are

evident within participating university Adult Education programs. Results indicate that

there is little understanding of this concept or the range of activities associated with the

practice. This is an important finding, as knowledge and understanding of the range of

strategies underpinning geragogy is central to older adult learning, and underpins future

professional development to adult educators in community and workplace settings. It is

essential therefore that Adult Education academics attend to staff development in order

to acquire skills that enable the incorporation of geragogical strategies into their

programs that change social attitudes and behaviours towards older workers, address

political disincentives to work and tailor skill development activities for the mature-aged

to suit their circumstances (Thomson et al., 2005).

This assertion is supported by Ilarinen’s (2005) view that the general ageing of

the working individual requires specialist knowledge and understanding to support older

workers’ learning. It is a point further confirmed by the statement that older adults

possess different characteristics to general adults (Cusack, 1999; Tornstam, 2005). These

unique differences can include particular stages of life and resultant spiritual philosophy

(Tornstam, 2005), the extent of decline is some sensory areas (OECD, 2006), the

participation in transitionary career phases (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007), an outlook

affected by ageism (Thornton, 2002) particularly in the workplace (Encel & Studencki,

2004) and the required adaptation to a knowledge economy. Furthermore, these

personal elements can be influenced by other factors such as job type, job complexity,

learning culture and stereotyping; and the construction of meaning by the older adults

can also impact on the success of training interventions (Hodkinson et al., 2007).

The findings also indicate a delay in Adult Education participants in

acknowledging or applying broader methodologies suitable for older adults as suggested

by Ilmarinen (2005) which include:

� the use of a learning strategy that scaffolds on an existing and secure layer of

competence;


Chapter 5 160

� learning conditions that accommodate the senses of the ageing learner where

sensory functions deteriorate with age;

� the use of images for enhanced motivation;

� a relaxed atmosphere of mutual respect and trust; and

� a knowledge of the variety of learning styles (p. 228).

More advanced geragogical strategies are also not in evidence. For example,

findings do not reveal the application of instructional strategies such as Socratic

Dialogue (Moody, 2006), establishing a safe dialogic learning environment (Simmons,

1999) or applying multiple methods (Callahan et al., 2003) that might extend to include

a spiritual dimension (Collins et al., 2007). The paucity of evidence indicating the

understanding or application of geragogical strategies within university Adult Education

programs means that undergraduate students intending to become adult educators will

not be familiar with this practice in the workplace, where older adult workers will by

implication require that the instructor (or WLP) be skilled enough to organise the

training beyond the terms of younger people (Ilmarinen, 2005; Moseley & Dessinger,

2007) and adopt a more critical orientation to adult learning (Merriam, 2004) where

“diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is challenged, inclusion is a goal, and

emancipation from oppressive social structures makes possible a context in which

learning can thrive” (Merriam, 2004, p. 213).

Geragogy therefore emphasises critical dialogue amongst older learners, provides

a platform for transactions that reflect the wisdom and contribution of the older learners

and provides outreach to all segments of the older population. For this reason, it

constitutes a valuable process tool that should form an essential part of the professional

repertoire of educators of the older adult.

Creating Age Friendly Learning Environments

The ability to create an age-friendly learning environment is also critical to older adults

and their effective engagement with learning. This is because oppressive social

structures that marginalize older adults can be exacerbated by ageist practices at work

and in learning settings. Socially and emotionally, ageism, which is defined as “a set of


Chapter 5 161

beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups, based

on their chronological age” (Whitbourne, 2001, p. 14), is destructive and can limit the

potential of older adults as they encounter workplace transitions and intergenerational

environments. It is critical therefore that the findings of this study be used in staff

development activities to advance the understanding that organisational culture and

social structures and relations impact on the individual’s freedom, and that

emancipatory, geragogical strategies are able to remedy this by creating an environment

more aligned to older adults social settings and supportive of critical thought (Formosa,

2002). The findings of this study also have implications for future university programs

that advance the study of educational gerontology as a response to a changing audience

profile.

Educational Gerontology Programs

In tandem with the consideration of the unique characteristics of older adult learners

(Tornstam, 2005) and the achievement of inclusive, emancipative learning contexts as

described by Merriam (2004), the results of this study should act as a catalyst for the

merging of established adult education practices with contemporary older adult learning

concepts. While this may re-ignite that debate on the value of andragogy and its reliance

on atheoretical models of practice, this study has shown that the uniqueness of the older

adult is starting to be defendable. For example, the characteristics of older adult learners

identified in Chapter 2 of this study represent the beginning of a theoretical justification

for specialisation in older adult education.

Moreover, this study has shown that there is growing acknowledgement among

participating Adult Education academics that demographic changes are starting to affect

their disciplinary domains. Appreciating that training programs traditionally emerge out

of identified social needs, the changes emerging out of social upheaval as the population

ages is starting to be felt in workplaces in the face of skill shortages. This further

emphasizes the significance of the findings of this study that reveals a very low level of

familiarity with educational gerontology among Adult Education academics, because

this indicates a serious knowledge gap that hinders future curriculum development

specific to an ageing population. Such a low activity level in the area of educational


Chapter 5 162

gerontology contrasts strongly with the emerging human development needs identified

in the literature review (Baumgartner et al., 2003) and reveals poor consideration of the

socio-economic impacts of an ageing demographic (Bloom & Canning, 2006) which by

implication suggests that socio-cultural issues such as context and the learning lives of

older adult identities engaged in learning – and working – may have been overlooked in

established adult education (Hodkinson et al., 2007). These authors state that “we need

to understand adult learning as biological, cognitive, emotional and practical” (p. 15).

For this reason, adult education programs needs to extend their conceptual basis to

include a biopsychosocial perspective (Whitbourne, 2001), which by implication

requires interdisciplinary collaboration to develop university programs especially to and

for the older adult.

All of these activities are important, as contemporary literature about adult

education and educational gerontology has acknowledged that education can improve

the lives of older people through purposive learning engagement (Dorin, 2007), can

delay the onset of cognitive decline (Schneider, 2003), has been shown to improve self-

efficacy in dementia patients (Richeson et al., 2007) and is acknowledged as inevitably

being part of the life course (Settersten, 2003). Seen from the perspective of social

betterment, the knowledge gap between the academics in the area of adult education

within Australian universities, which based on the data gleaned from this research is of

substantive magnitude, is disconcerting. This position is supported by Findsen (2003)

who argues that practitioners working on behalf of or directly with older adults “have a

positive role to play in helping to demystify educational institutions and to help build

better bridges between providers of learning opportunities and older people’s daily

living routines” (p. 3).

The findings of this study therefore justify concerns about the lack of evidence of

educational gerontology in participating Adult Education programs in that, it is likely to

undermine the ability of Adult Education academics to keep abreast of the predicted

educational changes inherent in the dynamics of demographic change (Bloom &

Canning, 2006), to limit the ability of academics to prepare contemporary curriculum for

future WLPs as they encounter intergenerational workplaces (Hankin, 2005; Moseley &

Dessinger, 2007) to reduce the potential for social engagement which might directly


Chapter 5 163

benefit older adult workers and learners, and to exacerbate the structural lag (Findsen,

2003) current in Australian university Adult Education programs, curriculum and course

offerings. This finding has implications for teachers, trainers, human resource

developers, managers, supervisors, community workers, health care professionals,

researchers, and the older person whether in work or leisure settings.

Results obtained from Ageing Research Centre participants indicate that there is

also no evidence of strategies or activities that advanced an understanding of educational

gerontology in this university setting, and that there is also no evidence of activities

extending to:

� links to Adult Education programs for the purpose of advancing educational

gerontology;

� ageing educational research pertaining to older adult learning interest, styles

or needs; and

� consideration of the development of aged-specific learning environments or

instructional processes.

Finding Two:

There is little to no evidence of social structures within participating Adult Education locations

that support the advancement of educational gerontology.

Social structures are patterns of behavior and relationships (Burns, 2000) and in this

study, the behaviours and relationships within and across Adult Education programs and

Ageing Research Centres were examined to seek evidence of educational gerontology

practice. It is therefore concerning that the findings of this study reveal a significant

absence of social structures within Adult Education settings that supported or advanced

any aspect of educational gerontology. In particular, there was no evidence of structures

that support:

� private sector projects

� community education

� educational consultancy and advice

� evaluation or accreditation of educational programs;


Chapter 5 164

� information and guidance services;

� organizational policy; and

� professional development and training in the aged sector.

For this reason, it is useful to compare and contrast these findings with the results

obtained from the Ageing Research centre participants in order to identify possible

remedies to the current scenario and to illustrate how Adult Education programs might

broaden their reach. For example, results from university Ageing Research centres

yielded evidence of a variety of activities targeted towards development for and to the

older person. This included professional development programs for those active in the

aged care sector, a range of private sector projects for external clients including nursing

home sessions, and group presentations. While these structures are not directly

comparable to Adult Education, as the content of these projects was largely limited to

medical information sessions about aged care and the content was not focused on

educational issues, Adult Education can however emulate these structures as a means to

develop their own relationships to advance educational gerontology. This would be a

significant step forward in generating a more socially-responsive university presence.

For example, results indicated that numerous programs and educational materials are

being developed through participating Ageing Research centres and these are clearly

useful educational tools to promote understanding in specific health-related matters.

Information and guidance services are provided to various stakeholders that included

both internal and external audiences such as community groups and specialist care

teams, and were often initiated by health professionals for the medical, nursing or allied

health care professions. While in many instances the social structures appear to comply

with educational gerontology in that these structures support information about older

adults, they fall short of providing information relevant to the process and practice of

educating older adults, including geragogy. Conceptually, that is the established domain

of Adult Education because it is closely linked to established adult education and

lifelong learning concepts. The findings of this study illustrate how, in practical terms,

they might consider how to expand their activities to achieve this important objective.

One interesting element determined from this study was the correlation between

those Ageing Research centres reporting a high level of familiarity with educational


Chapter 5 165

gerontology and the sociological background of their Directors. While these centres had

trained health educators on staff and systematic ageing-related training and development

programs, factors emerged from these respondents that complement the influences of

social gerontology where the older individual is viewed in their unique social, emotional

and intellectual context (Withnall & Percy, 1994). On the surface, a continuum between

the types of Ageing Research centres and their potential for adopting educational

gerontology principles emerged during the analysis, largely due to the disparity in

knowledge about social gerontology among the respondents. It was therefore interesting

to find that deeper analysis of the interview transcripts revealed that a move beyond the

biomedical model into a more biopsychosocial approach may already be happening in

Ageing Research. For example, one medically-focussed Ageing Research centre has

recently been funded to research the attitudes of undergraduate medical students towards

geriatrics, to determine the attitudes towards that area of medicine. The centre Director

described it thus:

There’s other training programs that are being used in the staff within the health

services and what we are going to do is looking [sic] at the attitudes before and

after the training program to see whether the program makes a difference and

also whether they need it or whether they already have the appropriate attitudes

for this area. So we’ve just got funded to do that.

[1BW0308#5]

This paradigmatic blurring does not automatically suggest that Adult Education

will become integral to this setting. This is due to the fact that biomedically-focused

Ageing Research centres reporting no knowledge of educational gerontology were also

unclear about articulating a clear pathway for the dissemination or application of

research findings useful for the professional development of educational staff or for

advancing educational gerontology. Given that this study advances the discipline and

development of educational gerontology, this finding supports the assertion that the

dissemination of research findings about ageing delivered by adult educators

knowledgeable in educational gerontology can provide a potential conduit for

transmitting groundbreaking ageing research information. This structure has


Chapter 5 166

implications for those incumbent in the aged care sector and could ultimately enhance

the educational standards across the aged care sector. Appreciating that this will have to

be driven by a quality mechanism, it is argued that the human development challenges

facing an ageing Australia outlined in Chapter 2 provide a useful starting point for

articulating how educational gerontology might be integrated into serving an expanding

aged sector. This is consistent with the findings of Glista and Petersens (2003) who

revealed that over 70% of aged sector employees surveyed admitted to needing an

update of their knowledge about ageing. This is a sentiment echoed by Long (1990) who

describes educational gerontology as “including public endeavours designed to inform

about ageing and older people, and the preparation of those who intend to work in

human services for the aged” (p. 14). This means that there exists a natural clientele for

adult educators who are skilled in educational gerontology. Such advancements will

inevitably benefit the older person, which is the cornerstone of educational gerontology.

Findings indicate however that the potential contribution of a specialist in educational

gerontology who could develop geragogical programs specifically suited to the older

adult, did not appear to yet be warranted within the Ageing Research centres. It is

possible however that the concept has not yet been fully understood. For example, when

asked if an older adult learning specialist could contribute to the health care sector, one

centre Director responded by stating:

I think there is significant scope. I think we have been far too reliant on

discipline-specific things like clinical nurse educators. I think that kind of

specialist you are talking about could lend itself very well to how to apply that

kind of educational gerontology. That would be very good. I think the question

comes down to that it would have to be done on a consultancy basis, because I

am not sure if health services are ready to provide resources for that, but having

said that they are very keen to bring in consultants. I just don’t think they quite

understand it… uumm I think that’s the issue.

[10SD1210#14]


Chapter 5 167

5.4.2 Summary

Data from Ageing Research centre Directors indicate a limitation in expertise in areas

specific to educational gerontology—older adult learning, geragogy, and in some cases

social gerontology. Information from this study shows that within the majority of the

Ageing Research centres, there exists a strong focus on aged care and nursing and health

educators are deemed sufficiently skilled for these current purposes. On the other hand,

Australian university Adult Education programs possess a substantial knowledge base

around adult learning, lifelong learning and VET, and offer a solid educational basis on

which to build upon and offer studies in educational gerontology. Australian Adult

Education academics however appear not to have kept pace with advancing their

understanding of older adult learners and the relevance of ageing educational concepts,

educational psychology or lifespan theory linked to educational gerontology programs

and relevant to older adult education. Moreover, there is little indication that the older

adult learner has been identified as different to an adult learner in either settings and

there is no indication that traditional adult education concepts have been extended to

incorporate educational gerontology principles such as empowerment or critical

geragogy. Moreover, while it appears that the Australian Ageing Research centres are

involved in training and the professional preparation of those working in aged care,

results from this study show that there remains a propensity to advance and adhere to

medical-type training in which information and reference to care and treatment prevails

as opposed to educational preparation for the purposes of working for and engaging with

older people.

To conclude the discussion regarding evidence of educational gerontology in

Adult Education university programs and Ageing Research centres, a comparison of the

results of this study against the work of Findsen (2003) is warranted, due to this author’s

consistent argument for a more robust professional educational response to the ageing

population. He articulates seven penetrating questions for adult education providers and

agencies to address and they include:

� What do you know about the life patterns and learning opportunities for older

adults in your vicinity?


Chapter 5 168

� What is the responsibility of your agency to helping meeting the learning

needs of older adults?

� What do you really know about the older adult clientele attending your

programmes?

� Are any older adults involved in helping plan your provision?

� Does the existing programme reflect interests and needs of older adults in

your community?

� Have any programmes been planned in association with agencies which work

more closely with older people?

� Are there any statements of policy developed by your organisation about the

learning needs of older adults? (p. 10)

Considering the relevance and applicability of these questions in relation to this

study, and the data generated through this research, it is argued that currently within

Australian Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres there exists a

significant lag in both locations’ professional response to advancing the study of

educational gerontology. Moreover, the details obtained from this study indicate a

wealth of data substantiating this position.

While this assertion does not suggest that it is a situation that cannot be altered,

the study is advancing that it is time to start addressing this significant lag in knowledge,

understanding and application of educational gerontology given the significant

influences of the changes in Australian demographics (Access Economics, 2001; Bloom

& Canning, 2006; Jorgensen, 2004; Thomson et al., 2005), the subsequent training skills

required of workplace learning and performance practitioners (WLPs) (Ilmarinen, 2005;

Moseley & Dessinger, 2007), and the predicted training needs of those incumbent in

allied health professions (Glista & Petersons, 2003) as our knowledge of ageing

expands. Findings also substantiate the call for a deeper consideration of the moral

imperative underpinning educational gerontology due to the empirical link between

social engagement, learning and ageing well (Bowling, 2007; Collins et al., 2007) and

the health implications of purposive intellectual engagement and increase in life

satisfaction (Dorin, 2007).


Chapter 5 169

5.4.3 Capacity for Educational Gerontology

The literature provides a strong theoretical case for the integration of adult education and

educational gerontology content in Australian adult education university programs. This

program development, given the details from this study, could result in an innovative

interdisciplinary program that extends adult education into a specialist educational

gerontology area. This is a logical merger of the two different areas of study pertaining

to adults, due to the existence of foundational knowledge in adult education principles

and processes and the rapid increase in knowledge about ageing held in gerontology

programs proliferating overseas (Howe, 1990) and within Australian Ageing Research

centres. However, to determine exactly where the capacity might exist for such an

initiative, and to identify potential for knowledge-sharing and collaboration, the second

research question for this study investigated:

� What capacity exists in these two domains (Adult Education programs and

Ageing Research centres) for the advancement or application of educational

gerontology principles?

The incorporation of educational gerontology in Australian university adult

education programs necessitates a significant shift in approach to traditional adult

education and will require interdisciplinary collaboration (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002).

This shift will require some review of current curriculum content and learning processes.

Respondents in this study indicated however that there exist both internal and external

barriers and enablers to this specialist area becoming a reality, a situation that emerged

as more complex than first anticipated. This complexity made an evaluation of capacity

a difficult task. To address this, the combined data from both research locations was

applied against a range of capacities, including internal capacity (personal beliefs,

knowledge and attitudes), organizational capacity (mission, goals and plans) and

external capacity (links to community and other stakeholder groups). Finally, to provide

a wider context to establishing educational gerontology capacity, the challenges of

higher education within an ageing demographic are addressed together with a

consideration of the broad, and conflicting social theories of ageing currently in play in

Australia.


Chapter 5 170

Finding Three:

Personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education Academics and Ageing Research

Centre Directors for the advancement of educational gerontology

In discussing the internal capacity of the participants for incorporating educational

gerontology into their programs and organisational activities, the findings revealed a

consistent theme amongst all of the participants from both research data collection sites.

All of the respondents indicated that they had a deep held respect for older adults and a

substantial belief in the worth and value associated with older adults’ learning and

development. In addition, all of the participants in the research displayed a genuine

interest in older adults, and their role and contribution to the social well-being of older

people was revealed as a strong motivating factor for working with older people. This is

a significant finding, because it suggests that the participants in this study possess a

positive foundation for the advancement of educational gerontology and its philosophy.

Practically, the purpose of educational gerontology is ameliorative: to prevent

premature decline, to facilitate meaningful roles and to encourage psychological growth.

Conceptually, it focuses on the cognitive changes that occur throughout later life, the

resultant instructional changes that emerge in adaptation to these changes, and the

motivational factors determining participation and non-participation by older learners

(Petersen, in Glendenning, 2001).

Motivation

In terms of motivation towards educational gerontology by participants in this study,

Hiemstra (2002) regards personal philosophy as fundamental to educational

gerontology, a view that is further justified when linked to the increasing awareness that

successful ageing is an integral part of lifelong learning. It is important then that the

results of this study are also situated within broader lifelong learning approaches. This is

because results of this study indicate that among the participants there exists some

confusion about the relationship between lifelong learning as a system, and educational

gerontology as a practice. It is suggested therefore that the findings of this study can

further delineate between these two paradigms by emphasizing the specific focus of


Chapter 5 171

educational endeavours for the benefit of the older adult and by proposing how it might

rest within a broader lifelong learning system. Adult Education participants expressed

significant knowledge about their educational sectors, including TAFE, VET and online

education, and it is asserted here that is imperative to understand where educational

gerontology rests within this network of highly sectorised systems so that it might be

effectively adopted.

Nevertheless, all of the interview participants agreed with the human

development principles of educational gerontology, and some adult education academics

expressed regret in having overlooked the significance of this emerging field in teaching

programs and curriculum review processes. This is evidenced by the following

comment:

Particularly since you sent out this survey it’s made me think quite deeply about

these issues and it has been in my thoughts in a number of other areas and I have

thought “Why don’t we? Absolutely. Why don’t we do something about this?”

[7PR0210#4]

Educational Background

In addition to the contribution that a person’s belief and value system might make to

generating capacity for educational gerontology, it is also crucial to have a well-

developed understanding and appreciation of the study of adult education. As expected,

respondents from Adult Education university programs articulated the concept of self-

directed learning and Malcolm Knowles’ (Knowles, 1980) principles of adult education

in their responses to the interview. However, findings reveal that personal motivation

and adult education knowledge may not be enough for a career in educational

gerontology. Ilmarinen (2005) considers that “the instructors of ageing employees are

required to have special competence related to ageing and learning” (p. 226). Evidence

of this special competence was found in some Ageing Research centres where some

respondents held multi-disciplinary qualifications. For example, one respondent had

achieved postgraduate qualifications in both Nursing and Education, another had

qualifications in Law and Education and the third had completed studies in Pastoral Care


Chapter 5 172

and Adult Education. This highlights a significant finding of this study that has

implications for generating educational gerontology capacity in adult education: the

propensity for biomedical research and health education is more prevalent and marked

among the Ageing Research centre participants. This undoubtedly represents a potential

limitation of career opportunities for adult educators who do not possess health-related

or gerontology knowledge to transfer across into these settings. While this professional

distance could create a tension between the disciplines, it also represents an opportunity

for knowledge-sharing and professional development for both areas, particularly where

knowledge gaps are a barrier to educational gerontology becoming a reality in

Australian universities. It is interesting to note therefore that this potential barrier was

negated by the responses from centres displaying a social gerontology focus, where

some recognition of the contribution that educational gerontology could make to their

future goals exists, indicating some future potential activity in this area. It is therefore

interesting to note that this finding is consistent with Lowenstein (2004) who asserts that

social gerontology is at the point of becoming a distinct academic discipline overseas

because of its accumulating knowledge base and the increasing number of academic

programs offering postgraduate degrees in Applied Gerontology. This investigation

advances that Australian universities should focus on this interdisciplinary development

as a means to improve their internal capacity in the emerging field of educational

gerontology.

Internal resources underpinning personal capacity, such as an understanding of

Adult Education, therefore already exist in Adult Education Academics and in some

Ageing Research centre Directors, and this provides a suitable springboard from which

educational gerontology might be launched. This finding therefore supports the

argument that the advancement of educational gerontology could augment the offerings

across both these university settings, further justifying its advancement as an area of

Adult Education specialization.


Chapter 5 173

Finding Four:

There is currently limited organisational capacity within participating Adult Education and

Ageing Research respondents to advance educational gerontology

Appreciating that an overarching organisational/institutional strategy typically

influences the range of activities that are undertaken in any given organisation, it is

reasonable to assert that these same strategies will also impact on the organisational

capacity for educational gerontology. In order to advance the study of educational

gerontology in Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research

centres, there is a need to establish a strategic plan which is cognisant of the sociological

influence of education on older adults, and in particular a mission statement in

appreciation of the role of universities as sites of education, citizenship and social justice

(Winter et al., 2006). It is of concern therefore to report that the findings in this study do

not reveal any ageing-relevant organisational/institutional strategy in place in adult

education responses; rather the reality of an organisational strategy appeared to be far

removed from the day-to-day adult education activities and programs currently offered.

One explanation for this outcome may be associated with recognition that the

participating Adult Education academics did not have a ready knowledge of their

specific overarching institutional strategy. Obviously there are implications from this

outcome, particularly where the link between education, civic engagement and social

betterment needs to be strengthened as the population ages (Bowling, 2007;

Hammersley, 1992). This is an important finding because education is a crucial element

in an ageing demographic, particularly seen from the ideal model of successful ageing.

Successful ageing is multi-disciplinary and accommodates sensitivities to differences in

cultural values, life events such as work and retirement, and the range of opportunities to

age successfully (Bowling, 2007; Wahrendorf et al., 2006). A lack of organizational

strategy is therefore of concern as it suggests the existence of a potential age structure

which is defined by Findsen (2006) thus: “Age structures lag behind changes in people’s

lives, resulting in a dialectic whereby social structures, norms, organisations and

institutions have failed to keep pace with what people actually do in their lives” (p. 3).


Chapter 5 174

Another explanation for this age structure could be found in top-down

hierarchical structures typical in Australian universities where more strategic decisions

are made by senior Faculty and university administrators in isolation of the individual

program academic. While a discussion of the management structures of Australian

universities are beyond the scope of this study, it is interesting to note the comment of

one Adult Education respondent who stated:

I mean universities are great places for ignorance in spite of the fact that we are

supposed to be enlightened and on the pulse but some questions I think we don’t

ask, and that’s [educational gerontology] one of them, and there are several other

questions I don’t think universities ask about their staff or where they’re going

with their programs. But certainly, broadly, across universities, I don’t think

there’s any actual commitment there [ageing], I don’t see any policies or practice

within our university at the moment.

[7PR0210#17]

In contrast, respondents from the Ageing Research centres involved in this study

showed that there was a close connection to the mission and goals of their organisation,

and this framed (and channelled) the activities of each research organisation. While

these missions and goals were particular to each respondent, it must be noted that

funding and its continuation clearly directed the Ageing Research centre activities,

collaborations and industry involvement. Recognising the influence of funding allowed

for an appreciation that it was therefore not surprising that Ageing Research centre

participants gave limited credence to the role that educational researchers might perform

in ageing research due to the propensity for funding to be awarded for health-related

research. The results from this study have noted that there is a direct focus on

biomedical issues in most Ageing Research centres which negates to a certain degree

any consideration of collaboration and joint applied research with Adult Education for

the betterment of older adults. This is supported by Winter et al. (2002) who write that

“applied research is outcome-directed with tangible benefits to communities” (p. 217).

This biomedical orientation to ageing research is of concern as the application of ageing


Chapter 5 175

research findings is regarded as fundamental to improving the lives of older people, a

view supported by Thornton (2002) who writes:

Academic and policy studies are seriously needed about education of and for an

ageing population, and about change in social institutions to minimize

institutional lag while maximizing sense of community. Studies in educational

gerontology and “critical gerontology” must be included in multi-disciplinary

studies about ageing. (p. 311)

This comment can be seen as a significant in relation to the findings of this

study. It also raises concerns because social gerontology is about how the older

population is affected by the social structure (Hooyman, & Kiyak, 2002), and it also

represents the origin of the development of the study of educational gerontology. While

acknowledging that health care is naturally bounded by ethical and medical parameters,

a health system that is too tightly bound has the potential to contradict the application of

more empowering or integrative educational strategies for older adults where “freedom

to engage in critical thought” is an overarching purpose (Formosa, 2002). Moreover,

Bowling (2007) describes the ideal model of successful ageing as being multi-

disciplinary, and one which accommodates sensitivities to differences in cultural values,

life events such as work and retirement and the range of opportunities to age

successfully. Educational gerontology supports successful ageing, and based on the

findings of this study that indicate the internal capacity exists for educational

gerontology to be applied, there is no reason why such a biopsychosocial approach

(Whitbourne, 2001) cannot be applied to the biomedical participants serving the aged

sector.

In terms of organizational leadership, the participants in this study were aligned

towards either the fulfillment of basic adult education program objectives (e.g.

preparation of TAFE teachers) or specific health-related research initiatives (e.g. mental

health research). There was no evidence of interdisciplinary innovations or research

initiatives. It is therefore of concern that Adult Education university participants in this

study reported that the lack of power or authority was a limiting factor in their adoption

of new curriculum or commencement of adult education research initiatives.


Chapter 5 176

Funding allocations, grant application processes and higher education reform

across Australia must also be acknowledged as having a potential impact on the

availability of organisational resources for research at the nexus of ageing and education.

Appreciating this situation, the results gleaned from this study found that coincidentally,

two long-standing Ageing Research centres located in universities closed shortly after

the completion of this study due to rationalisation and a lack of Faculty and

administrative support. It is of concern that neither of these centres that closed was bio-

medically focused. Significantly, they were both aligned with social gerontology: one

was concerned with ageing and retirement, and the other focused on ageing and social

change. Closure of centers within this discipline will weaken future research efforts into

the emerging social needs that arise as the population ages, and the findings of this study

therefore suggest caution by policymakers and strategic decision-makers against further

erosion of social gerontology efforts.

Other organisational/institutional university constraints impinging on the

capacity for educational gerontology included the problems associated with geographical

distance—this study found that this problem was particularly evident for regional

universities that supported a large distance education program. Generally, these

participants perceived that their isolation reduced the ability to engage across

disciplines. In addition to this isolation, Adult Education academics reported a slow and

lengthy curriculum review process adhered to by university administration, and it was

held that this problem had the potential to worsen the lag in institutional reactions to an

ageing society. These findings have therefore identified a range of unexpected systemic

barriers that will need to be overcome to advance educational gerontology.


Chapter 5 177

Finding Five:

The professional capacity of Adult Education academics to apply educational gerontology is

limited by a range of internal and external factors

Based on the findings discussed earlier, it could be argued that educational gerontology

requires an enhanced, more professional profile in order to achieve institutional and

industry recognition and policy relevance. It is likely that this could occur through

professional development, in-house training, and ageing-relevant seminars. However, to

specifically examine the findings of this study relevant to professional capacity

underpinning educational gerontology, it is useful to draw from the work of Stark,

Lowther and Hagerty (1987) who described six stages that have occurred in the process

of professional development of gerontology education. While not exactly applicable to

educational gerontology, these are recognised steps towards professionalisation of a new

content area and can be applied effectively to determine the stage at which educational

gerontology, a component of gerontology education, might currently reside. These

professional development stages include:

1. Apprenticeship (where there exists recognition of a need for specialised

services) where content experts conduct their own informal apprenticeships

and where serious novices move into leadership roles;

2. The generation of knowledge (usually purposeful, but non-credit

instruction in the form of workshops and training sessions) that is

inevitably overtaken by an expanding body of knowledge;

3. The classification of knowledge (development of units for systematic

teaching, categorisation of knowledge and ultimately part of higher

education itself);

4. The teaching of the knowledge (usually a short-term remedy that overlooks

underlying concepts and principles);

5. Formalisation of teaching (development of degree or certificate programs

that identify social norms and values that need to be addressed in the

curriculum); and


Chapter 5 178

6. Improvement of the profession. For educational gerontology to ultimately

be regarded as a profession, it would attract and retain full-time

practitioners, receive sponsorship and funding, be fed through a growing

body of literature, be developed through numerous training programs

across universities, and represented through academic journals (p. 242).

When comparing these elements as a professionalisation framework against the

findings of this study, it is clear that educational gerontology is in its early

developmental stages as a formalised area of study particularly in Australian university

adult education. The results of this study therefore justify the argument that social

forces associated with an ageing population (Bloom & Canning, 2006) require a

compression of this developmental time frame as a means to overcoming a disciplinary

lag. One initial strategy effective in developing the field of educational gerontology

could be the collaboration between Adult Educators and external stakeholders.

Collaboration of this kind however requires an availability of external capacity.

In analysing the external capacity for educational gerontology, there was

evidence of some Adult Education academics engaging in limited interactions with older

community groups, such as local writing associations. This engagement suggests an

increase in their perceptions of the needs of the older person. The results from this study

however noted that no Adult Education academics were involved in any ageing-related

lobby group or professional body, nor were they involved in any local or international

ageing research collaboration. There has been a strong move in Australian universities

to establish affiliations and interactions with external groups because they are seen as

being a valuable source of information for educationalists and strengthen the perception

of their contribution to the local community (Queensland University of Technology

[QUT], 2007). Advancing this community engagement represents a rich opportunity for

Australian university Adult Education programs to make a wider social contribution by

assisting with regional development and supporting skill development initiatives. This

also has the potential to increase the yield in human capital through investment in

education and training (Gunasekara, 2004) where universities should strive to be “a

campus that is newly-committed to serving the communities and constituencies that

surround and support it” (Ward, 2003, p. 15).


Chapter 5 179

It is interesting to note that the Ageing Research centres who contributed to this

study reported involvement in a wide range of external associations that included policy-

makers, government departments, health agencies, and community groups, and while

these may ultimately have specific educational outputs of benefit to the older Australian,

these associations do not advance educational gerontology specifically.

The findings of this study therefore identified an overwhelming disparity

between Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres in their interaction

with ageing-relevant external groups. This is a significant finding because closer

education-community interaction is a cornerstone of educational gerontology as it

extends the potential for empowerment of older people irrespective of the learning

context and advances the humanist role of universities in local communities thereby

contributing to the general betterment of society. This assertion is supported by Winter

et al. (2006) who note that community engagement is a recognised university strategy in

promoting citizenship and social responsibility and is evidence of their commitment to

social equity (Ward, 2003). Making university resources (knowledge, skills and

practical resources) available to support marginalised groups is one activity that would

be helpful for advancing the discipline of education gerontology, but Australian

institutions have a “relatively understated commitment to values such as citizenship”

(Winter et al., 2006, p. 225).

Therefore, this finding requires that universities move beyond a purely

functionalist role where education is assessed on functional outcomes (e.g. reproductive

or economically-driven) as dictated by democratic capitalism (Kempner & Taylor,

1998), and into a role of promoting “active citizenry” (p. 301). In such an approach, the

value of higher education is to be found in how well it facilitates students to function

within a democratic society, particularly where those students might positively influence

“individuals who do not share the dominant culture or who are not active participants in

the private market sector of the global economy” (p. 302). It is argued here that older

adults fit this category based on ongoing ageism and socio-political manoeuvres that

erode power in older adults. The lack of community engagement by participating Adult

Education academics reported in this study advances the argument that the isolationist

approach of universities is no longer appropriate given the social needs that are


Chapter 5 180

emerging, the ageing of the workforce, and the increasing interest of business, public

administration and service industries in ageing and the market it represents (Ward,

2003). Moreover, DEST (2002) describes one of the purposes of higher education as

“fulfilling significant functions in our society” (DEST, 2005, p. 1) with the requirements

that

…institutions should add value to and enrich Australian society, culture and the

economy. There is an expectation that in their role as caretakers, creators and

transmitters of knowledge, higher education institutions will add value to

individuals and to the society in which they are a part. (p. 2)

Institutions do not operate in a vacuum; they need to respond to dynamic social

change and reflect the values of the community in which they operate. Therefore, this

finding adds impetus to the requirement that institutions will be equitable, responsive,

diverse, and innovative as they face new and changing environments (p. 2). This is a

significant social role. Ward (2003), in sketching the roles that faculty might perform in

areas outside of the traditional university domains, states that it is not only external

forces that will generate pressure to reconsider its position in society. The emergence of

a more developmental and multidisciplinary model of ageing in society (Bowling, 2007)

will inevitably add impetus to this adaptation. The findings of this study reveal therefore

that Adult Education programs do not yet indicate an appropriate degree of adaptation to

an ageing population, particularly in their capacity to engage with external stakeholders.

5.4.4 Summary

In examining the capacity of Adult Education programs to advance educational

gerontology, this study determined that there is a distinct knowledge gap of educational

gerontology amongst Adult Education academics that limits their immediate capacity for

incorporating fundamental older adult learning principles into current programs.

However, this is mitigated by the existence of a positive internal capacity from which to

launch educational gerontology, in the form of established adult education concepts and

an educational philosophy widely consistent with empowerment of the older person as

learner. In addition, findings indicate strong support for the ameliorative principles of


Chapter 5 181

educational gerontology and for collaborative research efforts with ageing researchers.

However, examination of the external capacity underpinning educational gerontology

reveals that the lack of a specific geragogical strategy undermines any likely ageing-

related interdisciplinary collaborations, as do institutional rigidities such as lack of

authority and lengthy curriculum review processes. Furthermore, findings suggest that

funding allocations, the grant application process, geographical isolation, heavy

workloads, and current higher education reform contrive to undermine capacity by

making ageing-relevant resources difficult to achieve. This has implications for extra-

curricular activities of adult education academics as they engage with external

stakeholders such as community groups or associations for the purpose of development

of the older person.

5.5 The Wider Context

In analysing the impact of the wider social context on the capacity for universities to

advance educational gerontology, it is important to examine the political agendas

underpinning the ageing population. This is an integral step in the process underpinning

curriculum development (Print, 1987) which is recognized as a significant step towards

advancing educational gerontology as a professional area of study (Stark et al., 1987).

In Australia, the ageing population has resulted in changes to superannuation

legislation, workplace reform and anti-discrimination legislation (McIntyre, 2005). In

addition, various reports have been published that outline strategies for education and

training and for valuing and investing in people, and include “Keeping Older Workers in

Work” (Department of Ageing, 2003) and “The Ageing Population: Implications for the

Australian Workforce” (Jorgensen, 2004). However, details found in this study show

that the cascading effect of these ageing-related documents on either day-to-day

activities or on the generation of organisational capacity have not yet reached these

participants. It is likely therefore that it is the impact of higher education reform in

operation since 2002 which is a primary obstacle in advancing educational gerontology.

The need to sustain competitiveness and counteract the pressures associated with

globalisation and the knowledge economy has overtaken issues that concern society and

the needs of marginalised groups such as the aged. This indicates a stagnant


Chapter 5 182

functionalism (Powell, 2001) or acquiescent functionalism (Townsend, 1981) in which

the causes of problems with ageing are “attributed to difficulties in individual

adjustment to ageing, retirement of physical decrescence, all the while acquiescing to the

states, the economy and inequality” (Townsend, 1980, p. 6).

If such a declinist approach is combined with a political economy view of

ageing, it will do little justice to the treatment of non-economic, personal and social

benefits attributed to lifelong learning. This might in some part be attributed to an

overlap or interconnection of social theories of ageing which are emerging as

contradictory as the social changes associated with an ageing population are manifested.

For example, while older adults are expected to operate in a functionalist role (Powell,

2001) on the basis of an political economy of ageing (Walker, 2005) where productivity

is paramount (Elsey, 1986; Lear, 2004), this has the effect of homogenising older people

(Walker, 2005) which is contradictory to the growing recognition that choice in career

decisions such as retirement and a greater consideration of purpose underpinning social

engagement is fundamental to successful ageing (Bowling, 2007). This author states

that a developmental focus encapsulates six criteria necessary for meeting the challenges

in older age, which include “positive interactions with others; a sense of purpose;

autonomy; self-acceptance; personal growth; and environmental fit” (p. 270).

The ideal model of successful ageing is a multi-disciplinary one that

accommodates sensitivities to differences in cultural values, life events such as work and

retirement, and the range of opportunities to age successfully (Bowling, 2007). The

findings of this study clearly indicate however that this more holistic view of older adult

learners has not been formulated in Australian university programs participating in this

study. As Findsen (2003) states, some higher education ageing policy has allowed “the

instrumental purpose of education to take precedence over the expressive” (p. 3).

Interdisciplinary collaboration is a key element in establishing and advancing

educational gerontology practice, particularly as it spans both adult education and social

gerontology disciplines. This study’s investigation into the degree to which

collaboration occurred between the Adult Education academics and Ageing Research

center Directors identified contextual barriers to collaboration with other disciplines.

For example, localised barriers to advancing educational gerontology through


Chapter 5 183

collaboration include issues such as lack of authority, the need for a shared interest with

other collaborators, interpersonal issues, personal workload, and resources such as

funding, the inclusion of broader contextual issues such as institutional rigidity and the

lack of interest or commitment from the university administration. The identification of

these elements reinforces and justifies the value of this investigation and highlights the

need for attention to these areas by universities because it is an appropriate response to

social change.

Other contextual influences relevant to the advancement of educational

gerontology included pressure from industry stakeholders and business associations

which can lead to the potential for over-emphasis on productivity-related curriculum

decisions (Kuchinke, 2000). This situation is critical to the advancement of educational

gerontology due to the fact that universities are recognised as having a key contribution

to make in meeting the needs of local communities through curriculum design and

content (Winter et al., 2006). While it is acknowledged that specific institutional

structures mediate the relationships between academics and the society that supports

them, this study shows that there is a need for the integration of gerontological

knowledge into a general understanding by organisations regarding the field of ageing

(Howe, 1990). This study has shown that such a curriculum does not yet exist in

Australian Adult Education programs.

The predominance of ageing programs that are linked to the medical model

should not be underestimated as an obstacle to the future of educational gerontology in

adult education as health issues increase in prominence as the population ages. This is

noted by Howe (1990) who reports that geriatric medicine programs have already been

extended to include sociologists and psychologists on the academic staff. In addition,

the presence of ageism in society has the potential to discourage educational gerontology

curriculum policy efforts. However it may be that the realities associated with the

general ageing of the workforce across academic and health-related professions might

reduce this damaging practice (Friedsam & Martin, 1980).

Professional and operational relationships between university Faculties, the

employment marketplace for graduates, and the infancy of educational gerontology as a

specialist field all represent further obstacles towards formulating an educational


Chapter 5 184

response to the ageing population. This study has revealed that while not

insurmountable these are real challenges that exist. Unfortunately, the sectorisation of

Australia’s education and training system and its Federal-State divisions also represent

obstacles to widening lifelong learning opportunities (McIntyre, 2005) and might

exacerbate competition among the various post-compulsory education providers.

Collectively, these contextual factors have the potential to hinder the

development of educational gerontology as an area of specialisation and to retard its

advancement within established adult education programs. However, equally powerful

but less obvious forces such as demographics, social change, workplace pressures,

democracy, citizenship (Winter et al., 2006) and the increasing value of human capital

(Gunasekara, 2004) represent a significant counterbalancing force that is likely to add

impetus to education and training activities (Bloom & Canning, 2006) and will by

implication support the advancement of adult education specific to older Australians.

Despite the data from this study that reveals a paucity of evidence of educational

gerontology in Adult Education programs, the implications of the data from this study

justify the position that, at the very least, recognition of the need for a suitable response

in respect of the education of older adults now exists.

5.6 Advancing Educational Gerontology Curriculum

In determining curriculum elements necessary to advance educational gerontology, the

study has found:

Finding Six:

Adult Education programs represented in this study can be enhanced by a review and

restructure of existing curriculum to include elements of educational gerontology that consider

issues to and for older adults


Chapter 5 185

In addition to discipline-based curriculum review, this study has found that:

Finding Seven:

Educational capacity within Ageing Research Centres represented in this study can be enhanced

by participating in professional development activities that introduce educational gerontology

concepts to and for the older adult

The findings of this study reveal a significant lack of knowledge about educational

gerontology constructs and of the breadth and scope of educational endeavours to and

for older adults. Without a comprehensive understanding of this emerging specialisation,

it is unlikely that effective older adult learning will be achieved out in the field. This

study has shown that it is a situation that has implications for professional development

of adult education academics, workplace learning and performance practitioners and

those involved in health education.

To commence curriculum development activities for new programs, Print (1987)

states that development should begin with the conceptualisation of content across

numerous domains, a process referred to as curriculum presage (p. 48). Curriculum

presage involves consideration of those activities and forces that influence curriculum

decision-making tasks and is described as “those basic forces that shape the minds of the

curriculum developers” (p. 48).

There are three sources that can inform the basis of curriculum development:

philosophical concepts of the nature and value of knowledge; the studies of sociology

and culture; and studies of learners and learning theory (Print, 1987, p. 51). The

findings of this study reveal a strong support for valuing learning as experience. This

position is consistent with Dewey’s theory of learning as a social activity (Dewey,

1938). The significance of a common philosophy in advancing educational gerontology

curriculum development is highlighted in this study because it symbolises support for a

progressive educational philosophy. Progressive education is consistent with Dewey’s

concepts of the nature and value of knowledge which involves learning as a social event

(Dewey, 1938). This approach gives life to the nature of the experience where the


Chapter 5 186

quality of the experience is characterized by the following progressive education

principles:

� Expression and cultivation of individuality

� Free activity

� Learning through experience

� Acquiring skills as a means to attaining ends which make vital direct appeal

� Making the most of the opportunities of present life

� Making acquaintance with a changing world (p. 5).

A progressive educational philosophy is concerned with the nature of value

(Dewey, 1938). For the purposes of this study, it is asserted that the nature of value lies

in the quality of the learning experience of the older Australian. This position is

consistent with fundamental educational gerontology objectives including emancipation

and empowerment (Formosa, 2002) and the notion of successful ageing (Bowling,

2007). Such an axiological consideration is important in development of curriculum for

future generations or in situations where social transformation is required (Print, 1987).

It introduces the notion of ethics, the right or wrong and the good or bad as it applies to

social and human behaviour, and this justifies further the placement of concepts of

citizenship, human rights, equity and democracy within educational gerontology

curriculum, particularly where ageism is concerned (Phillipson & Biggs, 1998).

Findings in this study support the view that a curriculum that addresses ageism,

its origins and prevalence in contemporary social and community settings, is

fundamental to advancing educational gerontology. This assertion is supported by

Sheldon (1998) who developed a process to reflect on personal age bias in a lifespan

development course, and recommended that students understand how research reinforces

ageist stereotypes. Stereotypes reinforce ageist practices and erode the self-worth of

older people (T.D Nelson, 2002). Curriculum that debunks the myths of ageing can also

be useful in introducing lifespan issues such as old-old compared to the young-old, and

rethinking notions of retirement to challenge socioeconomic indicators that are

perpetuated by the media (Sheldon, 1998).

Another important element for educational gerontology curriculum development

is the clarification of practice skills necessary to engage with and provide service for


Chapter 5 187

older adults. This is significant given the poor rate of engagement with and for older

adult learners by the participants in this study. The full range and diversity of potential

clients in the aged sector cannot be overlooked, particularly as the field of ageing serves

multiple clienteles where “older people are only one of them” (Wendt & Peterson, 1993,

p. 184). It is widely acknowledged that older learners become less homogenous as they

age (Thornton, 2002), requiring a wider repertoire of practitioner skills (Moseley &

Dessinger, 2007). An appreciation of the diversity of the learning population as it

relates to education and training methodologies (Ilmarinen, 2005) is therefore also a

critical element to educational gerontology curriculum development.

Over time, as the perceptions of the societal and business benefits of older adults

begins to increase, the need for professional practitioners to acquire knowledge about

ageing and society will prevail. This position complements the purpose and influence of

this investigation. It is imperative that core educational gerontology curriculum

elements should therefore include an integration of concepts derived from social

gerontology, where the older person is viewed from a biological, psychological and

social perspective (Whitbourne, 2001) and the social structures within which they

operate (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002), to determine an educational platform from which to

operate. A biological consideration of ageing would address how the passage of time

affects physiological systems and be useful in the development and selection of age-

friendly instructional methods and media (Victor, 2004). Psychological considerations

include mental function (Bromley, 1990) and notions of self and identity (Phillipson &

Biggs, 1998; Hodkinson et al., 2007), both highly relevant to our expanding

understandings of learning and work and the influence of relationships on learning.

Sociological understandings include the perceptions of the ageing individual learner, the

position and experience of the older learner within society and how this might be shaped

by structural forces such as class, gender and ethnicity (Whitbourne, 2001). As ideas

regarding the nature of successful ageing have developed and continue to emerge, the

importance of the social context for the shaping of the experience of old age has

assumed greater prominence (Victor, 2004). Specific social topics such as new versions

of retirement (Walker, 1996) and workplace learning in intergenerational contexts

(Hankin, 2005) are further justification for including sociological content in an


Chapter 5 188

educational gerontology curriculum framework. Understanding social theories of ageing

is therefore critical to the study of and curriculum content for educational gerontology as

it examines how social institutions respond to the increased number and visibility of

older people (Powell, 2001).

Finally, a focus on older adult learning is of paramount importance to

educational gerontology curriculum development, particularly in the professional

development of future WLPs (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007). Elements crucial to this

curriculum content include new understandings of the characteristics of the older adult

learner (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Tornstam, 2005), including the range of geragogical

methods for teaching older adults as provided by Ilmarinen (2005). Consideration of the

types of older adult learning needs, different motivations underpinning learning at an

older age, and the impact of relationships and self-identity on workplace learning

(Hodkinson et al., 2007) particularly amidst transitionary career phases, is also essential.

While educational gerontology is acknowledged as currently in an embryonic stage, it

will also be critical for older adult educators to understand the scope of future delivery

mechanisms for educational gerontology across community, workplace and higher

education sectors.

5.7 Conclusions

The changing Australian demographic, which indicates that the median age in Australia

is expected to reach 46 years by 2051 (Access Economics, 2001), adds to the

justification for focusing this research on the contribution that Adult Educators skilled in

educational gerontology might make to the lives of older people. Demographics predict

a future of enormous change where older adults will extend their working lives and

where by implication traditional notions of ageing as an inevitable process of decline

will be replaced with a focus on developmental ageing where continuity and social

engagement is highlighted to encourage well-being. Adult education is therefore

compelled to widen its theoretical basis beyond that of “the art and science of helping

adults learn” (Knowles, 1980, p. 43) to meet educational challenges inherent in an

ageing population. Making use of research effectively is critically important for the

Adult Education sector, where improving learner’s outcomes and widening participation


Chapter 5 189

is a fundamental goal, due to economic rationalization, globalization and market

influences (Hillier & Jamieson, 2003). The changes associated with demographic

change have added further impetus to research into adult education issues.

Unfortunately, research often arrives too late and by then policy in this sector has moved

on (Hillier & Jamieson, 2003). As a consequence, this renders a disservice to adult

learning generally, and misses the opportunity to “mine the rich vein of interpretive

sociology in order to provide an account of adult learning as a dialectical relationship of

human consciousness and social setting” (McIntyre, 1997, p. 297).

Details gleaned from the research methodology in conjunction with issues and

themes related to the literature on educational gerontology have determined that social

change has not yet been translated into educational practices developed specifically for

the older adult, leading to the development of research to:

a) Seek evidence of educational gerontology activities in Adult Education

programs in Australian university Adult Education Faculties and Schools,

and Ageing Research Centres;

b) Investigate the current capacity of Australian universities to advance

educational gerontology in Adult Education programs; and

c) Develop a framework for educational gerontology curriculum elements to

extend current Adult Education programs.

Drawing from the results of this research it can be concluded that:

� Adult Education programs in Australian universities have not responded to

an ageing population through the development of programs and activities that

reflect the constructs of educational gerontology.

� Despite growing economic and social pressures to educate older people, and

the acknowledgement that education has an integral role to play in successful

ageing, educational gerontology is in its infancy as a specialist area in

Australia.

� While the capacity for applying educational gerontology exists in Australian

universities, systemic and contextual barriers currently impede the

advancement of this field.


Chapter 5 190

� Educational gerontology is able to make a significant contribution to the

learning experiences of older adults by extending current understandings of

adult education among adult educators to include the biopsychosocial needs

of older adults.

� Academics responsible for current Australian university adult education

programs require professional development in educational gerontology in

order to provide effective teaching to and for this emerging demographic.

� Australian university curriculum relevant to professional preparation in

educational gerontology is achievable through a synthesis of content

extracted from the disciplines of sociology, behavioural and educational

psychology, gerontology and adult education.

5.8 Significance of the Findings

For educational gerontology as a specialist area, these findings represent a realistic

assessment of its stage of development, and its likelihood of successful integration into

established Australian university Adult Education programs. Due to its relative infancy

as a distinctive field, findings of this study have established the baseline from which

future developmental activities are needed to promote the field generally. In some cases

this study will have introduced educational gerontology to practising adult educators for

the first time, and will assist in articulating possible ways in which to expand and

develop their own understanding of older adult learners. This study has therefore made a

significant contribution towards introducing, promoting and advancing the field of

educational gerontology generally.

For practitioners, the results of this study have the potential to raised awareness

of and potential for educational gerontology as an extension of current university

activities. From a professional development perspective, these findings have identified

some major skills and knowledge gaps in adult educators and researchers in ageing.

This study has also provided an analysis of the educational gerontology shortcomings

relevant to Australian university Ageing Research Centres’ missions and goals. The

potential applicability of educational gerontology has been also been analysed to reveal

where current understandings need development to meet emerging educational needs.


Chapter 5 191

Such a springboard is beneficial for professional development planning, career

pathways, personal development and entrepreneurial projects.

This study has also identified areas in adult education that require policy

development and adaptation. At the government level, these results identify a critical

need for the development of a policy that ensures a quality standard in the education of

older adults irrespective of their settings. The incorporation of educational gerontology

principles in the drafting of this policy will ensure that the overarching ameliorative

purpose behind educating older adults is achieved, and will encourage practitioners to

apply appropriate geragogical instructional strategies when planning education and

training interventions. Administrators in the higher education sector have also been

provided with substantive social and demographic information essential to the

development of an accurate and strategic operational plan.

Seen from a curriculum development perspective, this study has generated a

comprehensive situational analysis from which to launch curriculum activities relevant

to the older learner. In addition, findings have generated a strong case for collaboration

between distinct disciplines to achieve a curriculum more appropriate for the older adult

educator. This study will support the argument for a more responsive curriculum review

process that reflects changing social circumstances.

There is educational significance to this study, particularly for researchers

interested in exploring the synergistic opportunities that lie between the disciplines of

adult education and social gerontology. This study has provided a strong sociological

argument for collaboration. From a theoretical perspective, this study has challenged the

status quo of traditional understandings of adult education and identified how adults’

learning might be affected by environments and their sense of self. This study pioneers

educational gerontology as a step forward in the evolution of adult education practice,

and provides a starting point for future research into the range of educational

gerontology activities that emerged out of the literature. It is significant therefore that

this study has generated for researchers the first model of educational gerontology

operating within the Australian university sector and the first account of the current level

of activity in universities across the country.


Chapter 5 192

Economically, this study is significant as the findings demonstrate that the

educational profile of the older individual requires significant attention in relation to the

overall economic prosperity of the nation. Moreover, this study has narrowed the gap

between work and life, and introduced age management into organisational management

practices. To achieve this, ageist practices that create obstacles to training opportunities

and workforce participation will require dismantling, to be replaced with more equitable

investment in education and training in the workplace. Momentum generated by

equitable workplace practices will consequently be felt in communities as more older

people experience empowerment and self-determination, supported by age-friendly work

environments, revised notions of retirement, skilful knowledge management strategies

that value the tacit knowledge of older employees, and community consultation from

both employment stakeholders and university academics.

5.8.1 Limitations of the Research

The scope of this study is limited to two specific Australian university settings and it is

acknowledged that other university entities might be applying educational gerontology

in a variety of ways that have not been identified in this research. The study is also

limited to coordinators of Adult Education programs and Directors of Ageing Research

centres employed in this capacity at the time of the study. It is also acknowledged that

the study did not extend to a detailed training needs analysis of staff within each setting,

and it is possible that some knowledge of older adult learning might exist among other

Faculty members. In addition, this study has not examined the private sector to

determine evidence or capacity of this specialist field, nor has it analysed the

geragogical quality of ad hoc educational programs, resources or toolkits developed

specifically for the older person.

Methodologically, the study utilised electronically-based technologies to

overcome issues of geographical distance, and it is acknowledged that this method may

not have been familiar or convenient to all participants. The use of the telephone for the

interview process may also have affected the quality of the contributions made by

participants due to a lack of face-to-face contact, and the short time available to establish

a rapport with the participant.


Chapter 5 193

In practical terms, the workload of some participants necessitated that interviews

be held after work hours. While this indicated a high level of commitment and interest

in the study, it should be acknowledged that participants were tired at this time of day

which may have affected the breadth of their contribution.

5.8.2 Recommendations for Future Work

There exists enormous scope for further work in the area of educational gerontology,

and this ranges from research activities, development of educational resources, through

to community projects. From a research perspective, it is vital that research is

undertaken to extend the understanding of older adult learners and the influence of their

contexts and life stage on the effectiveness and suitability of their learning experiences.

In addition, it is important to encourage further postgraduate work in geragogy, to

promote educational gerontology as a specialist area and to raise its profile in adult

education and lifelong learning. Globally, it is worth investigating other countries reach

into educational gerontology through a comparative analysis of social gerontology

programs or undergraduate degrees in Applied Gerontology.

Based on the findings of this study that reveals educational gerontology to be at

an early developmental stage, it is important to continue to develop educational

gerontology as a specialised field through the establishment of networks and

associations that can collaborate to arrange colloquia, lobby for overseas speakers and

generate a body of literature relevant to the field. Other collaborative enterprises that

can promote the field include research entities, aged care organisations and

consultancies, community groups, employer groups and government agencies. These

activities will however require a more comprehensive adoption of educational

gerontology as a recognised body of knowledge within adult education, whereby

universities recruit and develop staff able to deliver educational gerontology content to

students, to participate in community projects, and to promote the value of education to

older adults though business forums, at leisure clubs and associations, sporting venues

and in retirement villages, thereby contributing towards a more equitable society within

which the oldest among us are bestowed with both value and respect.


Chapter 5 194


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Appendix 1 210

Appendix 1: Project introductory correspondence

QUT Letterhead Faculty of Education <<Insert date>> <<Insert Organisational Title>> <<Insert Centre Name>> <<Insert Address>> <<Insert Telephone No>> <<Insert Email Adress>> Dear Sir Re: Research study in educational gerontology in ageing research and development The establishment of Ageing Research Centres is important to improve our understanding of the older Australian and their physical, emotional and social needs, and is justified in respect of Australia’s ageing population. This Doctoral research project is concerned with examining how Higher Education might participate in this research domain. In particular, it focuses on adult education, and the relationship between the practice of educational gerontology and the application of geragogical principles in educational programs relevant to the older Australian. The sample for this research comprises twenty Ageing Research Centres identified across Australia. As you represent an active member of this community, I would like to invite you to participate in my study. Please be assured that your privacy and anonymity will be maintained at all times during the project. To illustrate this, I have attached a description of the data collection method and ethical protocols, and a sample of the questions to be asked, together with a consent form for your convenience. I look forward to hearing from you regarding participation in this project. If you have any questions please don’t hesitate to contact me at [email protected] or by telephone on (07) 3864 3456. Yours sincerely Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht


Appendix 2 211

Appendix 2: Research Protocols

THE EXTENT OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY

IN AGEING RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

RESEARCH PROTOCOLS

Researcher : Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education, QUT Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove Qld 4059 Telephone 07 3864 3456 Email: [email protected]

Supervisor : Dr Tricia Fox School of Learning and Professional Studies Faculty of Education, QUT Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove Qld 4059 Telephone 07 3864 3798 Email: [email protected]

Description of Project This study is investigates the extent of educational gerontology in ageing research and development in Australian Higher Education. A telephone interview, based on the questions provided in the enclosed questionnaire, forms the basis for the investigation. Eligibility You are eligible to participate if you perform a leadership role in a university-affiliated Research Centre concerned with Ageing Research and Development. Voluntary participation Your participation in this project is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw your comments at any time during the project. Your decision to participate will in no way impact upon your personal standing, your future career, and will not in any way influence the success of your Centre. A consent form is provided overleaf for your convenience. Anonymity and confidentiality Information gained during the telephone interviews will be confidential and the identities of the participants, and the individual centres, will be anonymous. It will not be possible to link your or your centres’, contribution to the research findings. While the telephone conversations will be recorded for transcription purposes, tapes will be cleaned once transcription is complete. Final interview results will be accessible to the research team only for research and educational purposes, and will be stored for five years in a lockable filing cabinet, then destroyed. Questions and further information For additional information or questions about the project, you are welcome to contact the project leader, Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht, on 3864 3456 or by email [email protected] Concerns or complaints If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of this research you are welcome to contact the Research Ethics Officer 3864 2340 or email [email protected]. Please quote the University Human Research Ethics Committee Reference Number 4155H. Thank you very much for participating in this study.


Appendix 3 212

Appendix 3: Consent Form

THE EXTENT OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY

IN AGEING RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

CONSENT FORM

By signing this consent form, I am indicating that I:

• Have understood the information about this research project;

• Have had any questions answered to my satisfaction;

• Understand that I may withdraw my comments at any time;

• Understand that I may contact the research team if there are any questions about the project, or the Research Ethics Officer on 07 3864 2340 or [email protected] if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of the project; and

• Agree to participate in the project.

Centre: …………………………………………………………………………………………………. Name:..…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Signature: ...........………………………………………………………………………………………. Date: …………./……………./…………. My preferred date for the telephone interview is: ………/……………/…………. My preferred time for the telephone interview is: ……………………………….am/pm. (It is advisable to set aside at least 30 minutes for this interview).

Please return this form to Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht, using one of the options below: 1. By Email: [email protected] OR 2. By Fax: 07 3864 3025 OR 3. By Post: Level 5, B Block Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology Victoria Park Avenue Kelvin Grove Qld 4059


Appendix 4 (a) 213

Appendix 4 (a): Sample Survey Instrument/Ageing Re search Centre

1. What is the primary research focus of your Centre?

Health/Biomedical

Social Gerontology

Aged Care & Services

Education & Training

Workplace & Retirement

Multi-disciplinary

Other (please describe)

2. How long has your centre been established?

Less than 3 years

3 to 5 years

6 to 8 years

9 to 10years

More than 10 years

3. Is there a direct affiliation between your Research Centre and a University?

Yes

No Please go to Question 5

4. If yes, please indicate what purposes these affilia tions serve (please tick all that apply).

Postgraduate Student Supervision

University Policy Formulation

Funding

Research Collaboration

Curriculum Development

Consultancy and Advice

Administration

Industry Links


Appendix 4 (a) 214

Community Links

Other (please list)

5. How familiar are you with the practice of education al gerontology?

Not familiar

Slightly familiar

Familiar

Very Familiar

Please comment on the reasons for your answer:

6. Does your Research Centre design or deliver any adu lt education or training programs specific to the older Australian?

Yes

No

If Yes Please describe the topics/content of adult education programs offered by your Centre:

7. Does your Centre have any links to a Faculty of Edu cation?

Yes


8. Please indicate to what extent collaboration betwee n your Centre and a Faculty of Education has involved any of the following activities:

Definition of Terms

Not at all no interaction whatsoever

Minor involvement occasional interaction with Faculty staff

Regular involvement ongoing interaction with key Faculty members


Appendix 4 (a) 215

Significant involvement sustained interaction with key Faculty members for joint project outcomes.

Not

at all Minor

involvement Regular

involvement Significant

involvement

Please elaborate on your answer (no word limit)

8a Curriculum Review

8b Curriculum Development

8c Program Development

8d Professional Development of Centre Staff

8e Professional Development of University Staff

8f

Professional Development of Private (Aged) Sector employees

8g Evaluation of Community Educational Programs for the Aged

8h

Development of Accreditation Standards or Best Practice Guidelines

8i Geragogical Interventions or Program Delivery

8j Application of General Educational Gerontology Principles

8k Applications for Grants or Funding


Appendix 4 (a) 216

9. Please describe how a Faculty of Education might co ntribute to your Research Centre in the future:

10. Please describe any perceived barriers/obstacles to collaboration with a Faculty of Education

in the future?

11. Would you be prepared to participate in a follow up interview based on your

responses?

Yes

No

If Yes please provide contact details:

Your Name:

Phone Number:

12. Do you wish to receive a copy of the results of this study?

Yes

No


Your Name (optional):

Research Centre: Postal Address:

Email (if preferred):


Appendix 4 (b) 217

Appendix 4 (b): Sample Survey Instrument/Faculty o f Education

1. What is the primary research focus of your Faculty?

Health/Biomedical

Social Gerontology

Aged Care & Services

Education & Training

Workplace & Retirement

Multi-disciplinary

Other (please describe)

2. How long has your faculty been established?

Less than 3 years

3 to 5 years

6 to 8 years

9 to 10years

More than 10 years

3. Is there any affiliation between your Faculty and a n Ageing Research Centre?

Yes


4. If yes, please indicate what purposes these affilia tions serve (please tick all that apply).

Postgraduate Student Supervision

University Policy Formulation

Funding

Research Collaboration

Curriculum Development

Consultancy and Advice

Administration

Industry Links

Community Links

Other (please list)


Appendix 4 (b) 218

5. How familiar are you with the practice of education al gerontology?

Not familiar

Slightly familiar

Familiar

Very Familiar

Please comment on the reasons for your answer:

6. Does your Faculty design or deliver any adult educa tion or training programs specific to the

older Australian?

Yes

No

If Yes Please describe the topics/content of adult education programs offered by your Centre:

7. Does your Faculty have any links to Ageing Research ?

Yes



Appendix 4 (b) 219

8. Please indicate to what extent collaboration betwee n your Faculty and an Ageing Research Center has involved any of the following activities :

Definition of Terms

Not at all no interaction whatsoever

Minor involvement occasional interaction with Faculty staff

Regular involvement ongoing interaction with key Faculty members

Significant involvement sustained interaction with key Faculty members for joint project outcomes.

Not

at all Minor

involvement Regular

involvement Significant

involvement

Please elaborate on your answer (no word limit)

8a Curriculum Review

8b Curriculum Development

8c Program Development

8d Professional Development of Centre Staff

8e Professional Development of University Staff

8f

Professional Development of Private (Aged) Sector employees

8g Evaluation of Community Educational Programs for the Aged

8h

Development of Accreditation Standards or Best Practice Guidelines

8i Geragogical Interventions or Program Delivery

8j Application of General Educational Gerontology Principles


Appendix 4 (b) 220

8k Applications for Grants or Funding

9. Please describe how an Ageing Research Centre might contribute to your Faculty in the

future:

10. Please describe any perceived barriers/obstacles to collaboration with an Ageing Research

Centre in the future?

11. Would you be prepared to participate in a follow up interview based on your responses?

Yes

No


Your Name:

Phone Number:

12. Do you wish to receive a copy of the results of this study?

Yes

No


Your Name (optional):

Research Centre: Postal Address:

Email (if preferred):


Appendix 5 221

Appendix 5: Research Sample: Australian Ageing Res earch Centres

Name Location

1. Ageing and Long Term Care Policy and Practices Unit

University of Melbourne

www.socialwork.unimelb.edu.au/research/ageing

2. Alma Unit for Research on Ageing (AURA)

Victoria University

www.staff.vu.edu.au/AURA

3. ANZAC Research Institute

Concord Repatriation Hospital, Sydney, NSW www.anzac.edu.au

4. Australasian Centre on Ageing (ACA)

The University of Queensland www.uq.edu.au/aca

5. Centre for Ageing Studies

(CAS)

Flinders Institute of Health Research, Flinders University.

www.cas.flinders.edu.au

6. Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies (CAPS)

Barton, Canberra ACT. www.centreforageing.org.au

7. Centre for Applied Gerontology (CAG)

Research Unit of Bundoora Extended Care Centre of Northern Health, Victoria.

www.nh.org.au/Research_and_Education/Centre_for_Applied_Gerontology_CAG

8. Centre for

Education and Research on Ageing (CERA)

Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney.

www.cera.usyd.edu.au

9. Centre for Elder Law University of Western Sydney

www.uws.edu.au/about/acadorg/clb/sl/research/elderlaw

10. Centre for Mental Health Research: Ageing Research Unit

Australian National University, ACT www.anu.edu.au/cmhr/ageing/

11. Centre for Physical Activity in Ageing (CPAA)

Northfield, South Australia. Specialised Unit of Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre of the Royal Adelaide Hospital.

www.cpaa.sa.gov.au

12. Centre for Research into Aged Care Services (CRACS)

Division of Health Sciences, Curtin University of Technology WA www.cracs.curtin.edu.au

13. Centre for Research and Education in Ageing (CREA)

University of Newcastle, NSW

www.newcastle.edu.au/faculty/health/research/crea.htm

14. Centre for Social Change Research

Queensland University of Technology www.socialchange.qut.edu.au/about

15. Communication Disability in Ageing Research Unit (CDARU)

University of Qld, Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology

www.shrs.uq.edu.au/cdaru/cdaru/index.html

16. Lincoln Centre for Ageing and Community Care Research

Australian Institute for Primary Care, La Trobe University, Victoria


Appendix 5 222

www.latrobe.edu.au/aipc/lincoln.htm

17. Monash Ageing Research Centre (MONARC)

Monash University. Southern Health’s Aged care program

www.med.monash.edu.au/healthservices/monarc/

18. National Ageing Research Institute

University of Melbourne. Melbourne Extended Care and Rehabilitation Service

www.nari.unimelb.edu.au

19. National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre

University of the Sunshine Coast

www.usc.edu.au/Rsearch/Centres/NSPAC

20. Research Centre on Ageing and Retirement (RCAR)

Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of NSW

www.arts.unsw.edu.au/ageing/


Appendix 7 223

Appendix 6: Research Sample/Adult Education

Faculty/School University

School of Learning and Professional Studies Queensland University of Technology

School of Education Charles Sturt University

School of Education Southern Cross University

Faculty of Education Curtin University of Technology

Faculty of Education University of Tasmania

Faculty of Education University of Technology Sydney

Faculty of Education University of Western Sydney

Faculty of Education University of South Australia

School of Education and Professional Studies Griffith University


Appendix 7 224

Appendix 7: Sample NVivo Interview Transcript and Coding

<Documents\Faculty Transcripts\Interview Transcription 7 August 2006> - § 1 reference coded [100.00% Coverage] Reference 1 - 100.00% Coverage Interview Transcription 7 August 2006

C: k well you’ve probably heard that this telephone conversation will be recorded. So perhaps if I could just start by thanking you again for participating in the research and mentioning a few housekeeping rules. The first is that as you heard the conversation is being recorded and in fact I will get a CD with the recording in due course. The second is that you will remain anonymous in the transcription once it’s written up there won’t be any way to identify you and your own particular opinions. Also you can ask me to stop at any time if you feel the conversation is going nowhere or you’ve had enough just say so and it’s entirely up to you. And the final point is that you can withdraw any comment that you make if you think later on that you would rather not have that recorded your entitled to say so. I: Ok. C: Alright, so maybe we could just get started then by me asking you just a little bit about your role in um your particular faculty I: My role there is a lecturer I’m involved with ah teaching in the bachelor of adult and community learning in a unit that’s called facilitation 2 which is structured its about structured teaching, structured learning. I’m also involved with the writing of ah unit outlines and unit profiles for 2 new certificate, ah grad certificate units. I’m also involved with the coordination of a program for visiting Vietnamese academics. I _____ with the university is simply a contract that completes in September. So that’s my position currently. C: Mm ok. Now can I then ask straight away if any of those activities that _____ that you’ve just listed involve consideration of the fact that the Australian population is aging? I: No, but I would say that the job that I have, it helps greatly that I have had a lot of experience in regards to adult learning and that I had completed a Phd. Um that in itself in itself indicates to me that I have been able to get this job because I am an older person. I wouldn’t not have got this job if I was a younger person without the experience. C: Ok, ok. So perhaps I should just clarify sorry if I confused you there. What I was really asking about in the teaching that you do in those bachelor of community learning and those units that you write. Any of those activities are they influenced at all in what you teach or how you teach by the fact that the Australian population is aging? I: No C: So the content hadn’t been influenced by that yet or the strategy that you employ haven’t been influenced by that I: Ah the strategies are in that the framework that’s built around my teaching in those units and the writing of those units is about life long learning


Appendix 7 225

ANNOTATIONS AND CODING 1. Teaches the process of facilitation, writes unit outlines, professional development 2. No connection to phenomenon of ageing population. 3. No content linked to ageing, but recognises the overarching link to lifelong learning. 4. Vague description of lifelong learning, with association to lifespan and stage of life (multiple stages), and links it to one of the major principles of adult learning (self-directedness) 5. Teaches concept of lifelong learning. Does not extend content to include the older learner though. 6. No affiliations with research centres or other faculties. Other staff might have. EG knowledge created through experience. No formal study in the area. Some experience with non-accredited programs for seniors. No conceptualisation of the older adult as learner, or content knowledge. General group process and classroom dynamics. No other concepts. Acknowledges the possibility of an educational gerontology unit. 7. Misunderstanding by respondent who is taking about programs specifically delivered for seniors only. 8. Chooses to combine and dilute (reduce) the issue into concept of lifelong learning. Does not willingly separate adult learners from older adult learners. Reflects lack of comprehension about lifespan and learning theory, cognition, instructional processes, physiology, social gerontology etc. 9. Evident links to ageing research. Colleagues with research interests. Students research on that topic. Internal links and external links (e.g. consultancies with local government)