A. Central Nervous System (CNS) - brain and spinal cord - integrating and command center of the

nervous system

B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - part of nervous system that extends from the brain and spinal cord

1. cranial nerves : carry signals to and from the brain 2. spinal nerves: carry signals to and from the spinal

cord

Fig 12-2 Organization of Nervous System

Somatic Autonomic (“self governing”)

-Voluntary -Involuntary

-Carry impulse to skeletal muscles -Carry impulses to viseral organs and skin smooth, cardiac muscle and

glands

Somatic vs Autonomic – are categorized based on the efferent pathway

Parasympathetic – “resting & digesting” division. It over-sees digestion, elimination and glandular function (arise from brain and sacral region)

“rest and repair”

Sympathetic – “fight, fright & flight” division. It prepares the body to cope with danger or excitement (arise from the thoracic and lumbar region)

“fight or flight”

1) Sensory neurons - or afferent neurons transmit impulses toward the CNS from sensory receptors in the PNS. (Sensory input/function)

2) Interneurons - or association neurons connect motor and sensory neurons and are confined to the CNS. The processing and interpreting of the sensory input to make decisions about what should be done at the moment. (Integrative function)

3) Motor neurons - or efferent neurons, carry impulses away from the CNS to the effector organs, muscles or glands. Most are multipolar. (Motor output/function)

*Let’s say you are driving a car and you happento come upon a red light (sensory input), yournervous system integrates this info (red light means“ and your foot goes for the brake

(motor output). “

Nervous Tissue - made up of 2 main cells

1. Neurons / nerve cells: basic structural units of the nervous system and are specialized to react to physical and chemical changes in the environment. They conduct nerve impulses

2. Neuroglial cells / supporting cells: non-excitable cells that surround and wrap neurons (exp: Schwann cells)

Glial cells - supporting cells of the CNS and PNS.They fill spaces, support neurons, provide structure, produce myelin, and carry on phagocytosis. Glia means “glue”

Types of Glial Cells

1. Astrocytes - “star cells” are the most abundant. They are found between nervous tissue and blood vessels. Their function is to provide support, hold parts together, and regulate nutrients and ion concentrations. (BBB)

*Responsible for scar tissue

2. Oligodendrocytes - they are arranged in rows along nerve fibers and wrap their cell processes around the axons of nerve fibers within the brain and spinal cord, producing myelin sheaths. http://www.myelin.org/

3. Microglia - are phagocytes of the CNS. They engulf invading microorganisms and injured or dead neurons. (smallest and least abundant)

4. Ependymal - form a simple epithelium that lines the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain. Function in

producing and circulating fluid. (covers the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord)

5. Schwann cells – found in the PNS, they provide support for nerve fibers and sometimes form myelin around them (neurilemma).

*Could be a possible treatment for nerve damage or even spinal cord injury.

Text : p348 Fig 12-4

Cell body - consists of a nucleus, nucleolus, cytoplasm, and various organelles.

Neurofibrils - fine threads that extend into nerve fibers (cytoskeleton).

Dendrites - nerve fibers that branch like the limb of a tree, function as receptive sites and conduct electrical signals toward the cell body.

Nissel Bodies - lg clusters of RER and free ribosomes. They renew the membranes of the cell and the protein part of the cytosol which is needed for nerve transmission.

Axon - arises from the cone shaped region of the cell body called the axon hillock and then tapers to form a slender process that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Schwann cells - tightly wrapped layers of cell membrane composed of a lipoprotein called myelin forming the myelin sheath around nerves found in the PNS. Neurilemma sheath surrounds the myelin sheath.

Nodes of Ranvier - gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells inc rate of impulse.

*tract – bundles of nerve fibers running through the CNS

*nerves- bundles of nerve fibers running through the PNS

*white matter – myelinated nerve fibers

*gray matter – unmyelinated nerve fibers

1) Multipolar neurons - more than 2 processes or nerve fibers

2) Bipolar neurons - have 2 processes that extend from opposite sides of the cell body (ear, smell region of nose, retina of eye)

3) Unipolar neurons - have a short, single process that emerges from the cell body and divides like a “T” into 2 long branches

P349 Fig 12-6

Bipolar

Unipolar Multipolar

*Cell membrane surface is polarized/electrical due to a difference in ion concentrations. This is important inthe conduction of muscle and nerve impulses.

Nerve cell at rest or not conducting impulses has a [Na+] outside the cell membrane and a [K+] inside the cell membrane

Na+ Na+ Na+ K+ K+

Polarized Membrane Potential

A. Resting Potential - in a resting nerve cell, the potential difference or difference in electrical chg between 2 regions (-70mV). p354 Fig 12-12, p355 Fig 12-13

+ + + + + + + + + + (+) (Polarized) + + + + + + (-) + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + *Net effect = more (+) chgd ions outside the membrane making the inside more (-) compared to the outside (Resting/Polarized/Inactive neuron).

Potential Changes1. Depolarized - resting potential decreases, meaning as Na ions enter the cell, the inside of the cell membrane becomes more

positive than the outside (+30mV); therefore, making the outside more negative. Once the threshold potential is reached the action potential/nerve impulse is propagated.

- - - + + + + ++ + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + +- - - + + + + +

Depolarized

Na+ diffuse inward and membrane loses its electrical chg

2. Repolarization - K+ ion channels open and allow K+ ions to diffuse outward making the cell membrane chgd again (Na+ & K+ pump) fully restores membrane potential

p356 Table 12-1, Fig 12-15 + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -

+ + + + + + + + + + http://trc.ucdavis.edu/biosci10v/bis10v/week10/06potential.html

action potential - the sequence of depolarizing and repolarizing*All-or-none response…..if threshold is reached the chg is

irreversible.http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__the_nerve_impulse.html

Read conduction of action potential on pg357

Impulse Conduction - myelinated nerve fibers conduct impulses at a faster rate then unmyelinated nerve fibers b/c of the greater diameter and the nodes….jumping vs walking, the myelin also inc the surface area and conductsbetter.

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/AniSalt.htm

Synapse - the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron or an axon and an effector organ.

Presynaptic terminal / neuron - end of the axon postsynaptic membrane / neuron - the dendrite or the

effector cellsynaptic cleft - the space separating the presynaptic and

postsynaptic neurons, or the gap in a synapsesynaptic transmission - the process of an impulse cross-

ing the gap at a synapse.

* Axons have several rounded structures called synaptic knobs that contain numerous membraneous sacs called synaptic vesicles that release neurotransmitters or molecules that transmit signals across a synapse.

Fig 12-20 p359, Fig 12-21 p360

Chemical substances that transmit signals/messages across a synapse

A. Stimulatory - acetylcholine and norepinephrinecause increased postsynaptic membrane permeability to sodium ions.

B. Inhibitory - dopamine, serotonin, and the amino acids GABA and glycine cause a decreasein membrane permeability to sodium ions.

Reflexes - rapid, automatic motor responses to stimuli.

Reflex Arc - reflexes that are mediated by chains of neurons.

1. Sensory receptor - the site where the stimulus acts (dendritic ending of a sensory neuron)

2. Afferent or sensory neuron - transmits a impulse from the receptor into the CNS.

3. Association / Interneuron - neurons located between sensory and motor neurons

4. Motor Neuron - conducts impulse from CNS to an effector neuron

5. Effector - the muscle or gland that responds to the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting. Fig 14-15 p430

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/AniSalt.htm

A. Meninges - a group of 3 membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.

1. Dura mater - outermost layer, it extends inward between lobes of the brain.

2. Arachnoid mater - a thin, weblike membranethat lacks blood vessels and is located between the dura and pia maters.

3. Pia mater - very thin and contains many nerves as well as blood vessels.

p376 Fig 13-2

Spinal cord - nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal and consists of 31 segments each giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves.

The anterior median fissure and the posterior median sulcus divide the spinal cord into right and left halves…….Fig 13.6 p381

Functions:

•Conduct nerve impulses

•Serve as a center for spinal reflexes

1. Gray matter - butterfly structure or “H” in center, it has posterior and anterior lateral horns.

2. White matter - surrounds the gray matter and is divided into 3 regions the anterior, lateral, and posterior funiculi which contain nerve tracts3. Central canal - narrow canal that contains the cerebrospinal

fluid.

Nerve Tracts a) ascending tracts – conduct sensory impulses from body to the brain

b) descending tracts – conduct motor impulses from brain to

muscles and glands.

Lateral funiculus

Anterior funiculus

Posterior funiculus

Anterior Median fissure

Posterior median sulcus

Spinal Reflexes – reflex arc passes through the spinal cord … pg 218 Fig 9.23

3 Major parts -Cerebrum-Cerebellum-Brain Stem

I. Cerebrum - largest, contains nerve centers associated with sensory and motor functions

-cerebral hemispheres - 2 lg masses on either side-corpus callosum - connects the 2 hemispheres-convolutions or gyri - twisted ridges in the cerebrum-sulci - shallow groove-fissure- deep groove

furrows

Happy Valentines Day!!!!

http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp

*Lobes are named after the skull bonesthey lie under.

1) frontal lobe2) parietal lobe (p391 Fig 13-13)3) temporal lobe *Read about these!!4) occipital lobe 5) insula - buried deep within the lateral fissue

-cerebral cortex - superficial gray matter that covers the cerebrum “conscious mind”

-cerebral white matter - mass of white matter beneath the cerebral cortex.

-basal/cerebral nuclei - several masses of gray matter deep in the white matter.

Functions of Cerebrum1. Interprets sensory impulses 2. Stores info and memory and uses it to reason 3. Determines a persons intelligence / personality

p392 Fig 13-14, 13-15

1. Motor Areas - (frontal lobes) motor area of the right hemisphere controls muscles on the left side,concentration, drawing, problem solving, eye control, speech, concentration etc.

Broca’s area - motor speech area, coordinates muscular actions of the mouth, tongue, and larynx

Frontal Eye field - controls voluntary movements of the eyes and eyelids

p393 13-16Read over this section!!

2. Sensory Areas - skin sensations…...along center sulcus of parietal lobe - visual …..posterior end of occipital lobe- auditory area……..temporal lobes - sense of taste ……..base of central sulci - sense of smell …….deep in cerebrum

* like motor fibers, sensory fibers originate in a hemispherethat controls the opposite side of the body

3. Association Areas - analyze and interpret experiences, memory, reasoning, verbalizing, judgement and emotional feeling.

Ventricles - central cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid and are continuous with each other and the central canal of the spinal cord

a) lateral ventricle - (1st & 2nd ventricles) lie in the cerebral hemispheres

b) third ventricle - in the middle of the brain, beneath the corpus callosum, communicate with the lateral ventricles

c) fourth ventricle - in the brainstem just in front of the cerebellum connects to 3rd vent

Cerebrospinal Fluid - clear liquid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Helps protect and maintain a stable ionic concentration.

I) Diencephalon - “inter-brain” between cerebral hemispheres and above midbrain

thalmus - “gateway” to the cerebral cortex. Receives all sensory impulses (except smell)and sends to the cortex for interpretation. …..it makes us aware of pain, touch, and temp

p386 Fig 13-9

Hypothalmus - below the thalmus; main visceral control center of the body.

Functions :

1. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure 2. Regulates body temp3. Regulates thirst, hunger, weight and electrolyte balance4. Control of endocrine system: controls secretions of hormones from the pituitary gland and in turn regulates functions of visceral organs

Functions Continued…….

5. Regulation of sleep and wakefulness, circadian rhythms6. Controls movements and glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines 7. Center for emotional response, pleasure, fear, rage etc.

Limbic system - involved in emotional experience and expression…. “emotional brain”

I. Midbrain - located between diencephalon and pons… consists of gray matter that serve as reflex centers

II. Pons - the bulging region on underside of the brain stem wedged between the midbrain and the

medulla oblongata….relays impulses to help control our breathing movements.

III. Medulla Oblongata - extends from the pons to the foramen magnum of the skull…contains

a central gray matter like the spinal cordp384 Fig 13-8

- connects cerebrum to the spinal cord. The parts of it include the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Most Important Visceral centers in the Medulla

1. Cardiac center - adjusts the force and rate of the heart beat

2. Vasomotor center - regulates blood pressurevasoconstriction - constricts arteries causing blood

pressure to risevasodilation - dialates arteries reducing blood

pressure

3. Respiratory center - basic pattern and rate of breathing

4. Additional centers regulate vomiting, hiccuping, swallow- ing, coughing and sneezing.

Reticular formation - nerve fibers within brain stem that function in arousing the cerebrum *Responds to sensory impulses by activating a state of wakefulness and with decreased activity results sleep.

Cerebellum - located dorsal to the pons and medulla. It smooths and coordinates body movements thatare ordered by other brain regions that help main-tain posture and equilibrium (voluntary muscle movements).

*consists of 2 cerebellar hemispheres connected by the worm-like vermis.