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A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON INFORMATION LITERACY
EDUCATION FOR LIS STUDENTS IN THE UK AND CHINA:
WHAT AND HOW DO THEY TEACH?
A study submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Librarianship
at
THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
by
Anna Fu
September 2012
i
ABSTRACT
Background
The literature revealed that although a range of conceptions and frameworks regarding
information literacy are established for differing countries and disciplines, there is still no
specific framework for teaching information literacy in LIS education. The literature also
indicated the different situations worldwide of information literacy education involved in
LIS discipline, and there is no consensus in terms of what and how LIS students should be
taught to be information literate.
Aims
This research aimed to establish what content of information literacy is delivered by what
approaches to LIS students. It was also hoped to provide suggestions toward information
literacy teaching of iSchools in UK and China, by comparing their academics’ conceptions
of information literacy, current practices and challenges.
Methods
This study took a qualitative case study approach to investigate four iSchools in UK and
Chinese Mainland. Based on a literature review, relevant documents were then accessed to
establish a general idea about the information literacy education in each iSchool. Seven
semi-structured interviews were subsequently conducted to collect data. Except Nanjing
iSchool, where only one academic took part in this study, two academics of each other
iSchool were interviewed. During this process, more relevant documents were accessed.
Results
Academics of both countries highlighted the importance of information literacy for LIS
students, and showed similar conceptions focusing on applying information skills in varying
ii
contexts, and using information literacy to help other people. Differences however are in
their varying ideas of information, expected outcomes of using IT, students’ explicit
concepts regarding information literacy, and students’ future role as information literacy
facilitators. Each iSchool adopts different approaches to develop LIS students’ information
literacy, while it was agreed that the relevant education is throughout their whole LIS
programmes. UK iSchools showed more explicit profiles of information literacy education,
whereas Chinese iSchools combined curricula and extracurricular activities together to foster
their students’ information literacy. Academics of four iSchools agreed with the
effectiveness of problem-based approaches, while their identified common challenges
correlate to information literacy frameworks.
Conclusions
By comparing the findings of both countries, recommendations for Chinese iSchools were
provided including formulating national standards, involving self-reflection to assessment,
integrating substantial knowledge of information literacy into teaching process, and focusing
more attention on LIS students transferring their information literacy across varying contexts.
For UK iSchools, suggestions were related to extracurricular activities and international
communications.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to especially thank my supervisor Sheila Webber for all of her invaluable
support and advice throughout this dissertation. Without her help, I would not have been able
to complete this dissertation. A huge thank you also goes to all the participants who agreed
to take part in this research.
Finally, thank you to my parents for all of their love, and thank you to my friends for all of
their support and encouragement.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Rationale for the Research ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Information Literacy ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Development of Information Literacy ....................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Information Literacy in Higher Education ................................................................................. 2
1.2.3 Information Literacy in LIS Sectors .......................................................................................... 2
1.3 LIS Education in Higher Education .............................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 An Overview of LIS Education ................................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 LIS Education in the UK ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3.3 LIS Education in Chinese Mainland .......................................................................................... 3
1.4. Research Aim and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Research Aim ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.2 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Dissertation Structure .................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 6
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Conceptions of Information Literacy ............................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 Defining Information Literacy ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Comparison of Information Literacy Frameworks .................................................................... 7
2.3 Education in Library and Information Science—From a Benchmark Perspective ..................... 10
2.3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 10
2.3.2 LIS Education: UK .................................................................................................................. 10
2.3.3 LIS Education: Chinese Mainland ........................................................................................... 11
2.4 Information Literacy within LIS Education ................................................................................ 12
2.4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.4.2 Teaching Content of Information Literacy .............................................................................. 13
2.4.3 Approaches to Teaching Information Literacy ........................................................................ 14
2.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 18
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 18
v
3.2 Research Methods ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1 Qualitative Approach ............................................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Case Study Approach ............................................................................................................... 18
3.2.3 Research Methods of this Study ............................................................................................... 19
3.3 Data Investigation ....................................................................................................................... 19
3.3.1 Sampling of Cases .................................................................................................................... 19
3.3.2 Literature Search ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.3 Document Collection ............................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Data Analysis and Presentation ................................................................................................... 22
3.5 Ethical Aspects ............................................................................................................................ 23
3.6 Limitations of this Research ....................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 25
4.2 Background Information of Two Chinese iSchools .................................................................... 25
4.2.1 Background Information: Wuhan iSchool ............................................................................... 25
4.2.2 Background Information: Nanjing iSchool .............................................................................. 27
4.3 Findings: Comparison between Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool ....................................... 29
4.3.1 Chinese LIS Academics’ Conceptions of Information Literacy .............................................. 30
4.3.2 Information Literacy Teaching and Assessment ...................................................................... 32
4.3.3 International Communication and Information Literacy Education ........................................ 34
4.3.4 Barriers and Challenges for Effective Information Literacy Education .................................. 35
4.3.5 The Transferability of Information Literacy ............................................................................ 35
4.4 Background Information of two UK iSchools ............................................................................ 36
4.4.1 Background Information: Sheffield iSchool ............................................................................ 36
4.4.2 Background Information: UCL iSchool ................................................................................... 37
4.5 Findings: Comparison between Sheffield iSchool and UCL iSchool ......................................... 38
4.5.1 UK LIS Academics’ Conceptions of Information Literacy: .................................................... 39
4.5.2 Information Literacy Teaching and Assessment ...................................................................... 41
4.5.3 Attitudes and Actions Toward International Communication ................................................. 44
4.5.4 Barriers and Challenges for Effective Information Literacy Education .................................. 44
4.5.5 The Transferability of Information Literacy ............................................................................ 45
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION .................................................................................................. 46
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 46
5.2 Conceptions of Information Literacy to LIS students ................................................................. 46
5.2.1 What is ‘information’ of information literacy? ........................................................................ 46
5.2.2 What is the connection between IT skills and information literacy? ....................................... 47
vi
5.2.3 Should LIS information literate be aware of the explicit concepts of information
literacy? ............................................................................................................................................. 48
5.2.4 How should LIS information literate use their information literacy as LIS
professionals? .................................................................................................................................... 48
5.2.5 How do they feel about information literacy? .......................................................................... 49
5.2.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 49
5.3 Developing LIS Students’ Information Literacy......................................................................... 50
5.3.1 Curricula Design and Teaching Content .................................................................................. 50
5.3.2 Curricular Education and Extracurricular Activities ................................................................ 51
5.3.3 Teaching and Assessing Students’ Information Literacy ......................................................... 52
5.3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 53
5.4 Attitudes and Actions toward International Communication ...................................................... 53
5.5 Barriers and Challenges for Information Literacy Education ..................................................... 54
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 56
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 56
6.2 Fulfilment of Research Aim and Objectives ............................................................................... 56
6.3 Key Findings ............................................................................................................................... 57
6.4 Recommendations for LIS Education ......................................................................................... 58
6.4.1 Chinese LIS Education ............................................................................................................ 58
6.4.2 UK LIS Education .................................................................................................................... 59
6.5 Recommendations for Further Research ..................................................................................... 59
REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................. 61
APPENDICES ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix 1: Information Sheet ......................................................................................................... 68
Appendix 2: Participant Consent Form ............................................................................................. 72
Appendix 3: Interview Guide ............................................................................................................ 74
Appendix 4: Case Study on Wuhan iSchool ..................................................................................... 76
Appendix 5: Case Study on Nanjing iSchool .................................................................................... 84
Appendix 6: Case Study on Sheffield iSchool .................................................................................. 90
Appendix 7: Case Study on UCL iSchool ........................................................................................ 99
Appendix 8: Table of Documents ................................................................................................... 106
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Comparison of information literacy frameworks ...................................................... 8
Table 2: LIS students’ information literacy .......................................................................... 14
Table 3: LIS undergraduate programmes of Wuhan iSchool ................................................ 26
Table 4: LIS postgraduate programmes of Wuhan iSchool .................................................. 26
Table 5: LIS undergraduate education of Nanjing iSchool ................................................... 27
Table 6: LIS postgraduate education of Nanjing iSchool ..................................................... 28
Table 7: Conceptions of information literacy: Chinese LIS academics ................................ 29
Table 8: LIS programmes of Sheffield iSchool ..................................................................... 37
Table 9: Conceptions of information literacy: UK LIS academics ....................................... 39
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rationale for the Research
In a knowledge-based society, Library and Information Science (LIS) students, who are
potential LIS professionals, are not only expected to reach the general information literate
standards, but should also acquire capabilities of enhancing others people’s information
literacy. Such requirements highlight the importance of an effective information literacy
education for LIS students. From a global view, mutual learning across different countries is
widely applied to improve LIS education. However, there is limited research that
concentrates on information literacy education for LIS students, especially from a
comparative perspective. Therefore, this research aims to investigate the teaching of
information literacy in LIS education in UK and China, by focusing on two iSchools in each
country.
This chapter introduces the context of information literacy and LIS education in higher
education. The research aim and objectives are provided before giving the dissertation
structure.
1.2 Information Literacy
1.2.1 Development of Information Literacy
Information literacy was first introduced by Paul Zirkowski in 1974 as a concept that closely
relates to using information tools and resources (Andretta, 2005). The Prague Declaration
(USNCLIS, 2003) however, highlights that, information literacy currently is beyond a set of
specific information skills but widely recognised as an essential element for effective
participation in the information society. More recently, the Alexandria Proclamation
confirms the vital role of information literacy for people “to achieve their personal, social,
occupational and educational goals” (Garner et al., 2006: 3).
2
1.2.2 Information Literacy in Higher Education
Attention to information literacy in a higher education context can be seen from varying
documents and frameworks that have been developed to teach and assess information
literacy (Corrall, 2008). As a response, an expanding number of universities place
information literacy as a core competency of their graduates, and integrate information
literacy education into their diverse teaching and learning activities (Eisenberg et al., 2004).
Johnston and Webber (2004) additionally propose the concept of an ‘information literate
university’, which relates information literacy with management, research, teaching activities
and all the members of a university.
1.2.3 Information Literacy in LIS Sectors
LIS services differentiate across sectors, while recently they all focus attention on acting as
“an agent of learning” (Brophy, 2007: 76). As a result, rather than merely providing
information resources, LIS practitioners additionally need to ensure their users gain “the
competencies and skills to make full use of information resources in their complexity”
(Brophy, 2007: 160). Under such background, Andretta (2005) explicitly highlights that LIS
professionals themselves should be information literate, so as to function productively in
their workplace. More recently, Godwin (2012) states that whatever sector a librarian is in,
he/she would be involved with information literacy, while focusing on varying users and
needs.
1.3 LIS Education in Higher Education
1.3.1 An Overview of LIS Education
Modern LIS education emerged in the US at the end of 19th century and then spread across
different countries (Chowdhury et al., 2008). Nowadays, it is offered by formal educational
institutions with varying levels, durations, content and nomenclatures (Chowdhury et al.,
2008). However, enormous changes occur in LIS education as a result of new developments
3
of LIS services and information technology. To keep pace with the changes, LIS educators
keep balancing and updating the components of their teaching content and delivering
approaches (Chowdhury et al., 2008). Increasing interest toward interdisciplinary and
international collaboration has been evident (Virkus, 2008) and the iSchools Organization
would be a typical example of it.
1.3.2 LIS Education in the UK
According to Catalana (2006), the development of LIS education in the UK is largely
influenced by a professional body and an agency of government funding institution. As a
professional body, the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP)
provides LIS departments with an accreditation, by which they “seek to assure…that
accredited courses meet the standards required for effective professional practice” (Um &
Feather, 2007: 263). In contrast, the Quality Assurance and Agency (QAA, 2012) is an
agency of government funding institution that guides universities’ quality of teaching,
learning and assessment mainly through their subject benchmark statements.
Until May 2012, two British LIS departments have joined the iSchools Organization, namely
the Information School of University of Sheffield and the Department of Information Studies
of University College London (iSchools Organization, 2012).
1.3.3 LIS Education in Chinese Mainland
In terms of the LIS education in Chinese Mainland, the professional body, Library Society of
China shapes it mainly via a range of theme conferences (Xiao et al., 2008; Chen et al.,
2009), while the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China takes responsibility
for evaluating and qualifying all of LIS programmes according to their produced subjects’
catalogues and descriptions (Chen et al., 2009).
4
There are two iSchools members in China: School of Information Management at Wuhan
University and School of Information Management at Nanjing University (iSchools
Organization, 2012).
1.4. Research Aim and Objectives
1.4.1 Research Aim
This research aims to investigate what content regarding information literacy has been taught
through what approaches in LIS education in the UK and China, by focusing on two
iSchools in each country.
1.4.2 Research Objectives
i. To establish academics’ conceptions of information literacy to LIS students.
ii. To investigate what content of information literacy that LIS academics teach to their
students.
iii. To establish how the content of information literacy has been delivered.
iv. To identify any barriers that may hinder effective information literacy education in
LIS education.
v. To compare the similarity and differences in information literacy education between
the two countries.
vi. To explore what should and could be improved in the future.
1.5 Dissertation Structure
There are six chapters in this dissertation. The current one (Chapter One) provides rationale
for this research and introduces the context, aim and objectives. Chapter Two reviews the
previous literatures on developing information literacy and LIS education. Chapter Three
explains the methodologies used in this research. Chapter Four presents the findings of this
research, while the details of each individual case study are included in Appendix 4, 5, 6, 7.
Chapter Five subsequently discusses the findings in depth by placing them into the context
5
of literature results. Chapter Six concludes the research and provides recommendations for
iSchools in both China and UK, as well as suggestions for further research.
6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews previous research and literatures with three themes. It begins with
definitions and frameworks of information literacy produced by different researchers and
institutions. The second section gives a brief review of LIS education in China and UK from
a benchmark perspective. The final section reviews the information literacy education
involved in LIS education with particular focus on their teaching content and approaches.
2.2 Conceptions of Information Literacy
2.2.1 Defining Information Literacy
Numerous definitions of information literacy have been proposed in higher education while
some prevalent interpretations include:
American Library Association (ALA, 1989: 1) describes information literate persons as:
“…a person must be able to recognise when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information.”
Johnston and Webber (2003: 336) regard information literacy as
“…the adoption of appropriate information behaviour to obtain through
whatever channel or medium, information well fitted to information needs,
together with critical awareness of the importance of wise and ethical use of
information in society.”
Further, Lupton (2008: 2) broadens the concept of information literacy as “a way of learning
through engaging with information”, which aligns information literacy with “critical thinking,
independent learning and lifelong learning” (Lupton, 2008: 2).
7
Lloyd (2010) highlights that the common areas of these various definitions include:
Individuals’ capabilities of handling and using information ethically;
Effective information skills and behaviours;
Critical information view.
2.2.2 Comparison of Information Literacy Frameworks
Varying conceptions of information literacy produce a range of different standards and
models for teaching and assessing information literacy (Johnston & Webber, 2003; Rader,
2003; Corrall, 2008). Table 1 compares the information literacy frameworks developed by
the US, Australia, UK and China.
8
US
(ACRL, 2000)
Australia
(Bundy, 2004)
UK
(SCONUL, 2011)
China—Beijing Region
(Zeng et al. 2006)
Knows the importance
and effect of information
and information literacy
Determines the nature
and extent of the
information needed
Recognizes the need for
information and
determines the nature and
extent of the information
needed
Identify: Able to identify a
personal need for
information
Determines the nature
and extent of the
information needed
Accesses needed
information effectively
and efficiently
Finds needed information
effectively and
efficiently
Scope: Can assess current
knowledge and identify gaps
Accesses needed
information effectively
and efficiently
Plan: Can construct
strategies for locating
information and data
Gather: Can locate and
access the information and
data they need
Evaluates information
and its sources
critically and
incorporates selected
information into his or
her knowledge base
and value system
Critically evaluates
information and the
information seeking
process
Evaluate: Can review the
research process and
compare and evaluate
information and data
Evaluates information
and its sources critically
and incorporates selected
information into his or
her knowledge base to
construct new knowledge
Manages information
collected or generated
Manage: Can organise
information professionally
and ethically
Manages, organises and
communicates the
information effectively
Individually or as a
member of a group,
uses information
effectively to
accomplish a specific
purpose
Applies prior and new
information to construct
new concepts or create
new understandings
Present: Can apply the
knowledge gained:
presenting the results of their
research, synthesising new
and old information and data
to create new knowledge and
disseminating it in a variety
of ways
Individually or as a
member of a group, uses
information effectively to
accomplish a specific
purpose
Understands many of
the economic, legal,
and social issues
surrounding the use of
information; and
accesses and uses
information ethically
and legally
Uses information with
understanding and
acknowledges cultural,
ethical, economic, legal
and social issues
surrounding the uses of
information
Understands many of the
economic, legal, and
social issues surrounding
the use of information;
and accesses and uses
information ethically and
legally
Table 1: Comparison of information literacy
frameworks
9
According to Table 1, these four frameworks contain similar themes in relation to processing
information, which include identification of information needs, and accessing, evaluating
and using information. However, there are differences of these similar aspects, for instance:
The last standards explicitly emphasise the student’s recognition toward the concept
of information literacy;
The third model divides the finding/accessing information into three phases in
relation to scoping, planning and gathering;
The first and last standards state evaluation toward both information and its
resources, whereas the second and third frameworks cover evaluating information
in addition to its related seeking/research process;
‘Manage’ is not mentioned in the first standards;
The first and last standards focus on using information individually or
collaboratively while the second standards and the third model emphasise applying
information to create new things;
The third model does not mention understanding and utilizing information
associated with environmental issues.
In addition to the regional distinctions, information literacy frameworks have also been
applied in different disciplines. For instance, ACRL (2012) provides information literacy
frameworks for Journalism, Anthropology and Sociology, Science and Engineering and
Technology, Teacher Education, and Psychology. These documents share similar
frameworks while differing in information tasks, processing approaches, and information
behaviours. A notable issue, however, is no specific standard offered in relation to
developing LIS students’ information literacy.
10
2.3 Education in Library and Information Science—From a Benchmark
Perspective
2.3.1 Overview
Both teachers and students can influence the performance and outcomes of LIS education.
However, from a holistic and standardized view, both Chinese and UK LIS education in
practice is guided and largely affected by a range of key documents. The following sections
stand from a view of benchmark, to discuss what and how LIS programmes are required and
expected to perform in the UK and Chinese Mainland.
2.3.2 LIS Education: UK
According to Librarianship and information management (QAA, 2007: 3-5), the essential
content that UK LIS educators should deliver to students include:
“information resources and collection management, information retrieval and
knowledge organization, information literacy and user support, information services and
intermediary roles, information agencies and professional institutions, and information
environment and policy context”;
“knowledge acquisition and study, management and organizational behaviour,
communication and interpersonal skills and, information and communications
technology”.
In particular, information literacy is stated explicitly in this document, where LIS graduates
are expected to be able to (QAA, 2007: 8-9)
“…understand the concepts of information literacy…and its application in
education, workplace and society…; understand the role of information
professionals and information agencies in developing information literacy,
promoting reading and supporting learning…; identify and make appropriate to
11
interventions to help different types of information users and service recipients
become information literate…”
Additionally, requirements relevant to the content represented by the concept of information
literacy are involved in other sections as well. For instance, LIS students are expected to be
familiar with multiple-format resources, and be able to apply information capabilities in
various contexts. Further, requirements are also associated with knowledge of intellectual
property, cognitive skills, problem solving, research ability, independent learning, lifelong
learning, communicating and presenting skills, and using information and communications
technology (ICT).
The subject benchmark statement (QAA, 2007) also suggests that both the physical and
virtual learning environment should be involved within the teaching process. Inquiry- and
practice-based approaches, physical workplace experience, and varying assessment should
be integrated into LIS education.
2.3.3 LIS Education: Chinese Mainland
The official document, ‘Subject Catalogue and Index’ (Document 1) states that Chinese LIS
undergraduates should obtain essential theories and knowledge of Library and Information
Sciences, and gain basic trainings in terms of Philology, Bibliography, Information Science,
Communication Science, Management Science and Economics. Based on that, LIS graduates
are expected to:
Be familiar with information relevant policies and laws;
Be aware of frontiers of the development of Library and Information Science;
Be equipped with essential research methods of Library and Information Science and
preliminary abilities to conduct basic research;
12
Be able to use modern technologies to search, handle, analyse, develop, and
disseminate information effectively;
Be equipped with essential abilities to search literature, read and communicate in
both Chinese and other languages.
Recently, a group under the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China drafted
a document to improve the LIS education in Chinese Mainland. The document in particular
focuses on developing LIS students’ ability in terms of independent learning, using IT,
presentation, communication, addressing real world problems, and adapting into varying jobs.
In contrast to the Bachelor-degree education, standards for Master Degrees are higher in
terms of student’s theoretical knowledge, understandings of a specific area of Library and
Information Science, foreign language ability, using IT, and independent research.
Furthermore, an additional requirement focusing on PHD students is about their innovative
research abilities.
During the delivery of information literacy education, LIS educators should not only adopt
transmitting lectures, but provide students with practical opportunities, such as classroom
practice, graduation internship, visiting, and social research.
2.4 Information Literacy within LIS Education
2.4.1 Overview
A number of research studies investigate information literacy teaching and learning from a
discipline perspective. Examples of researched disciplines include Marketing (Korobili &
Tilikidou, 2005), English (Boon, et al., 2005), Music and Law (Lupton, 2008) etc.
In terms of LIS education, Tammaro (2007) highlights the necessity of integrating
information literacy into LIS curriculums, while educators’ recognitions and actions are
varying in practice, especially in different countries and regions. An investigation shows that
13
76% of 50 European LIS schools identify “information literacy and learning” as their key
curricular theme (Larsen, 2005), whereas Baro (2010) investigates over 60 LIS schools in
Africa and finds only one third of them offer information literacy relevant courses. Moreover,
Miwa (2006) interviews LIS educators of five Asian regions (Chinese Mainland, Chinese
Taiwan, Singapore, Korea and Thailand), and finds only academics of Singapore noted
information literacy as a curricular emphasis during their LIS education.
Corrall (2010) and Al-Daihani (2011) highlight that information literacy teaching activities
are largely influenced and shaped by the outside environment, especially the requirements of
job market.
2.4.2 Teaching Content of Information Literacy
Virkus et al. (2005) suggest that in addition to becoming general information literate
graduates, LIS students should also recognize the concept of information literacy and acquire
essential knowledge and skills of teaching information literacy. According to that, they
suggest the information literacy education for LIS students should also cover components of
information literacy and teaching information literacy (Virkus et al., 2005). According to
their statements, Table 2 outlines the educational objectives, curricular content and assessing
criteria for LIS students.
14
In terms of the curricular content, Andretta highlights key themes including reflection,
independent learning, dealing with real-world issues, professional confidence, problem
solving and lifelong learning (Virkus et al., 2005), while Mutula et al. (2006) and Togia et al.
(2012) focus on information searching and IT literacy. Chelin (2010) notes the importance of
teaching from a user-centric view, which requires LIS educators to encourage students
concerning user needed information literacy. Foster (2006: 492) emphasizes LIS students’
“teacher-librarian” skills, which is similarly focused by LIS education in University College
Dublin and Copenhagen Denmark. Both departments regard pedagogical issues, such as
physical and virtual learning environment, as a core factor of their LIS curriculums (Virkus
et al., 2005).
2.4.3 Approaches to Teaching Information Literacy
There is no consensus regarding the best approaches to develop students’ information
literacy (Lloyd, 2010). From the perspective of curricula design, Virkus et al. (2005)
conclude three regularly adopted approaches as:
setting one or more separate courses regarding information literacy;
Educational Objectives Curriculum Content Assessing Standards
General information
literate
Information literacy
General standards e.g. ACRL standards, SCONUL
Information Literacy Seven Pillars.
Awareness of ‘information
literacy’ as a concept
Key definitions and models
Understanding IL within various contexts
Distinctions with other literacies
Importance of fundamental skills
Connection with relevant knowledge areas
Research base
Key relevant organizations and initiatives History
and origins of IL
Being able to deliver
information literacy
Teaching information
literacy
Curriculum design and planning
Theories about teaching and learning
Contexts for teaching and learning
Table 2: LIS students’ information literacy
(Source: Virkus et al. 2005)
15
explicitly integrating information literacy into one or more other modules;
applying information literacy as a kind of approach to learning in another class.
Virkus et al. (2005) confirm the effectiveness of all above strategies, and state which one to
choose mainly depends on the objectives and length of programmes, characteristics of their
school and university environment, students’ position and teachers’ conceptions.
From a holistic perspective, Andretta argues that, to maximize the effectiveness of
information literacy education, it should be integrated into LIS education at every level.
Likewise, Webber highlights a more systematic strategy that tailors models for students
within different grades and LIS programmes (Virkus et al., 2005).
Teaching practices reveal differences in relation to the connection between information
literacy and other LIS subjects. For instance, Foster (2006) combines information literacy
with human information behaviour while Corrall (2010) states their experience to integrate
information literacy education into information resource module. Other linked subjects could
be information need, knowledge management, marketing and management (Virkus et al.,
2005).
Moreover, Webber and Nahl (2011: 2) suggest “virtual world information literacy” and the
benefits of teaching via the Second Life, a virtual learning environment. Mutula et al. (2006:
168) argue that an “online model could improve students’ information literacy competencies
perhaps more than face-to-face instruction approach.” However, their curriculum does not
include teaching LIS students about developing other people’s information literacy. In
contrast, Ball (2008) highlights individual student’s experience and claims information
literacy education for LIS students should be embedded into experimental learning. More
specifically, Mansourian (2010) stresses the effectiveness of inquiry-based learning (IBL)
approaches.
16
Additionally, Webber (2008) highlights that web2.0 could be regarded as both curricular
content and delivering approaches, and it could also be integrated within creating and
evaluating information literacy lectures for LIS students. She particularly mentions teaching
students “how to teach through Web2.0” (Webber, 2008: 6).
2.4.4 Obstacles to Effective Information Literacy Education
LIS educators however face a range of practical barriers that constrain the forward
development of information literacy education in LIS programmes. For instance, Webber
(2008) notes the LIS programmes for Master Degree in the UK last only 12 months that limit
educators to deliver their students with comprehensive information literacy.
Lloyd (2010) argues that the text-based, individual-performance-central information literacy
acquired in university cannot be transferred directly into the complex, collective-
performance-central and non-canonical workplace context.
2.5 Summary
Perceptions of information literacy are beyond a set of information skills, but expanded by
considering issues including contextualization, higher-order thinking, information
behaviours and learning process. According to the varying recognitions, different
frameworks are developed to teach and assess students’ information literacy. However, there
is still no framework in relation to LIS students. LIS education in both China and UK is
largely influenced by several documents. The UK documents state that LIS students should
not only be able to recognize information literacy as a concept with various contexts, but
should also concern developing other people’s information literacy. Chinese documents, by
contrast, neither explicitly mention the concept of information literacy, nor indicate LIS
students’ potential role as information literacy facilitators. In terms of education in Library
and Information Science, content of information literacy is delivered via diverse approaches,
and most studies focus on LIS students’ role as facilitators. Although there is still no
consensus in terms of how to involve information literacy education into LIS programmes, a
17
blended learning environment and student-driven approaches are highlighted and widely
applied. Additionally, barriers that constrain the effectiveness of information literacy
education in LIS education are connected with time limitation and students’ ability to
transfer their information literacy across varying contexts.
18
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes research methods used in this research. It firstly explains why and
how the research strategy was decided, and then provides rationales and approaches in
relation to data collection and analysis. The final section presents limitations of this research.
3.2 Research Methods
3.2.1 Qualitative Approach
Bryman (2008) identifies quantitative methods and qualitative methods as two different
research strategies, while in contrast to the former, the latter particularly “emphasizes on
words” (Bryman, 2008: 366), and investigates problems from participants’ view (Gorman
and Clayton, 2005). Williamson (2007: 8) in addition notes the effectiveness of qualitative
research methods to solve the “complex questions involved in why and how”.
3.2.2 Case Study Approach
A case study “is an in-depth investigation” (Gorman and Clayton, 2005: 47) of a
phenomenon within a real-life and specific setting, and multiple sources of evidence can be
used to illuminate the same issue from different angles (Yin, 2009; Robson, 2002). As a
research method, case study includes single-case design and multiple-case design (Tellis,
1997), and can be associated with both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Single-case study usually focuses on a single experiment, whereas multiple-case study is “to
consider multiple cases” (Yin, 2009: 53). Bryman (2004: 54) specifically highlights that as
one obvious form of multiple-case studies, “cross-cultural and cross-national research” is
particularly beneficial to reducing erroneous inferences caused by culturally specific issues.
In the same resour Virkus et al. (2005) suggest that in addition to becoming general
19
information literate graduates, LIS students should also recognize the concept of information
literacy and acquire essential knowledge and skills of teaching information literacy.
According to that, they suggest the information literacy education for LIS students should
also cover components of information literacy and teaching information literacy (Virkus et
al., 2005). According to their statements, Table 2 outlines the educational objectives,
curricular content and assessing criteria for LIS students.
ce, he notes that the qualitative case studies reveal merits in relation to examining cases
intensively and in detail.
3.2.3 Research Methods of this Study
This research aims to investigate information literacy education of LIS programmes in the
UK and China, where the research question involves asking what, how and why, and
particularly from the perspective of educators. In order to achieve the aim and objectives, the
qualitative multiple-case study method was applied. Qualitative data was collected from both
documents and interviews.
3.3 Data Investigation
3.3.1 Sampling of Cases
Multiple cases were studied with each case proceeding individually before compassion
cross-case and cross-nation. Four iSchool members of the UK and Chinese Mainland were
identified and involved in this research. They are the only iSchools in LIS departments in the
UK and China:
Information School, the University of Sheffield, UK (Sheffield iSchool);
Department of Information Studies, the University College London, UK (UCL
iSchool);
School of Information Management, Wuhan University, China (Wuhan iSchool);
20
School of Information Management, Nanjing University, China (Nanjing
iSchool).
Reasons of such selection were:
Firstly, the iSchools organization is an international “collective of Information Schools
dedicated to advancing the information field” (iSchools, 2012), which thereby is closely
relevant to LIS education;
Secondly, programmes of iSchools Organization are expected to be developed from both
local and international perspectives, which increase the cases’ comparability;
Thirdly, four iSchools in China and UK all represent a high level of LIS education in each
country according to their local quality evaluation of teaching and research, which thereby
show rationality and representativeness;
Fourthly, data of these four cases is relatively easy to access.
3.3.2 Literature Search
Literatures including journal articles and conference papers in English were searched by
using databases such as LISA, Google Scholar and Emerald. Articles in Chinese were
accessed through database CNKI. The literature search was conducted at regular intervals
from March to June.
3.3.3 Document Collection
As an important source involved in qualitative case studies of organizations (Bryman, 2008),
documents in relation to information literacy education of selected schools were involved in
this research. Two channels to get them include:
Searching and visiting relevant Websites and Web pages;
Asking documents from interviewees.
21
Websites of four selected schools were visited by “systematic browsing and keyword
searches” (Corrall, 2007: 7). Both Google searches limited to the site of individual iSchools
and the websites’ own search engines were utilized to locate information relevant to this
research. Such a method was also adopted by Corrall (2007) as an effective way to access the
university’s documents.
In order to overcome the limitation of Web documents’ public accessibility and the delay of
publishing, documents were also collected by asking interviewees. In this way, a range of
targeted information, such as Module Outline, and updated Learning and Teaching Strategies
were accessed.
3.3.4 Interviews
In addition to documents of each iSchool, seven semi-structured interviews were conducted.
As to Gorman and Clayton (2005), interview helps researchers reduce the ambiguities during
the process of data collection, and the prepared interview guide makes data collocated from
each interview more comprehensive and systematic. The interview guide of this research is
included in Appendix 3.
With regard of identifying the participants of each case, two methods were used:
Visiting websites of four iSchools to be aware of the roles and research interests of
their staff members;
Referring to the recommendations from the directors and coordinators of LIS
programmes, departments and schools.
The key questions used in interviews are presented in Appendix 3. In order to address the
aim and objectives of this research, interview questions mainly focus on LIS academics’
conceptions of information literacy, their teaching content, delivering approaches, and
barriers they meet. In addition, by referring to the literature and background information of
22
cases obtained in advance, questions about transferring information literacy, extracurricular
education and strategic supports were included as well.
Except the School of Information Management at Nanjing University, where only one
faculty staff member was interviewed, two academics of each other department were
interviewed. In terms of the data collection at Nanjing University, five academics were
invited to take part in this research by emails. However, three of them did not respond, one
of them refused the request, as she thought her teaching is merely about ‘information
searching’ rather ‘information literacy’. As a result, only one academic of Nanjing iSchool
joined this research.
Due to the geographical constraint, four out of the seven interviews in the UK were
conducted face-to-face, whereas three Chinese participants were interviewed via Skype,
telephone and E-mail. In contrast to the E-mail interview that was answered with text, the
other six interviews were recorded under the permissions of interviewees.
There was no pilot interview, but the researcher interviewed the research supervisor first.
This enabled feedback to be given on the interview process, but no changes were identified
in the main interview questions, therefore, this first interview would be analysed with the
other data.
According to Gorman and Clayton (2005), it is important to keep interviewees feeling
comfortable during an interview. Therefore, language used in each interview of this study
depended on interviewees’ preference, so that they could express their opinions comfortably
and actively. Consequently, four UK participants were interviewed in English, whereas three
Chinese interviewees used Chinese.
3.4 Data Analysis and Presentation
Interview transcripts and accessed documents were analysed through coding, of which key
components were labelled (Bryman, 2008). However, the majority of data collected from
23
China are in Chinese and thereby was coded in Chinese, whereas the rest of English data was
coded in English.
Results were firstly organized as four individual case studies, and each of them was reported
according to their emerged key themes. The full case study for each university is presented
in Appendices 6 (University of Sheffield), 7 (University College London), 5 (Nanjing
University) and 4 (Wuhan University). A brief factual profile for each university, extracted
from the full case study, is presented in Chapter Four. Based on the analysis of individual
cases and their emerged themes, the findings were then compared intra-nation. The cross-
nation comparison was subsequently presented, where the results of literature review were
involved.
3.5 Ethical Aspects
This research went through University of Sheffield’s Ethics Approval process and no risks or
disadvantage of taking part in this research were anticipated. Before each interview, the
information sheet (Appendix 1) of this research was provided to participants. Their informed
consents (Appendix 2) were obtained subsequently. All data from the interviews are
anonymous in this study.
3.6 Limitations of this Research
Limitations of the research were recognized as:
Due to the limited time and accessibility, a small size of participants was involved in
this research. Especially, only one participant of Nanjing iSchool was interviewed.
Although additional four academics were invited by email twice, one of them
refused to take part in the interview, and another three did not respond.
It was much easier to access documents in Sheffield iSchool as both researcher and
research supervisor of this research are in this school. However, materials of other
iSchools, especially two Chinese iSchools were difficult to access.
24
Four participants of the University of Sheffield and the University College London
were interviewed face-to-face, whereas three participants of Wuhan iSchool and
Nanjing iSchool were interviewed by email, telephone and Skype respectively.
These may reduce the equivalence of data collected in both countries.
As a cross-nation investigation, translation was needed from data-collection
instruments (e.g. interview guide, information sheet) to data analysis (e.g. documents,
interview transcripts). Therefore, possible limitations of this study include margin of
error in translation.
25
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of investigation by intra-nation comparison. Before the
comparison, background information of each iSchool is provided. As noted in the previous
chapter, the full cases studies are given in Appendices 4, 5, 6 and 7. Further discussions in
depth are presented in Chapter Five.
4.2 Background Information of Two Chinese iSchools
4.2.1 Background Information: Wuhan iSchool
The School of Information Management at Wuhan University is the first Chinese member of
iSchool Organization, offering information programmes for Bachelor Degrees, Master
Degrees, PHDs and post-PHDs (School of Information Management of Wuhan University,
2012). This study particularly focuses on their LIS education including the undergraduate
programmes in ‘Library Science’ and ‘Information Management and Information System’,
and the postgraduate programmes in ‘Library Science’, ‘Information Science’ and
‘Information Resources Management’. Two academics of Wuhan iSchool were interviewed
by Skype and email, and they were identified as interviewee D and interviewee X.
Documents, such as description of LIS programmes, module outlines, and an introduction to
the Association of Information Literacy were accessed and involved in this section.
The LIS undergraduate programmes of Wuhan iSchool are four years long, and require
students to complete the following four aspects for a Bachelor Degree:
Courses in liberal studies;
Courses in discipline and specialty;
Graduate internship;
and Dissertation.
26
Table 3 describes the different aims of these undergraduate programmes:
Programmes Knowledge and Capabilities Employability
Library
Science
Essential theories of Library Science
Information technology
Knowledge of Management Science
Computer technology skills
Abilities to organize, search,
analyse, evaluate and use
information by modern tools
Being able to work in libraries and information
service institutions dealing with jobs including
information service and management. Information
departments can be a division of business
companies, public sectors and etc.
Being able to adapt to the development of
economy and society.
Information
Management
and
Information
System
Essential knowledge of Information
Management Science
Information Literacy
Systematic thoughts
Information system design and
development
Being able to deal with information management,
and information system analysis, design,
management and evaluation of relevant jobs in
varying departments of public sectors, business
companies, banking intuitions and research
intuitions.
Full-time postgraduate programmes take three years, whereas part-time students could
complete their credits within four years. Supervisors play a leading role in postgraduate
education of Wuhan iSchool. Teachers in particular focus on developing students’ abilities:
including independent learning, practice and presentation, and sense of innovation. The
discussion-based teaching approach is suggested by the programme documents (School of
Information Management, Wuhan University, 2009b). Table 4 shows the different aims of
the postgraduate programmes:
Programmes Knowledge and Capabilities Employability
Library Science
Acquiring essential theories
and specialist knowledge in
Library Science. Mastering a foreign
language, and being able to
use it reading specialist
literatures.
Being able to research, teach
and deal with relevant
professional jobs
independently. Information Science
Acquiring essential theories
and specialist knowledge in
Information Science.
Information
Resources
Management
Note: there is no specific description of this programme available.
Table 3: LIS undergraduate programmes of Wuhan iSchool
(Source: School of Information Management, Wuhan University, 2009a)
Table 4: LIS postgraduate programmes of Wuhan iSchool
(Source: School of Information Management, Wuhan University, 2009b)
27
Additionally, work experience is not a necessary condition required for either undergraduate
or postgraduate candidates.
4.2.2 Background Information: Nanjing iSchool
The School of Information Management at Nanjing University joined the iSchool
Organization by 2011. It offers programmes for Bachelor Degrees, Master Degrees, and
PHDs in the field of information studies. This research focuses on their undergraduate
programmes in ‘Library Science’ and ‘Information Science’, and postgraduate programmes
in ‘Library Science’, ‘Information Science’ and ‘Information Resources Management’. One
academic of Nanjing iSchool was interviewed by telephone. Documents including their
learning and teaching strategy, and introduction to programmes were accessed and involved
in this section.
Influenced by the transformation of undergraduate education in Nanjing University, Nanjing
iSchool adopts a new learning and teaching strategy that is briefly concluded on table 5.
In contrast to the undergraduate education, supervisors and teaching committee (for
PHD education) are dominant in making and conducing the ‘learning and teaching
strategy’ of postgraduates education. Teachers are required to focus on developing
students’ academic ethics, theoretical learning, abilities of a foreign language, computer
Year Stage of Education Content and Tasks Abilities and Competencies
1st General Education
Liberal Studies
Basic knowledge and theory of
the LIS subject
Foreign language
Mathematical ability
Computer skills
2nd Specialist
Education
Subject courses (compulsory &
optional)
Essential theories and knowledge in
Library and Information Science 3rd
4th Personal
Development
Internship and Report Social practice
Applying knowledge
Adoptability
Employability
Dissertation
Table 5: LIS undergraduate education of Nanjing iSchool
(Sources: Document 3)
28
skills, and research abilities. The same as Wuhan iSchool, work experience is not a
necessary condition required for either undergraduate or postgraduate candidates. Table
6 shows different requirements of these three LIS programmes with varying degrees.
Subject Requirements Degrees Requirements
Library
Science
Firm foundation of
theories, knowledge, and
capabilities in Library
Science
Deep understanding of
current research topics in
Library Science
Being able to make
contributions to LIS
research areas
Capable of evaluating,
collecting, organizing,
developing and using
literature information
Mater
Degree
Being equipped with systematic theories and essential
skills of Library Science
Being aware of current research in the field of Library
Science
Being able to learn and teach independently
Dissertation: innovativeness, applied value
PHD
Being equipped with systematic theories of Information
Science
Being familiar with the research progress of a specific
research area
Being able to identify and solve problems independently
Dissertation: academics or practical value,
innovativeness, depth and width of the research
Information
Science
Firm foundation of
theories, knowledge and
capabilities in
Information Science
Research ability
Being able to develop
and use information
Mater
Degree
Being equipped with systematic theories and essential
skills of Information Science
Being aware of current research in the field of
Information Science
Being able to learn and teach independently
Dissertation: innovativeness, practical value
PHD
Being equipped with systematic theories of Information
Science
Being familiar with the research progress of a specific
research area
Being able to identify and solve problems independently
Dissertation: academic and practical value,
innovativeness, depth and width of the research.
Information
Resources
Management
Proficiency in using IT
Firm foundation of
knowledge management
Excellent comprehensive
capabilities
Being competent to
research and teach
Being competent to deal
with information
resources in public,
business and other
sectors.
Mater
Degree
Being able to work in public and business sectors
Being equipped with systematic theories and essential
skills of information resources management
Being aware of current research in the field of
Information Science
Being able to conduct independent research and
teaching
Dissertation: innovativeness, applied value
PHD
Being able to work in government, universities, and
companies
Being equipped with systematic theories of information
resources management
Having a broader vision and acute insights
Being familiar with the research progress of a specific
research area
Dissertation: significant academic or applied value,
innovativeness, depth and width of the research should
reach the national criteria
Table 6: LIS postgraduate education of Nanjing iSchool
(Sources: School of Information Management of Nanjing University, 2010)
29
4.3 Findings: Comparison between Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool
According to the results of interviews and documents analysis, findings of Wuhan iSchool
and Nanjing iSchool are compared by their emerged key themes, including LIS academics’
conceptions of information literacy, information literacy teaching and assessment,
international communication, obstacles for effective information literacy education, and
transferability of information literacy.
Schools
Conceptions Wuhan iSchool Nanjing iSchool
Applying information skills
The focus is on applying a set of information skills to solve problems
This conception focuses on a cluster of skills
rather than any particular skills.
Skills should be applied in varying contexts.
This conception particularly focuses
on searching and finding
information quickly.
IT skills The focus is on effectively using IT to work with information and realise professional
ideas.
Dealing with information
problems
The focus is on acquiring relevant knowledge in
relation to information science, copyright,
information policy, and to solve information
problems appropriately, legally and ethically.
The focus is on applying
information literacy to deal with real
world problems
Using information literacy
to help other people
The focus is on being able to understand users’ information needs and use information
literacy to help them fulfil their information needs.
Research skills The focus is on processing a set of essential research skills to deal with academic tasks.
Becoming independent
learners and lifelong
learners
The focus is on being sensitive to the changing
information and information tools, and
effectively using them to construct and update
personal knowledge and abilities.
Understanding the cultural
phenomena through
information phenomena
The focus is on understanding the
impacts of information phenomena
to the information society.
Being familiar with
characteristics of library
information resources
(Particularly students in
Library Science)
The focus is on being familiar with
information resources in a library
context, which also requires students
to be equipped with a broader
knowledge base of the liberal arts.
Being aware of promoting
other people’s information
literacy
The focus is on the awareness of
developing other people’s
information literacy.
Becoming an critical
thinker
The focus is on critically analysing
and recognising issues during the
research process.
Table 7: Conceptions of information literacy: Chinese LIS academics
30
4.3.1 Chinese LIS Academics’ Conceptions of Information Literacy
It was agreed that information literacy is critical to LIS students. Chinese academics
involved in this research explained such importance correlates with the LIS students’
learning process, their function in the workplace, as well as their everyday life in an
information society. Table 7 comparatively describes Chinese LIS academics’ conceptions
regarding information literacy.
Both Chinese samples of LIS academics have a conception focusing on research skills, and
another focusing on using IT. Academics also confirmed that postgraduates should be more
advanced in these two aspects compared to undergraduates. In terms of research skills, LIS
students are expected to use essential research skills to deal with academic tasks effectively.
Participants of Wuhan iSchool particularly emphasized the students’ ability to conduct
quantitative research.
For using IT, Chinese LIS students are not only expected to use tools, such as search engines,
to retrieve and access information, but are also expected to use XML and metadata to
organize and describe information effectively. In addition, LIS postgraduates should be able
to design information systems, such as small digital libraries. Academics of Wuhan iSchool
as well exemplified programming and using SPSS as the content of information literacy to
LIS students.
Although academics of both Chinese iSchools identified conceptions of applying
information skills, and dealing with information problems, there are differences of their
similar conceptions. In contrast to academics of Wuhan iSchool, the academic of Nanjing
iSchool particularly emphasized accessing and finding information quickly. Nevertheless,
academics of both iSchools connected LIS students’ information ability with multiple
languages information resources (particularly information in English).
In terms of dealing with information problems, academics of Wuhan iSchool noted that LIS
students should be able to utilize their professional knowledge (e.g. information science,
31
information policy and law) to solve information problems appropriately, legally and
ethically. In contrast, the academic of Nanjing iSchool highlighted students’ ability to
address real world issues.
Academics of both iSchools showed conceptions with a user-centric view, and they all
agreed that LIS information literate students should be able to use their information literacy
to identify users’ information needs, and help them fulfil those needs. However, the
academic of Nanjing iSchool in addition expanded the view by focusing on the LIS students’
professional role as information literacy facilitators.
Furthermore, academics of Wuhan iSchool connected information literacy with independent
learning and lifelong learning, whereas the academic of Nanjing iSchool focused on
students’ critical thinking ability. Additionally, the academic of Nanjing iSchool identified
one conception that focuses on students understanding the cultural phenomena through
information phenomena, and another focuses on students’ familiarity of library information
resources.
One notable difference between academics of Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool is their
attitudes toward the term ‘Information Literacy’. The academic of Nanjing University
criticized the appropriateness of applying ‘information literacy’ to describe LIS students,
since she felt the label is helpless in distinguishing information professionals from general
users. By contrast, she showed preference for terms such as “Information Broker”, which
contains more professional meanings in her opinion. Although both academics of Wuhan
University noted that LIS students should reach a higher level in terms of their information
literacy in contrast to students in other disciplines, both of them were comfortable with the
term per se.
These different understandings may be associated with the fact that both academics of
Wuhan iSchool had more than one-year experience of learning, working or researching in
the English language context. The participant of Nanjing iSchool, by contrast, had less such
32
experience. This may lead to academics’ diverse feelings toward the term ‘Information
Literacy’, which was firstly coined in English, and then translated into Chinese.
4.3.2 Information Literacy Teaching and Assessment
Information literacy education is separated across different individual courses.
Academics of both Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool stated that their information literacy
education is separated across different individual courses of LIS programmes. Examples of
relevant courses include, Information Analysis, Information Retrieval, Information
Organization and etc. Take fostering LIS students’ IT skills for instance, courses in relation
to information technology, databases design and programming are allied to develop students’
abilities to use IT.
None of the Chinese LIS academics showed concentration on their students’ concepts of
information literacy, or delivering them with theories of information literacy. As to
interviewee D,
“I don’t recognize information literacy as a theoretical issue. It is practical and
directly reflects on students’ abilities to search and analyse information….”
(Interviewee D)
Nevertheless, academics of Wuhan iSchool were confident that even without curricular
delivery, their students could gain basic ideas regarding information literary via channels,
such as extracurricular activities.
Although academics of both Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool identified that they
develop students’ information literacy through relevant modules, their form of delivery
varies. More specifically, the former emphasized task-based teaching approaches, as they are
beneficial to students’ practical abilities. By contrast, the latter focused on using diverse
deliveries to enhance student’s information literacy with different aspects. For instance,
33
academics promote students’ critical thinking by seminars, while encouraging students to
practice their information literacy through practical and experiential courses.
Curricula and extracurricular activities are combined to develop students’ information
literacy.
Academics of both Chinese iSchools identified their extracurricular activities as a component
to enhance students’ information literacy. The effectiveness of such a combination was
widely agreed upon. However, there are differences in the two iSchools’ specific activities
and expected outcomes.
The Information Literacy Association of Wuhan University is a typical extracurricular
example focusing on developing students’ information literacy. Their regular activities
organized by the association include salons, one-shot lectures and searching contests.
In contrast to the campus-based activities, the academic of Nanjing iSchool took their Project
of Innovative Capability as an example of information literacy education. During this
activity, students are offered opportunities to design their own projects, while their topic
should be connected with the real world issues, as well as information studies.
Academics of both iSchools identified that the extracurricular activities are beneficial to
widening students’ participation, stimulating their interests and learning awareness, and
providing them with more practical opportunities.
However, the merit of campus-based activity at Wuhan University particularly appears in
increasing communication between students in varying disciplines, and in offering teachers a
platform to reflect their teaching practice. Differently, the academic of Nanjing iSchool
highlighted that their extracurricular activities help students realise their strength and
weakness in relation to information literacy, as well as what they need to learn in the future.
Moreover, it encourages students to apply their learning to support a more complicated
process embedded in real-life settings.
34
Information literacy assessment is involved within relevant individual courses.
Academics of both Chinese iSchools confirmed that their information literacy assessments
are involved within relevant courses. For instance, the module Information Retrieval would
assess students’ ability to search information, while skills such as presentation would be
assessed through related tasks.
In addition, academics of both Chinese iSchools indicated that, neither documents nor
standards relevant to assessing student’s information literacy were produced by the faculty or
university. One of the academics of Wuhan iSchool in particular identified the lack of
standard as an obstacle negatively impacting their information literacy education.
Chinese iSchools have different attitudes and actions toward collaborative teaching between
LIS faculty staff members and university librarians.
Academics of Wuhan iSchool identified that they partner with the university librarians to
collaboratively develop LIS students’ information literacy, while such collaboration is
limited in delivery of how to use academic databases and practicing cataloguing. According
to participants at Wuhan University, the LIS faculty plays a major role in developing LIS
students’ information literacy and offers them relevant education at an advanced level.
By contrast, the collaboration between Nanjing iSchool and their university library is rarely
active, because the faculty felt their librarians would make a limited contribution.
4.3.3 International Communication and Information Literacy Education
A common view hold by academics of both Chinese iSchools is that LIS education in US,
UK and Australia is more advanced than that in China. Accordingly, international
communication would be valuable to broaden LIS students’ horizon of information studies,
including the area of information literacy. Furthermore, academics of Wuhan iSchool
mentioned the merit in expanding LIS students’ understandings toward information literacy
in varying national contexts.
35
Based on such awareness, Chinese LIS academics showed great motivation in developing
LIS students’ information literacy through international communication. They in addition
expressed their expectations to pursue more opportunities, such as exchanging students,
assigning visiting scholars and organizing joint-supervision programmes.
4.3.4 Barriers and Challenges for Effective Information Literacy Education
An obstacle identified by academics from both Chinese iSchools is that students in Library
Science usually show limited confidence in studying and applying information technology.
This results in a mismatch between LIS practitioner’s high expectation and students’ limited
willingness.
“I feel it is just a kind of psychological barrier, and they can do it…but, their
lack of confidence makes them avoiding to learn it”. (Interviewee D)
“Like most Chinese students studying Library Science, our students don’t like
to study information technology either …we have to push them to learn it by
offering a range of relevant modules”. (Interviewee X)
Additionally, two different barriers were identified by academics of Wuhan iSchool and
Nanjing iSchool. As to one academic of Wuhan iSchool, without a widely accepted national
document, it is difficult for individual schools and universities to construct their own
standards to teach and assess students’ information literacy.
In contrast, the academic of Nanjing iSchool indicated that the one-way communication
during the international communication partly constrains their LIS education, including
information literacy education.
4.3.5 The Transferability of Information Literacy
Academics from Wuhan iSchool and Nanjing iSchool showed different attitudes toward the
transferability of information literacy. Although the former identified two conditions (how
36
information literate a student is; how excellent a student’s comprehensive ability is) that
influence the final performance of transfer, they generally held a positive attitude.
On the contrary, the academic of Nanjing iSchool felt it is demanding for LIS students to
translate their leaning from university to workplace directly and consciously. She also noted
that most of LIS students would begin to apply their information literacy to the workplace
after being guided or suggested by experienced colleagues, and reflecting their performance
by themselves.
4.4 Background Information of two UK iSchools
The case studies of the two British iSchools, at Sheffield University and University College
London, are compared in the next sections, following a brief presentation of the two
iSchool’s profile. The full individual case studies are in Appendices 6 and 7.
4.4.1 Background Information: Sheffield iSchool
The Information School at the University of Sheffield is the first UK iSchool that joined the
iSchools Organization by 2010 (Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2012a).
As a research-led institution, Sheffield iSchool offers programmes for Bachelor Degrees,
Master Degrees and PhDs (Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2012b). It
develops students according to the requirements of CILIP, current employers and the
information society. Graduates of Sheffield iSchool are expected to not only acquire
professional knowledge and skills, but also to be able to connect their understandings and
capabilities with their workplace and lifelong learning (Document 2).
The Sheffield iSchool is phasing out the BSc Information Management and introducing a
new programme, BSc Informatics, in 2012. Therefore, it was agreed that undergraduate
programmes would not be included in this study. Four master programmes of Sheffield
iSchool were investigated, including MSc in Information Management, MA in Librarianship,
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MA in Information Literacy, and MSc in Digital Library Management. Three of them are
accredited by the CILIP (Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2012c).
Postgraduate programmes of Sheffield iSchool are one-year-long, and applicants to
Librarianship would normally be expected to have some relevant work experience. Although
such condition is not required by other programmes as restricted as the Librarianship
programme, it is preferred as well (Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2012d).
Characteristics of each programme can be seen from table 8:
MA in
Librarianship
This programme focuses on students who intend to work in library and information sector,
and provides students with knowledge and skills regarding information technology,
“management, information handling, and together with a wide range of specialism”.
MSc in Digital
Library
Management
This programme is for people who want to develop their skills in the areas of electronic
resource management and digital library services. It provides students with three pathways
including “Digital Library Technologist, Digital Library Strategist and Digital Library
Designer for Humanities”.
MSc in
Information
Management
This programme aims to provide students with “a blend of knowledge, skills and
awareness, which will enable them to effectively deal with mediation between information
users, resources and information systems in specific organizational contexts”.
MA in
Information
Literacy
This programme focuses on delivering students with theories of information literacy, and
encouraging them to apply information literacy in varying contexts. It also prepares
students for the role as critical and reflective educators in information literacy.
Postgraduate students of these programmes need to take all the compulsory modules
specified, choose optional courses, and complete a dissertation. Additionally, every taught
postgraduate would be appointed a personal tutor to provide them with advice, information
or assistance over their postgraduate programmes (Document 2).
4.4.2 Background Information: UCL iSchool
The Department of Information Studies at the University College London joined the iSchool
Organization by 2011. Since there is no LIS undergraduate programme offered by the UCL
iSchool, this research investigates its CILIP accredited MA programme in Library and
Information Studies.
Table 8: LIS programmes of Sheffield iSchool
(Source: Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2012e)
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Postgraduate programmes of UCL iSchool aim to “provide students with professionally
relevant skills and skills which prepare them to function at the very highest managerial
level” (Department of Information Studies of University College London, 2011). This LIS
programme particularly focuses on “students who want to progress in library and
information work” (Department of Information Studies of University College London, 2012).
Candidates who want to take this programme are expected to have previous library work
experience (Department of Information Studies of University College London, 2012). The
MA programme allows students to study either full-time or part-time. However, whichever
approach they choose, they need to complete six core courses of the programme, two of the
eleven optional courses, as well as a final dissertation (Department of Information Studies of
University College London, 2012). Two academics of UCL iSchool were interviewed.
Documents such as introduction to their programmes and descriptions of their modules were
accessed and involved in this research.
4.5 Findings: Comparison between Sheffield iSchool and UCL iSchool
Based on the results of interviews and documents analysis, the findings of Sheffield iSchool
and UCL iSchool are compared by their identified key themes: including LIS academics’
conceptions of information literacy, information literacy teaching and assessment,
international communication, barriers and challenges for effective information literacy,
strategic supports, and transferability of information literacy.
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4.5.1 UK LIS Academics’ Conceptions of Information Literacy:
Schools
Conceptions Sheffield iSchool UCL iSchool
Being aware of the concepts of
information literacy
The focus is on having explicit concepts of information literacy.
LIS students are additionally
expected to recognise information
literacy as a subject.
Being able to identify information
needs
The focus is on identifying both information needs of LIS
students themselves and the information needs of users. From this
view, LIS students are expected to communicate with other
people effectively.
Being able to applying a set of
information skills to deal with
problems in various contexts
The focus is on effectively searching, accessing, evaluating and
using information. It also includes using appropriate tools and
resources, such as search engines and databases.
LIS students should use
information critically,
synthetically and creatively.
LIS students should
effectively organize
information for their users.
Processing essential research skills
to deal with academic tasks
The focus is on processing essential research skills to complete
essays, coursework and a dissertation.
Being able to connect information
literacy with varying settings
The focus is on using information literacy in varying contexts and
situations.
LIS students should be able to
develop their information literacy
through their everyday life.
LIS students should be able to
present their information literacy
in suitable ways, according to the
requirements of the situation.
LIS students should be able to
transfer their information literacy
to their employability and sell
themselves as information literate
persons.
Being able to develop other people’s
information literacy
The focus is on students’ awareness of their role as information
literacy facilitators. LIS students are expected to be able to
develop other people’s information literacy. To pursue this goal,
LIS students should acquire theoretical knowledge of information
literacy, teaching, and learning.
Although not in a library or
educational context, LIS students
should still have awareness of
developing information literacy of
the organization they are in.
LIS students should be able
to provide training for
varying users.
Table 9: Conceptions of information literacy: UK LIS academics
Both UK samples of LIS academics have a conception focusing on identifying information
needs effectively, and another focusing on research skills. In terms of information needs, LIS
information literate students should not only be aware of when and what information they
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need, but should also be able to communicate with their clients, and understand their
information needs effectively.
The conception of research skills is connected with academic tasks, such as dealing with
essays and the dissertation. This conception closely correlates with information skills
including finding (e.g. quantity and appropriateness of information), evaluating (e.g. material
quality) and using information (e.g. consistent citation).
The conceptions focusing on being aware of information literacy as concepts, and focusing
on applying information skills were both identified by academics of UK iSchools. However,
there are differences of these similar conceptions. More specifically, rather than getting a
general sense of information literacy, academics of Sheffield iSchool expected their
information literate students to recognise information literacy as a subject that can be studied
in depth.
In terms of applying information skills, academics of both iSchools agreed that LIS
information literate students should be able to handle information effectively in varying
contexts. However, Sheffield academics broadened the conception by embracing the wider
concepts of higher-order thinking. In contrast, UCL academics particularly focused on LIS
students organizing information effectively.
Academics of both UK iSchools highlighted the importance of using information literacy in
varying settings. It was agreed that LIS information literate students should be able to deal
with diverse information resources and serve different users. Nevertheless, academics at
Sheffield University additionally stated that LIS students should be able to present their
information literacy appropriately, and transfer their information literacy to their
employability, so as to sell them as information literate persons on the job market.
LIS students’ potential role as information literacy facilitators was widely accepted by UK
academics. Based on that, theories of information literacy and skills of teaching and learning
are expected to be obtained by LIS information literate students. One academic of Sheffield
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iSchool, however, expanded the view by including LIS students’ responsibility to develop
the information literacy of the organization they are in.
4.5.2 Information Literacy Teaching and Assessment
Information literacy education is across all their LIS programmes.
The academics of UK iSchools confirmed their information literacy education is throughout
their LIS programmes. However, there are differences correlating to their curricula design
and expected outcomes.
Sheffield iSchool offers three modules explicitly labelled information literacy within their
modules titles. Aims of these modules consist of two aspects:
Firstly, developing students’ awareness and essential knowledge regarding
information literacy; promoting their abilities to deal with information resources and
tools; broadening their recognition toward information literacy with varying contexts;
guiding them to understand information literacy as a subject that can be studied in
depth;
Secondly, providing students with opportunities to explore information literacy in
depth, and acquiring knowledge and skills to enhance other people’s information
literacy.
In addition, information literacy education is also involved in other models, but without
explicit mentioning. Specific sections and assignments of these modules were identified as
delivering approaches to developing students’ communicating skills and to constructing their
personal information literacy.
In contrast, the UCL iSchool only requires their average students to gain a general sense of
information literacy. To pursue this goal, the faculty delivers all of their students with a
simple concept of information literacy through the introductory part of their modules. The
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specific theories of information literacy are involved within an optional module, which
contextualizes information literacy in serving children and young people. Information
literacy relevant content, including terminology, history and evolution, various models are
explicitly delivered to LIS students there. Further, this module teaches students about
pedagogies, and helps them connect information literacy with educational theories and
practice, so that they can better prepare both awareness and capabilities for becoming
effective information literacy facilitators.
Moreover, the compulsory module ‘Information Resources and Information Retrieval’
focuses on developing students’ ability to deal with various information resources, which is
also a key aspect of information literacy. A one-shot activity was identified as an approach to
enhancing student’s research skills. In addition to that, information literacy relevant content
and practices are included within other modules through assignments and specific sections.
LIS students themselves are important in constructing their information literacy
Academics from both UK iSchools highlighted the significant effect of learners themselves
in developing their information literacy. Academics of each school, however, showed
different preference in practice. The UCL academics identified the course assignments as
their main way to help students personalise their information literacy. During the
assignments, LIS students could choose topics by themselves. In contrast, Sheffield
academics noted the effectiveness of supervising students’ dissertation and guiding them by
personal tutors.
Similar and different teaching approaches were identified by two UK iSchools
In terms of pedagogies, academics of Sheffield iSchool noted the value of constructivist
teaching approaches, such as inquiry-based learning and problem-based learning. By contrast,
academics of UCL iSchool highlighted stimulating students through credits of courses and
assessments.
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Both UK iSchools assess their students’ information literacy through their assessments, such
as essays. Academics promoted an emphasis on self-reflection, which is beneficial to
students’ learning process, rather than simply focusing on the accomplishment of specific
assignments.
University librarians mainly contribute to LIS students’ academic literacy and library
literary
Information literacy education for LIS students in both Sheffield iSchool and UCL iSchools
is provided by not only LIS faculty staff members, but also the university librarians. The
contribution of librarians, however, mainly focuses on students’ academic literacy and
library literacy, which include research skills, using academic databases, and interacting with
librarians.
In terms of the specific approaches of collaboration, subject librarians were identified by
both iSchools. Academics of Sheffield iSchool in addition identified co-taught modules and
co-research projects as other approaches.
Reasons for inactive extracurricular education
Although the Learning and Teaching Strategies of Sheffield University (The University of
Sheffield, 2011) suggests their faculties and staff members to develop students’ information
literacy also through co- and extra- activities, limited experience was identified by LIS
academics of Sheffield iSchool. One Sheffield academic explained the low students’
participation as a result from the specific culture of British campus, and students’ attention
on their part-time jobs.
Similarly, there is no evident extracurricular activity identified by UCL academics. One
academic there, however, believed that students’ part-time jobs could be counted as a variant
of extracurricular activity, especially since most of their students engage in part-time jobs.
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4.5.3 Attitudes and Actions Toward International Communication
In contrast to the UCL iSchool, academics of Sheffield iSchool showed more interest in
connecting international communication with developing students’ information literacy.
Their Annual Report (Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2011) as well
shows relevant evidence. For example, two of their research students attended the first
International Intercollegiate Invitational Information Literacy Contest in China. One
Sheffield academic identified the ways, such as communicating with overseas students and
visiting scholars, in which she could know more about the information literacy with a cross-
cultural context.
In contrast, one UCL academic highlighted the contribution of international conferences and
international publications, while showing limited preference for associating information
literacy education with school-to-school communication. Another UCL academic stated her
limited awareness of international influence to their information literacy education. Rather
than international communications, she expressed that UCL iSchool tends to be leaded by
the UK national professional body.
4.5.4 Barriers and Challenges for Effective Information Literacy Education
Academics’ different conceptions partly increase the difficulty to effectively develop LIS
students’ information literacy. It was agreed that the concept of ‘information literacy’ is
important, while the paradigm of the concept differs within varying contexts. A consequence
of this could be that academics tend not to explicitly teach students about information
literacy.
What should be noted is, even in the same context of Sheffield iSchool, two academics
showed different opinions toward SCONUL Seven Pillars. One of them chose this
framework to construct students’ concepts of information literacy, whereas the other
academic argued its effectiveness outside the academic context.
45
Additionally, academics of Sheffield University and UCL University highlighted some
different barriers and challenges for their further progress of teaching information literacy.
More specifically the former mentioned the limited time and resources of LIS programmes,
as well as learners’ various expectations; the latter by contrast questioned the effectiveness
of current LIS education in preparing students’ professional capabilities for facilitating other
people’s information literacy, and suggested CILIP to identify a more comprehensive cluster
of competencies in relation to information literacy.
4.5.5 The Transferability of Information Literacy
Four UK academics all confirmed that LIS students should transfer their information literacy
across different contexts. However, in contrast to Sheffield academics, two UCL academics
showed more a positive attitude toward the transfer. One of them stated that LIS students can
take what they are learning into the workplace directly; whereas the other felt, when students
are connecting information literacy with different resources and end-users, which is exactly
what the programme is teaching, they would be able to transfer their information literacy.
Nevertheless, academics from both UCL iSchool and Sheffield iSchool highlighted the
determination of students themselves in terms of a successful transfer. Differences correlate
with their varying concerns. For instance, academics of UCL stressed personalization of
information literacy, whereas the Sheffield academics focused on students’ personal abilities.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a comparative discussion of the main findings of the Chinese iSchools
and UK iSchools. The comparison includes six aspects: LIS academics’ conceptions of
information literacy, information literacy teaching and assessment, international
communication and information literacy education, barriers and challenges for effective
information literacy education, and transferability of information literacy. The results of the
Literature Review earlier in the study are associated where appropriate.
5.2 Conceptions of Information Literacy to LIS Students
According to the key themes that emerged from the interviews and documents analysis, the
meaning of information literacy to LIS students is beyond applying a set of information
skills, but connected with diverse tasks in varying contexts; the user-centric view of the LIS
discipline, a range of higher-order thinking skills, and lifelong learning within the
information society. However, by comparing conceptions of academics between China and
the UK, a difference of these similar conceptions can be seen. The following section
discusses these differences in LIS academics’ conceptions.
5.2.1 What is ‘information’ of information literacy?
LIS academics from both countries have conceptions focusing on applying information skills
in various contexts and processing research skills to deal with academic tasks. However,
there are differences of these similar conceptions, which correlate with their varying ideas of
what ‘information’ is.
Within an academic context, with Chinese academics there is emphasis on the information
both in Chinese and in other languages (particularly in English). This could be linked to the
requirements in the discipline description, where Chinese LIS undergraduates are required to
47
be able to search and read information in foreign languages, and postgraduates in addition
should be able to use foreign languages to conduct research in the field of Library and
Information Science.
One reason behind this requirement, explained by interviewee D, is that the majority of
current research, no matter if written by Chinese academics or other countries’, is always
published in English. From a practical view, Zhang and Wang (2007) note academic
librarians of Chinese university libraries, need foreign languages to promote the use of
resources in multiple languages, and to ensure their clients who do not speak Chinese could
make effective use of library services and information resources.
By contrast, requirements in relation to languages of information were neither identified by
UK LIS academics involved in this research, nor by documents produced by the professional
bodies. Similarly, none of these prevalent frameworks and standards of information literacy,
such as UK SCONUL Seven Pillars, US ACRL standards, and Australian standards,
considers information literacy from a language view.
5.2.2 What is the connection between IT skills and information literacy?
Using IT to work with information was highlighted by both Chinese and UK academics as a
component of information literacy for LIS students. However, Chinese academics expanded
the standard that using IT, such as search engines to find information effectively, to be wider
by including using XML and metadata to describe information resources, creating Web
pages and constructing information systems.
Although academics of UCL iSchool as well highlighted that information literate LIS
students should be able to effectively organize information for their users, there was no
computer skill mentioned at all. Similar to ideas of Virkus et al. (2005), the Sheffield iSchool
correlates the IT skills with LIS students’ competencies that are required in the delivery of
information literacy training.
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5.2.3 Should LIS information literate be aware of the explicit concepts of information
literacy?
Another notable difference of academics’ conceptions is in students’ explicit concepts of
information literacy. Academics of both UK iSchools highlighted that LIS information
literate students should at least be aware of the concept of information literacy, and if a
student intends to work as an information literacy facilitator, they should also acquire
specific knowledge about information literacy. Such a conception is similar with the ideas of
Virkus et al. (2005).
In contrast, none of the Chinese LIS academics identified the students’ explicit concepts of
information literacy as a standard to become LIS information literate students. However,
according to the results of the literature review, the information literacy standards of the
Chinese Beijing region are the only framework (the other three frameworks: ACRL
standards, Bundy’s standards, and SCONUL seven pillars) that explicitly requires
information literate students to be aware of the concept of information literacy. Although
these standards are neither a national document nor specific for LIS students, they
demonstrate a basic expectation for university students, which include LIS students.
5.2.4 How should LIS information literate use their information literacy as LIS
professionals?
The user-centric view was allied with information literacy by Chinese and UK LIS
academics. However, the difference of their conceptions is in how to use information literacy
to perform their professional roles, and what knowledge and abilities should be acquired by
them.
Academics of both Chinese iSchools highlighted that LIS students should be able to use their
information literacy to identify their users’ information needs, and help them to fulfil
information needs. Although the academics of Nanjing iSchool confirmed LIS students’
49
future role as information literacy facilitators, the identified standards to LIS information
literate are limited in their awareness.
In addition to helping users satisfy their information needs, academics of UK iSchools
explicitly emphasized that LIS students should be able to effectively develop other people’s
information literacy. Such content is confirmed by the statements of Virkus (2005). One
Sheffield academic in particular noted that even for people who do not work in an
educational context, they still need to promote the information literacy of the organization
they are in. Based on that conception, LIS information literate should acquire both
knowledge of information literacy and teaching skills, such as pedagogies.
5.2.5 How do they feel about information literacy?
Although three academics from both countries indicated their discomfort with the term
‘Information Literacy’, their behind reasons are different. The academic of Nanjing iSchool
argued to apply the term Information Literacy because she felt the term tends to represent a
basic level of information awareness and skills.
By contrast, the UK academics who did not favour the label were considering the paradigm
of the concept information literacy shifts varying contexts. In other words, they felt the term
may limit students to effectively connect the concept of information literacy with varying
situations. Such consideration is supported by Godwin (2012: 20) who noted the “puzzled
looks” of information literacy placing in an outside library setting.
5.2.6 Summary
Within the context of LIS discipline, as practitioners there focus much more attention on the
progress of information, information technology, and information society, the significance of
information literacy is more widely accepted. However, it is also because of such close
connection that the outline of the concept of information literacy within LIS discipline
becomes ambiguous at some points. A typical example could be IT skills. In addition, the
50
national characteristics, especially culture and language, largely affect academics’
conceptions of information literacy. Such phenomenon is similar to the statement of Godwin
(2012: 22) that the development of information literacy roots in the “cultural, political,
economic and historical” contexts of countries it is in.
5.3 Developing LIS Students’ Information Literacy
A range of essential components for developing LIS students’ information literacy were
identified by both Chinese and UK academics. All of them confirmed their involvement in
the delivery of information literacy education, focusing on raising students’ user-centric
awareness toward information literacy, and encouraging them to feel and apply their
information literacy in the process of practice. The following section comparatively
discusses the teaching practices of the UK and China according to their emerged themes.
5.3.1 Curricula Design and Teaching Content
Seven academics from four iSchools identified that their information literacy education is
throughout all their LIS programmes. However, in contrast to the two Chinese iSchools, UK
iSchools showed a clearer profile in terms of their information literacy education. Moreover,
their teaching content matches with the content identified by Virkus et al. (2005), which
includes developing LIS students’ information literacy abilities, knowledge of information
literacy, and teaching and learning skills.
By contrast, information literacy education of two Chinese iSchools is mainly through their
traditional LIS education. In other words, academics of Chinese iSchool tend to construct
their students’ information literacy through the delivery of information relevant modules,
such as information retrieval, information resources, and information and library science.
Although all Chinese academics involved in this research were confident that their students
can become information literate though this kind of teaching approaches, Virkus et al. (2005)
show an opposite attitude toward the idea, stating that LIS students would never become
information literate persons with merely studying library and information science.
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5.3.2 Curricular Education and Extracurricular Activities
A remarkable difference of information literacy education between Chinese iSchools and UK
iSchools would be that the former combines curricular and extracurricular education together
whereas curricular education is applied as a dominate approach in UK iSchools. In spite that
one UCL academic indicated the majority of their LIS students have part-time jobs, which
can be counted as a kind of experience relevant to extracurricular practice, it shows less
guidance from teachers, or communication between students.
In contrast, during the extracurricular activities of Chinese iSchools, students obtain support
and guidance from teachers to develop their necessary skills. Take the Association of
Information Literacy of Wuhan University for example, which shows three aspects of
advantages that are hard to achieve by curricular education alone.
Firstly, as a LIS students-leaded while campus-scope association, LIS students play as
spreaders of information literacy. In this way, LIS students actually gain an opportunity to
understand the information needs and information behaviours of students in other disciplines,
as well as their conceptions regarding information literacy. Such benefit may be connected
with the findings of Wilder (2005) that academic librarians need to help students construct
their own information literacy according to their chosen disciplines. This extracurricular
activity obviously prepares LIS students for becoming information literacy practitioners at
that point.
Secondly, according to Kuh (1995), extracurricular context is more similar to real world
settings, which thereby makes it easier for students to consider their information literacy
within an everyday context. In addition, as to Markless and Streatfield (2007), students’
practical experience of information literacy with various contexts is a condition of successful
transfer.
Thirdly, not only do LIS students gain opportunities to recognize information literacy and
practice their information literacy, but the teachers gain a channel to communicate with
52
students and reflect their current teaching. This benefit is confirmed by an academic
involved in this research.
5.3.3 Teaching and Assessing Students’ Information Literacy
Four iSchools either explicitly or implicitly highlighted the effectiveness of problem- or
task-driven teaching approaches when developing LIS students’ information literacy. For
instance, academics of Sheffield iSchool directly identified problem-based learning as an
effective pedagogy in their teaching practices. Academics of Wuhan iSchool noted the
benefits of the task-based approach in developing student’s research skills and IT skills.
Nanjing iSchool provides students with opportunities to design and conduct projects
focusing on real world issues. The module ‘Information Sources and Retrieval’ of UCL
iSchool asks students to make a resources guide according to their choice of subject.
This kind of teaching approach is approved by other researchers as well. Within the LIS
education context, Mansourian (2010) delivers students’ information literacy by problem-
based approaches and confirmed its effectiveness. Placed into a general higher education
context, problem- and inquiry-based learning approaches are beneficial to students’
information skills, higher-order abilities (e.g. critical thinking), and independent learning
(Hutchings, 2007; Puttick, 2011). Moreover, as to Diekema, et al. (2011), such teaching
approaches actually make students experience information more deeply.
In terms of the assessment within information literacy provision, two Chinese iSchools
identified their approaches that include tasks and assignments of other courses. In contrast to
that, academics from UK iSchools additionally identified student’s self-reflection as another
important kind of evaluation. A merit of it, stated by one Sheffield academic is focusing on
student’s learning process rather than results, which makes students easier to progress. The
effectiveness of self-reflection is as well highlighted by Virkus (2005), and particularly
correlates with promoting student’s ability of lifelong learning.
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5.3.4 Summary
The delivery content of information literacy in each iSchool is mainly according to their
academics’ conceptions about what it means to be information literate as LIS students.
However, in contrast to UK iSchools, both Chinese iSchools showed more enthusiasm for
enhancing LIS students’ information literacy by extracurricular activities. Although some
benefits of such practice could be covered by student’s part-time job experiences, it shows
exclusive advantages in terms of increasing communication between teachers and students.
Similar to some existed findings regarding problem-based pedagogies, LIS academics
involved in this research confirmed the effectiveness of such approaches applied in
developing information literacy in LIS disciplines. UK academics assess LIS students’
information literacy combining the expert models and self-assessment models, the
effectiveness of which is demonstrated by other studies as well. Thus, academics from each
county may learn from others’ experience to be better involved in the delivery of information
literacy education.
5.4 Attitudes and Actions toward International Communication
The common view that LIS education is advanced in developed countries such as UK, US
and Australia, can be a strong motivation of Chinese academics for international
communications. According to Chinese LIS academics involved in this research, such
interaction would not only broaden their students’ horizon in the field of Library and
Information Science (including their conceptions regarding information literacy), but also
offer them opportunities to feel information literacy with different countries and
circumstances. For instance, iSchool Organisation was highlighted as a vital and valuable
platform, where they get chances to communicate with the top information schools
worldwide.
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On the other hand, although UK academics somewhat mentioned the positive impacts of
international communication in relation to information literacy education in LIS programmes,
their identified approaches tend to be indirect and passive.
5.5 Barriers and Challenges for Information Literacy Education
Although LIS academics of both counties identified different aspects that constrain their
effective information literacy education, one Chinese academic and two UK academics
focused on the frameworks and standards of information literacy.
According to the literature review, there is neither a national standard nor framework
established in relation to information literacy education in the Chinese Mainland. Such
limitation was identified as a barrier to reinforcing information literacy education in Chinese
iSchools, especially in terms of building their organizational criteria.
In contrast, UK LIS academics criticised the effectiveness of their existing documents. One
Sheffield academic argued that the SCONUL Seven Pillars is too simplistic for LIS
education, and too academic to apply beyond educational contexts. Likewise, such limitation
is identified as a common drawback of all the information literacy frameworks by Godwin
(2012).
Differently, one UCL academic suggested that the concept of information literacy could be
more explicitly and comprehensively stated in competencies documents provided by LIS
professional bodies; otherwise the effectiveness of such guiding documents would be
reduced. One aspect exemplified by her, which is especially crucial for academic librarians,
is LIS students’ ability to build and develop partnership with faculty staff members. Relating
to this aspect, Webber and Powis (2004) and Stubbings et al. (2006) state the bias between
academics and librarians that hinder their collaborative teaching in higher education, which
to some extent demonstrate the concerns expressed by UCL academics.
55
In addition to these similar focuses, Chinese LIS academics identified their barriers as
students’ lack of confidence in learning information technology and the one-way
communication during international communication. UK academics, by contrast, noted the
restriction of time and resources, and academics’ varying understandings regarding the
concept of information literacy.
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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction
This chapter draws conclusions of this research based on the findings in the previous
chapters. It firstly considers the fulfilment of the research aim and objectives, and then
summarises key findings of the research. Recommendations to information literacy
education with LIS education are subsequently presented. The final section provides
suggestions for further research.
6.2 Fulfilment of Research Aim and Objectives
This research aims to investigate what content regarding information literacy has been taught
through what approaches in LIS education in the UK and China, by focusing on two
iSchools in each country. It also aims to find the similarity and differences of the information
literacy education in both countries. It was hoped that this research would ultimately provide
suggestions to information literacy education of iSchools in each countries.
Whist the research investigated four identified iSchools by both interview and analysis of
documents, the small size of participants and limited accessibility of the documents mean it
would be difficult to establish a comprehensive and in depth picture of each case. Especially
as all the participants involved in this research identified their information literacy education
was covered by a range of different courses. Thus, studies with a larger number of
participants of each case are needed to establish a more comprehensive idea toward their
information literacy education (see section 6.5). In spite of this, this research identified LIS
academics’ conceptions regarding information literacy, and provides a comparative picture
of their teaching content and approaches, as well as current barriers that limit their effective
information literacy education. Illustrated with useful evidence from literature,
recommendations for iSchools in both UK and China are provided (see section 6.4).
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6.3 Key Findings
LIS academics of both UK and Chinese iSchools perceived information literacy as an
essential item that should be acquired by LIS students, and connected LIS students’
information literacy with not only educational context, but also their workplace contexts and
the information society. In terms of defining the meaning of being information literate as LIS
students, academics had similar conceptions focusing on applying information skills and
using information literacy to help other people. In addition, they connect LIS students’
information literacy with higher-order skills, independent learning and lifelong learning.
However, differences of these similar conceptions correlate with their varying ideas of
information, expected outcomes of using IT, LIS students’ explicit concept regarding
information literacy, students’ role as information literacy facilitators, and the application of
the term, information literacy per se.
Influenced by the varying conceptions regarding information literacy, each iSchool adopts
different approaches to develop LIS students’ information literacy. However, all of them
agreed that information literacy education is taught across all of their LIS programmes. The
two UK iSchools outlined more explicit profiles of their information literacy education in
contrast to the two Chinese iSchools. Although Chinese academics felt confident of their
programmes in terms of information literacy education, researchers such as Virkus et al.
(2005) show opposite opinions toward developing LIS students’ information literacy mainly
through the general LIS education. In practice, Chinese iSchools combine curricula and
extracurricular activities together to enhance their students’ information literacy. Such
combination shows benefits in terms of attracting students’ participants, increasing the
communication between students, as well as teachers and students. It also formulates a
context similar to everyday life. Nevertheless, academics of all four iSchools identified
problem- and task-based teaching approaches that have become an integral part of
information literacy teaching practice. In terms of assessing students’ information literacy, in
58
addition to conducing that through assignments, academics of both UK iSchools highlighted
the effectiveness of self-reflection.
In terms of the barriers against the effective delivery of information literacy education,
academics of both the UK and China focused attention on the guiding standards and
frameworks. However, in contrast to China, where there is still no national framework
toward information literacy education, UK academics in particular noted the limitations of
widely used frameworks and professional competences.
6.4 Recommendations for LIS Education
6.4.1 Chinese LIS Eucation
National frameworks and standards regarding information literacy and it relevant
education are required by LIS faculties. Such documents would be helpful to
formulate academics’ understandings of information literacy relevant to their
specific organizational context. Based on that, assessment criteria and institutional
support at a strategic level would be easier to be constructed.
Self-reflection can be applied as an approach to assessing LIS students’ information
literacy.
LIS students’ potential role as information literacy facilitators need to be explicitly
recognized and highlighted. To better prepare students for future professional careers,
LIS educators should not only focus on students’ awareness, but integrate substantial
knowledge of information literacy and teaching skills into their teaching process.
LIS educators should focus more attention on helping LIS students transfer their
information literacy from a higher education context to other contexts. The graduate
internship could be designed as an effective approach.
59
6.4.2 UK LIS Education
Attempts can be put into designing and organising extracurricular activities, which
may better stimulate LIS students’ awareness and concerns toward developing their
information literacy.
More active attitudes and actions toward international communication may provide
both LIS academics and students with broader concepts of information literacy.
6.5 Recommendations for Further Research
Further studies could be conducted by involving more academic participants of each
iSchool.
According to the results of this research, information literacy education is delivered
across all LIS programmes of these four iSchools. Therefore, a larger size of
participants could be involved to investigate how their curricula and extracurricular
activities cover the content of information literacy.
Further studies could be conducted by investigating more LIS educational
institutions in both UK and China.
Although the four iSchools involved in this research are representative to LIS
education in the UK and Chinese Mainland, more information schools and LIS
programmes could be involved in further research. It could outline more
comprehensive pictures of information literacy education to LIS students in each
country.
A study of how LIS students view and experience information literacy learning
could be conducted.
This study could provide an insight into the way in which LIS students view
information literacy and experience the learning process. Based on that, the effective
60
pedagogies, and existing challenges of becoming information literate could be
identified from the learners’ perspective.
14,639 words
61
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68
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Information Sheet
Information sheet
信息表
Research Project Title: A comparative study on information literacy education for Library
and Information Science (LIS) students in the UK and China: what and how do they teach?
研究项目题目：中英图书情报专业（LIS）学生信息素养（Information Literacy）教育
模式的比较研究：教什么及如何教？
1. Invitation paragraph
关于邀请
You are being invited to take part in a research project. Before you decide it is important for
you to understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please take time
to read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if you wish. Ask me if
there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information. Take time to decide
whether or not you wish to take part. Thank you for reading this.
您被邀请参与该研究项目，但在您决定参与前，了解该研究的研究目的和相关内容对
您十分重要。请仔细阅读以下信息，并在需要的情况下与他人进行讨论。以下信息如
存有任何表意不明，或是您需要更多的信息，请向我询问与索要。请决定您是否愿意
参与本研究。十分感谢！
2. What is the project’s purpose?
该项目的研究目是什么？
This article aims to explore and compare the information literacy education for LIS students
in UK and China, and particularly focuses on the schools belonging to members of the
“iSchool” association.
本文旨在探究与比较中英两国对图书情报专业学生信息素养的教育。项目主要调查并
研究两国的 iSchool 成员学校。
3. Why have I been chosen?
为何被邀请参与？
You have been chosen because you are a current teacher in an LIS faculty as a member of an
“iSchool” in the UK or China. There will be approximately 10 participants recruited in this
research.
您被邀请参与是因为您是中国或英国 iSchool 成员学校的在职教师。约有 10 名参与者
将会被邀请参与。
4. Do I have to take part?
69
我是否一定得参与？
It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If you do decide to take part you will be
given this information sheet to keep (and be asked to sign a consent form) and you can still
withdraw at any time without it affecting any benefits that you are entitled to in any way.
You do not have to give a reason.
参与与否完全取决于您的意愿。如果您决定参与该项目，您在保存此信息表单的同时
还需要签署相关的同意书。但您有权随时撤消，且无须提供任何理由。
5. What will happen to me if I take part and what do I have to do?
如果参与我会获得什么？需要做什么？
The participants will be involved in the research from May to September, 2012 and each
participant will need to participate in an interview within 40 minutes (or email interview).
During the research interview, the participants are expected to answer the relevant questions
according to their teaching experience, and the face-to-face and online conversation will be
recorded.
参与者将在 2012 年五月到九月期间参与本研究项目，期间每位参与者须参加一次约
40 分钟的采访（或邮件采访）。在采访期间，参与者根据其教学经验回答相关问题。
其中面对面采访和视频对话会被录音。
6. What are the possible disadvantages and risks of taking part?
参与该项目有何风险？
We do not anticipate that there will be any disadvantage in taking part in this research, other
than the time you give up by participating in the project.
参与者无预见性损失及风险，但参与者的参与需要花费时间成本。
7. What are the possible benefits of taking part?
参与该项目有何受益？
Whilst there are no immediate benefits for those people participating in the project; it is
hoped that this work will provide some useful ideas for LIS educators teaching IL more
effectively.
尽管对参与者而言，参加该研究项目并无既得利益。但研究者希望该研究最终能为
LIS 教育者提供一些可用信息，进而促进其未来信息素养的教学。
8. What happens if the research study stops earlier than expected?
如若该研究早于预期中止会怎样？
If the research stops earlier than expected, then you will be informed promptly and no further
input will be required.
如果该研究早于预期时间中止，您会被立即通知且无须继续参与。
9. What if something goes wrong?
如果出现差错会怎样？
70
If you are unhappy about any aspect of the project, then please contact me, using the details
at the end of the sheet. If you do not wish to contact the researcher herself, then please
contact my supervisor, who is also identified at the end of the sheet. If you feel that your
complaint has not been handled to your satisfaction by the researcher or supervisor, you can
contact the University’s Registrar and Secretary (details are on the university website, http:
//www.shef.ac.uk/).
如果您对于该研究项目的任何方面有不满，请通过该信息表尾页处所提供方式联系
我。如果您不希望联系研究者本人，请直接联系研究者的导师，联系信息请见信息表
尾页。如果您认为您的意见与投诉未得到研究者及其导师的有效处理，请与学校相关
部门（University’s Registrar and Secretary）取得联系（详细信息见谢菲尔德大学网
站，http: //www.shef.ac.uk/）
10. Will my taking part in this project be kept confidential?
我的参与是否会被保密？
All the information that we collect about you during the course of the research will be kept
strictly confidential. You will not be identified in any report or publication, unless you have
specifically required that you should be identified. The data we collect will be kept secure.
我们收集的所有关于您的信息都会被绝对保密。您不会在任何报告及出版物中被指
明，除非您有此特殊要求。我们所收集数据都将被安全保存。
11. What will happen to the results of the research project?
该研究项目的结果将被如何处理？
The data will be used for a Masters dissertation at the University of Sheffield iSchool. This
dissertation may be published electronically on the iSchool’s website, and the findings of the
dissertation may be used in published articles.
数据将被用于谢菲尔德大学信息学院硕士研究生毕业论文使用。该毕业论文将被以电
子形式发表在信息学院的网站。此外，该论文的研究结果可能被用于发表文章中。
12. Who is organising and funding the research?
谁来组织与资助该研究？
The research is organised by the Information School, University of Sheffield. Any incidental
expenses are being covered by the researchers and/or the Information School.
该研究由谢菲尔德大学信息学院组织。研究产生的任何费用均由研究者或信息学院负
责。
13. Who has ethically reviewed the project?
谁负责该项目的伦理评估？
This project has been ethically approved via the Information School’s ethics review
procedure. The University of Sheffield’s Research Ethics Committee monitors the
application and delivery of the University’s Ethics Review Procedure across the University.
该项目已经过信息学院伦理道德审核程序审核批准。谢菲尔德大学研究伦理委员会监
督该申请与其程序中的传递。
71
14. Contact for further information
联系获得更多信息
Researcher 研究者
Anna Fu 伏安娜, [email protected]
Supervisor 导师
Sheila Webber, Information School, University of Sheffield, [email protected]
You will be given a copy of this information sheet to keep.
Thank you for taking part in this project!
您将得到该信息表的副本用于保存。再次感谢您的参与！
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Appendix 2: Participant Consent Form
Participant Consent Form
Title of Research Project: A comparative study on information literacy education for Library
and Information Science (LIS) students in the UK and China: what and how do they teach?
研究项目题目：中英图书情报专业（LIS）学生信息素养（Information Literacy）教育
模式的比较研究：教什么及如何教？
Name of Researcher: Anna FU
研究者姓名： 伏安娜
Participant Identification Number for this project: Please
initial box
1. I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet dated
13 June 2012 explaining the above research project
and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the project.
我确定我已阅读并了解信息表中对于上述研究项目的解释与说明。我确定我有机会就
项目相关问题提出疑问。
2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw
at any time without giving any reason and without there being any negative
consequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer any particular
question or questions, I am free to decline. If I have any questions I will
Contact the researcher Anna Fu, [email protected]
我明白我的参与出于自愿，并且我有随时无理由退出的自由。我有权拒绝回答任何我
不愿作答问题。如果我有任何疑问我会联系研究人员 伏安娜，[email protected]
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将不会被联系到任何研究材料中，并且我不会被任何利用本研究结果的报告指明。
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kept in a secure location.
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Appendix 3: Interview Guide
1. What is your conception of information literacy for LIS students?
您认为对于图书情报专业的学生而言，信息素养是什么？
2. Which aspects of information literacy should be acquired by LIS information literate
students in this iSchool?
您认为一个有信息素养的图书情报专业的学生应该具备哪些方面的素质？
3. Do you believe that information literacy is important for LIS students? Why?
信息素养对于图书情报专业的学生是否重要？为什么？
4. How is information literacy taught in this school?
贵校是如何培养学生的信息素养的？
5. How do you develop students’ information literacy in your module?
您如何在您的课程中培养学生的信息素养？
6. How do you think about the importance of strategic supports for information literacy
education?
您如何看待战略/政策上支持对信息素养教育的意义？
7. What do you think of developing LIS students’ information literacy through
extracurricular activities? Are there any examples in this school?
您如何看待课外活动在培养图书情报专业学生信息素养中的作用？贵校具体有哪
些活动？
8. As a member of iSchool Organization, how do you think of the influence of international
collaboration and communication for developing LIS students’ information literacy?
作为 iSchool 组织的成员，您如何看待国际交流与合作对培养学生信息素养的作用
与意义？
9. Are there any teaching approaches that you think are really effective to develop LIS
students’ information literacy?
您认为哪些教学法对培养图书情报的学生最有效？
10. Are there any constraints which you feel make it difficult to conduct an effective
information literacy education for LIS students?
您认为有当前环境中是否存在哪些障碍制约了对图书情报专业学生信息素养的有
效培养？
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11. Do you believe that your students are able to effectively transfer their information
literacy in different contexts? Why?
您认为图书情报专业的学生能否将其所学的信息素养进行不同环境下的有效转换/
转化？为什么？
Thank you very much for taking part in this project!
非常感谢您的参与！
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Appendix 4: Case Study on Wuhan iSchool
1. Academics’ conceptions of information literacy: Wuhan iSchool
Two academics of Wuhan iSchool identified information literacy for LIS students including
the following aspects:
First of all, as a kind of personal ability, information literacy was associated with searching,
accessing, understanding, analysing, evaluating and using information. Both interviewees
agreed with the idea that the content of information literacy at this point is cross-discipline,
while LIS students should reach a higher level of each aspect. Take searching information
for example, LIS information literate students should be more confident and proficient in
selecting resources and constructing searching strategies, contrast with other people.
Secondly, with a discipline view, interviewee X highlighted that LIS students should develop
their information literacy with considering clients’ needs. To pursue this goal, LIS
information literate students should also become good communicators. In addition,
interviewee D highlighted programming as a key area of information technology that should
be acquired by LIS information literate students. She also noted the importance of IT skills
for LIS students in a digital age.
The academic ability was highlighted by interviewee D as a component of information
literacy, while a higher standard of this ability is expected for postgraduates. The academic
information literacy includes reading literatures, especially articles in English; searching and
selecting information according to a specific topic; and analysing and presenting ideas and
structures of academic literatures. Moreover, interviewee D particularly stressed LIS
students’ capability to conduct quantitative analysis, such as utilizing professional tools like
SPSS.
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Another key theme identified by interviewee D was students’ practical ability. In other
words, LIS information literate students should not only possess professional knowledge in
the area of information access, information organization, technology, and research, but
should also be able to apply these areas of knowledge into practice.
Both interviewees agreed that information literacy should be recognised with the various
contexts. Interviewee X particularly correlated it with developing students’ awareness and
ability regarding lifelong learning, and updating their future professional knowledge
structure.
2. Importance of information literacy for LIS Students
Both Wuhan iSchool academics confirmed the importance of information literacy for LIS
students. From a discipline perspective, they identified that the rapidly changing information
technologies increase the importance of information literacy for LIS students.
“As potential information professionals, LIS students’ information literacy
directly links to their future working performance”. (Interviewee X)
“Increasing number of LIS students recently would not be engaged in traditional
information centres, such as library, but workplace, such as bank, Internet and
media companies. Therefore, they need more information literacy to effectively
tackle different situations and adapt to various contexts”. (Interviewee D)
In terms of everyday context, interviewee D highlighted the significance of information
literacy as:
“The environment we are living in largely relates to both computers and
Internet. Students need information literacy to handle information effectively
and efficiently in their life”. (Interviewee D)
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When asking about LIS students’ awareness regarding the importance of information literacy,
interviewee X stated that educators should help students, especially freshmen, realize the
significance of information literacy within their learning and working process. Interviewee D,
by contrast, was confident that although there is no explicit education of information literacy
for LIS students in Wuhan iSchool, most of their students could gain awareness of
information literacy.
3. Teaching and Assessing Information Literacy within LIS Education
3.1 Curricular education
Both interviewees stated that there is no specific course in Wuhan iSchool delivering LIS
students with information literacy related theories. Interviewee D also noted,
“…I would not mention information literacy in my class, but I think if the
theory about information literacy would be taught, it should be involved within
information searching course rather than my classes”. (Interviewee D)
Both participants, however, confirmed the information literacy education of Wuhan iSchool
is separated across different individual courses. The delivery is according to themes and
content of each course. The example courses identified by two interviewees include:
Introduction to Information Science
Information analysis (Information System Analysis)
Information retrieval
Intellectual property and Copyright
Information Policies
Information Security
Information Technology
Information Consultant
Research Methodology
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Knowledge Management
An example of how these modules were correlated with developing LIS student’s
information literacy was provided by interviewee X:
“I teach students ‘Knowledge Management’. From the perspective of personal
knowledge management, I focus on developing students’ information awareness,
and constructing their conceptions of lifelong learning. Also, I guide them to
use information tools appropriately and to build, to update their knowledge
structure according to their career plans”. (Interviewee X)
Furthermore, interviewee X stated the curriculum design of Wuhan iSchool is systematic
according to the subject themes, content and tasks, while not specifically considering
students’ information literacy.
The assignments of courses were identified as a way to develop students’ practical abilities
in relation to information literacy. Typical example could be the module ‘Information
Description’ for postgraduates, which requires students to read academic literatures in
English, and then to analyse and present one selected paper with best quality and relevance
(Document 4).
Additionally, interviewee D stated that assessment of information literacy is embedded in the
different individual modules. Both participants, as well noted there is no criterion for
evaluation.
3.2 Extracurricular activities
Both interviewees identified that information literacy relevant extracurricular activities partly
complement their lack of specific information literacy courses. Such activities provide
students with more opportunities to practice their information literacy. The Information
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Literacy Association and the Searching Contest would be two typical examples identified by
them.
The Information Literacy Association of Wuhan University was founded in 2006 by over 30
students and is still active. It is guided by both “Professor Ma Feichen, the chef of the
Information Resource Research Centre of Wuhan University, and Professor F. W. Horton,
the senior counsellor of the Information Resource Management Committee in the US”
(Information Literacy Association of Wuhan University, 2008). The association focuses on
spreading the theories of information literary, changing people’s conceptions of information,
raising students’ information awareness, and promoting students’ information abilities and
information ethics. It also aims to build a communicating platform where students can better
study in an Internet era, promote their abilities for lifelong learning in the information age,
and use information to enhance their various capabilities. The regular activities of the
association include salons, one-shot lectures (example topics: ‘information society’ and
‘lifelong learning’), searching contests and guidance for research skills (Information Literacy
Association of Wuhan University, 2008). Additionally, various channels, including website,
BBS, and more recently Weico (a social networking site, like Twitter, but popular in China)
have been applied to contribute to wider communication.
According to interviewee D, merits of such student-leaded activities include three aspects:
Attracting more students to be engaged in promoting their information literacy;
Offering more opportunities for students to practice their information literacy;
Providing LIS educators with a platform to reflect their teaching.
3.3 Collaboration between faculty staff members and librarians
Interviewee D identified two collaborative approaches of Wuhan iSchool to develop LIS
students’ information literacy. One approach is to integrate collaborative teaching into
general LIS modules, such as embedding experimental sections of cataloguing into the
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course ‘Information Description’; while another is the librarians taught lectures about using
databases and academic tools.
“We arranged several practices in library to promote students’ capabilities of
information description, such as cataloguing…such practical abilities are an
essential part of information literacy to LIS students”. (Interviewee D)
Libraries’ lectures particularly focus on students’ skills of searching information, such as
using academic databases. According to interviewee D, these teaching activities act as a
supplementary of curricular education offered by LIS faculty. Likewise, interviewee X stated:
“…library service focuses on the internet searching and using academic
databases, especially for fresh students. In contrast, curriculum offered by LIS
faculty is dominant in information literacy education and with a higher level”.
(Interviewee X)
4. International communication and information literacy education
Three types of international collaboration of Wuhan iSchool were identified by interviewee
D:
Communication between students from different countries;
Visiting scholars;
Joint-supervision programmes.
According to participants, this cross-culture collaboration effectively broadens LIS students’
horizon, including their conceptions of information literacy, and provides them with a
channel to understand the information literacy with global view.
Additionally, interviewee D implied the advantage of LIS education in developed countries,
such as UK, US and Australia. Based on that view, both interviewees of Wuhan iSchool
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believed the international communication could provide their students with the latest
development of information literacy.
5. Barriers for information literacy education
As to interviewee D, the lack of confidence of studying information technology constrains
the effectiveness of teaching information literacy in Wuhan iSchool.
“Students in Library Science usually feel programming is too difficult to learn,
which I think is just a sort of psychological barrier…I feel we have paid lots of
attention to students’ searching skills, which is indeed a key element of
information literacy education. However, we still need to put more efforts on
promoting our students’ information technology and information analysis,
especially the quantitative analysis…” (Interviewee D)
Differently, interviewee X noted the negative impact caused by lack of national standards
and documents relevant to information literacy education.
“There is still no national document to guide information literacy education in
China. It not only reduces the effectiveness of our teaching in practice, but also
makes it difficult to formulate the ‘learning and teaching strategies’ of
individual schools and universities”. (Interviewee X)
6. Transferability of Information Literacy
The idea that information literacy should be applies in varying contexts was accepted by
both interviewees of Wuhan iSchool. In addition, it was agreed that information literacy is
transferable when students reaching the following two conditions:
“If students acquire excellent information literacy in the higher education
context, then they can effectively transfer it into their workplace…Information
literacy is aligned with students’ whole life and closely relates to their
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capabilities of independent learning and updating their knowledge. Therefore it
contributes to students’ awareness of the latest information and technology, and
their abilities to adapt to new environments…” (Interviewee D)
“If the information literacy acquired by LIS students is comprehensive, then it is
anticipated to be transferable and can be applied into workplace and everyday
context...” (Interviewee X)
7. Summary
Information literacy of LIS students was defined by Wuhan academics including six themes:
applying information skills, using IT, dealing with information problems, using information
literacy to help others, research skills, and becoming independent learners and lifelong
learners. Academics’ conceptions of information literacy are closely associated with the LIS
discipline and focus on practical abilities. Two academics involved in this research both
agreed with the idea that information literacy can be transferred by LIS students, when their
information literacy is excellent and comprehensive. Although there is no specific course
explicitly delivering students with the concept and theories of information literacy, the
extracurricular activities of Wuhan iSchool partly compensate it, providing students with
more opportunities to practice their information literacy, communicate with others and build
their interests. International communication is recognized as a critical channel for developing
LIS students’ information literacy. However, LIS students’ limited confidence and the lack
of national information literacy documents both constrain the effectiveness of information
literacy education in Wuhan iSchool.
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Appendix 5: Case Study on Nanjing iSchool
1. Academics’ conception of information literacy: Nanjing iSchool
Rather than ‘information literacy’ or ‘information literate’, interviewee Y expressed her
preference to describe an information professional with terms, like ‘information brokers’. In
other words, interviewee Y felt the meaning of information literacy to LIS students
significantly differs from that to other people. The label ‘information literacy’, however,
tends to represent a basic level of information awareness, information skills and information
technology, which thereby cannot effectively distinguish information professionals from
general users.
In addition, interviewee Y stated her opinion on different conceptions regarding ‘information
literacy’ between China and UK:
“In China, we usually talk about information literacy to general users, who are
not information literates and with limited information awareness or skills…But
I found the term ‘information literacy’ can be applied to every person in
countries, such UK…” (Interviewee Y)
Based on the above understanding, interviewee Y stated LIS students should more advanced
information literacy. There are three aspects that should be achieved by LIS information
literate:
Firstly, LIS students need to gain information awareness, which means they should be
familiar with communication styles of the society, and should be able to understand the
cultural phenomena behind information phenomena. From this view, LIS students are also
expected to connect their information awareness with their daily life and jobs.
Secondly, LIS students need to acquire a range of professional knowledge and information
handling skills, such as searching, organizing, and analysing information. However, the
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professional requirements are not limited in being able to find information effectively by
themselves, but to help other people.
The third aspect is especially significant for LIS students who intent to be librarians. They
are expected to obtain more humanities knowledge in contrast with other students. In this
way, they can better understand the information resources of libraries.
The interviewee Y in particular emphasized the significance of IT skills, as LIS students
need to apply it to practice and realize their professional ideas and awareness.
You don’t have to be computer specialists, ‘cause it is too demanding for LIS
students. But you do need to have some IT skills so as to realize your ideas.
(Interviewee Y)
Additionally, the abilities in relation to critical thinking and problem solving are included
within the content of information literacy for LIS students. However, postgraduates are
expected to achieve a higher level than undergraduates, in terms of research ability, research
depth and problem analysis.
2. Teaching and Assessing Information Literacy
2.1 Curricular Education
Interviewee Y stated the information literacy education for LIS students in Nanjing iSchool
is separated across a range of different courses, such as Information Analysis, Information
retrieval, Information Organization, and Management Skills for Digital Resources etc. The
curricular content and forms of delivery are important.
Curricular education of Nanjing iSchool is classified as general education courses,
specialized education courses, seminars and application courses. More specifically,
General education focuses on broadening LIS student’s horizons, and developing
their abilities to recognize the culture phenomena behind the information phenomena;
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Subject courses relevant to handling information and using IT contribute to LIS
students’ professional competencies;
Seminars are designed to encourage students to consider their learning with a critical
view;
And the application courses provide LIS students with practical opportunities to
design projects with the teachers’ guidance.
What should be noticed is although developing other people’s information literacy was
identified as a vital element of the LIS education, academics of Nanjing iSchool do not
deliver their studetns with substantial knowledge about teaching and learning. In contrast,
they pay attention to raising students’ awareness of future professional role as information
literacy facilitators.
2.2 Extracurricular activities
Extracurricular activities were identified as an effective approach to developing LIS
students’ information literacy in Nanjing iSchool. A typical example could be their Project
of Innovative Capabilities.
“For instance, during one of last year projects, our students collaborated with
the local agriculture department, and produced a website to publish information
about the agricultural industry and market. There were also some projects
relevant to banks and digital libraries, which directly contribute to our students’
information literacy and information awareness”. (Interviewee Y)
Interviewee Y specially noted two aspects regarding the impacts of such activities,
it could enhance students’ research abilities;
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it could make students to be aware of the importance of information literacy, and
they probably could know more about what and how they need to develop their
capabilities in the future.
One shot lectures with specific topics are noted as a useful way to deliver knowledge in the
area of independent learning, environment of electronic learning, and learning within various
contexts such as libraries, communities and etc.
3. International communication and information literacy education
The value of international communication in developing LIS students’ information literacy
was stated by interviewee Y. As to interviewee Y, LIS education of UK, US and Australia is
more advanced. As a result, the international communication could complement their
teaching shortages.
The specific approaches to realize international communication include inviting academics
from other countries, students exchanging programmes, summer schools, and assigning
teachers to study and visit abroad. Interviewee Y particularly noted the ‘iSchool
Organization’ that provides them with an excellent platform to build the collaborative
relationship with other top information schools worldwide.
4. Collaboration between faculty academics and librarians
The collaborative teaching between university libraries and faculty staff members is not
active at Nanjing Univeristy. According to interviewee Y, librarians in this university only
introduce their users with libraries’ new resources and services. Faculty staff members of
Nanjing iSchool by contrast take responsibility to conduct all education relevant to
information literacy.
5. Barriers for Effective Information Literacy Education
Three barriers were identified that constrain the effectiveness of information literacy
education in Nanjing iSchool: time restriction, personal factors of students and one-way
international communication.
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Interviewee Y stated that the first barrier increases the difficulty to balance the course
content of traditional knowledge, like cataloguing and classification, and modern
technologies. Although the students’ limited motivation regarding using IT was not
explicitly identified as a barrier, interviewee Y noted that:
“Our students, especially students in Library Science, are not motivated to learn
technological things, so we have to set lots of IT relevant modules to push them
to do it.” (Interviewee Y)
The last obstacle mainly occurs during the international communication and collaboration.
“We are happy to communicate with teachers and researcher from other
countries, but it seems that they don’t show the similar enthusiasm and
motivation. The reasons could be language barriers, finance limitation, or they
may think they are more advanced in LIS education than us. Anyway, I would
say there are many communications, but I still feel we are more active than
them…” (Interviewee Y)
6. The Transferability of LIS students’ Information Literacy
Interviewee Y believed that only small number of students with excellent and comprehensive
abilities may transfer their information literacy from higher education context to workplace
context successful and consciously. She also mentioned that most of students could not
transfer their information ltieracy independently.
They usually need to be taught by experienced colleague, and even after making
mistakes, they may begin to realize the necessity of transferring their
information literacy into a new environment. I mean after making mistakes,
they probably begin to reflect themselves… Actually, that’s why we believe the
extracurricular activities are vital… (Interviewee Y)
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7. Summary
The academic of Nanjing iSchool highlighted the prominent difference of information
literacy to LIS students and other people. Key conceptions of information literacy identified
by them include applying information skills, using IT, dealing with real world issues, using
information literacy to help others, developing other people’s information literacy,
possessing essential research skills, becoming critical thinkers, and understanding the
cultural phenomena through information phenomena. Based on these conceptions, Nanjing
iSchool combines curricular and extracurricular education together to develop LIS students’
different aspects of information literacy. They mainly evaluate students’ information literacy
through the assessment of relevant courses. In contrast to limited collaboration with
university library, Nanjing iSchool shows more motivation toward international
communication. The Nanjing iSchool academic not only recognized the benefits of cross-
national collaboration, but also involved in a range of activates. However, the one-way
international communication was identified as a barrier that constrains further information
literacy education in Nanjing iSchool. Another two barriers identified by interviewee Y
include the time restriction and LIS students’ limited confidence in terms of learning IT
skills. Although the academic showed great confidence of their teaching quality, she still felt
it is difficult for LIS students to transfer their information literacy from university context to
workplace context directly and consciously.
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Appendix 6: Case Study on Sheffield iSchool
1. Academics’ conceptions of information literacy: Sheffield iSchool
The academic information literacy as a key component of information literacy to LIS
students was highlighted by both interviewees. LIS information literate students are expected
to:
Identify their information need effectively;
Navigate a large number of content efficiently;
Locate, find, collect, analyse, evaluate, synthesize and use information effectively;
Acquire essential research skills.
With a discipline view, interviewee S stated that LIS information literate students are
expected to handle information confidently and comfortably. Interviewee A noted LIS
students should be familiar with the social resources in the field of LIS, and deal with
information critically, synthetically and creatively.
Further, both participants mentioned that LIS should be able to view information literacy
connecting with varying contexts (e.g. workplace context and lifelong learning etc.) and
roles (e.g. employees, citizens etc.). Based on that, LIS students are expected to:
Recognise differences of information literacy with various contests;
Develop their generic and transferable information literacy;
Construct and promote their personal information literacy in various contexts.
Interviewee A particularly noted that LIS information literate students are expected to be
aware of diverse requirements and expression of information literacy in varying situations. In
other words, rather than simply knowing the label information literacy, LIS student should:
be aware of what information literacy relevant abilities he/she has acquired;
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be able to express their information literacy relevant capabilities in an appropriate
way;
and transfer their information literacy to be an asset to sell themselves in job
interviews.
As potential information professionals, both participants highlighted LIS students should be
aware of and also be able to develop other people’s information literacy. Interviewee S stated
that, even for LIS graduates who would not work in library and information centres, they still
need to be aware of the expectation that they should not only be information literate
personally, but also need to develop information literacy of the organization they are in. To
achieve these aims, LIS information literate students need to acquire concepts of information
literacy, knowledge of learning and teaching, and skills of communication and interaction.
3. Importance of information literacy
To be information literate is identifed as one of 13 Sheffield Graduate Attributes (The
University of Sheffield, 2012), meaning that every Sheffield graduate should be information
literate people when they leaving the university. Both participants involved in this research
highlighted the importance to develop LIS students’ information literacy as well.
Interviewee S stated that the changing circumstances around people require every graduate,
and even every citizen to be explicitly empowered to be information literate. The importance
of information literacy for LIS student is related to their learning and working process by
interviewee A.
From a discipline perspective, interview S noted,
“…information is sort of the core of what we do, and being able to be confident,
and comfortable at handling information and being able to help other people…I
think it is important for all the graduates of the department really”. (Interviewee
S)
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4. Teaching and Assessing LIS students’ information literacy
4.1 Curricula Education
According to Sheffield academics involved in this research, information literacy relevant
education is covered across all their courses and programmes, while three of their
postgraduate modules explicitly are entitled as:
Information Resources and Information Literacy
Information Literacy Research
Information Literacy Education
In terms of the teaching content, these three modules explicitly deliver students with
information literacy relevant theories (e.g. frameworks, key research areas and teaching
information literacy etc.), encourage students to combine information literacy with varying
situations and contexts, and provide them with opportunities to apply theories into practice.
Interviewee S also indicated that these modules aim to raise LIS students’ awareness that
information literacy is a subject that can be study deeply.
In contrast, other modules usually would not mention information literacy explicitly, while
developing students’ information literacy through assignments and specific sessions. As to
interviewee A,
“… all of our teaching has the element to (information literacy), if you focus
more on not the getting material but the using it, everything we teach has an
aspect of that…” (Interviewee A)
Another impact of these modules identified by interview S could be encouraging LIS
students to concern information literacy with a broader view.
From the perspective of curricula design, information literacy education of Sheffield iSchool
was described as systematic, patchy and iterated.
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4.2 Approaches to information literacy teaching
The constructivist approaches, including inquiry-based learning, problem-based leaning and
task-based learning, were mentioned as the most frequently used approaches in Sheffield
iSchool. In addition to effectiveness of the approach per se, the application is influenced by
the requirements of the British educational system, as well as Sheffield iSchool’s philosophy
and research interests. The benefits of this pedagogy reveal in helping learners realize the
importance of information literacy, supporting students to construct their own information
literacy, assessing students’ information literacy within their learning process, and making it
easier for teachers to embed into other learning activities.
4.3 Personal education
Personal education was identified by both Sheffield participants while differences exist in
their practices. For instance, interviewee A focused on the importance of personal tutorial,
and highlighted its effectiveness of enabling individual students to realize what they have
known, and how to express and transfer their information literacy in varying settings. In
contrast to that, interviewee S suggested that supervisors should develop their students’
academic information literacy through guiding their individual dissertations.
4.4 Extracurricular activities
Co and extra-curricular activities are identified as an approach to further promoting students’
information literacy in the Learning and Teaching Strategy of Sheffield University, while
both interviewees neither show much experience nor particular preference for it. Interviewee
S ascribed the phenomenon to lack of campus culture, students’ limited interests, and
students’ pressure from part-time jobs.
4.5 Assessment of information literacy
According to interviewee S, their assessment toward students bases on two principles:
the assessment should match the learning outcomes;
the assessment should be various to cover different skills.
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In terms of assessing students’ information literacy, interviewee A mentioned two
approaches as coursework and dissertation, and the criteria he identified include:
the quantity and quality of a research study;
the effectiveness of searching, evaluating, selecting and synthesizing information;
the innovativeness and appropriateness of using and creating information;
effectiveness of research;
consistency of citation.
Differently, Interviewee S specially identified information literacy from a personal
perspective, which whereby highlights reflection as an effective approach to assessment. She
also noted that self-reflection requires students to be aware of what they did and whether it is
right or wrong. A merit of that could be focusing on the learning process rather than specific
accomplishment of an assignment, which enables students to make progress more easily.
5. Collaboration between faculty staff members and librarians
IL education for LIS students in the Sheffield iSchool is not only provided by academics of
LIS faculty but also the university libraries. Such collaboration can be achieved through four
approaches:
liaison librarians;
co-taught modules;
general library services (e.g. IL training sessions);
co-research projects (e.g. Inquiry-based learning project).
According to interviewees’ statements, the liaison librarians and library’s information
literacy service mainly focus on students seeking and finding academic resources, whereas
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the academics of the faculty pay much attention to using information, and help students
transfer their information literacy.
Interviewee S stated that librarians involved within a module session contribute to enhancing
students’ ability in terms of citation, searching specific resources, and interacting with
librarians. All these aspects are librarians’ strength. Take the module ‘Information resources
and Information Literacy’ for instance, where the liaison librarian of Sheffield iSchool
focuses on delivering content about ‘database searching’ and ‘advanced searching’
(Document 5).
6. International communication and information literacy education
As the first iSchool in the UK, some cases of international communication in relation to
information literacy education can be found from the Annual Report of Sheffield iSchool
(Information School of the University of Sheffield, 2011). A typical example could be two
postgraduate research students attended the first International Intercollegiate Invitational
Information Literacy Contest in 2010 (Information School of the University of Sheffield,
2011). However, two interviewees involved in this research showed limited awareness of it.
“I haven’t done anything, particular with the iSchools. I know some people in
iSchools, but not specific to do with information literacy.” (Interviewee S)
Interviewee A explained that the limited collaboration with other iSchools is probably due to
the short membership of Sheffield iSchool.
Both participants of Sheffield iSchool however showed interests on international
communication. Interviewee S particularly identified her approaches to knowing the
development of information literacy within other countries via communicating with overseas
students and visiting scholars.
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7. Strategic supports
In addition to the Sheffield Graduates Attributes, information literacy and abilities
represented by that concept are explicitly featured in strategy and policy documents of
Sheffield iSchool. A typical example could be the Learning and Teaching Strategy of
Sheffield iSchool (Document 6), which directing learning and teaching in the school.
According to interviewee A who is the director of learning and teaching of Sheffield iSchool,
Sheffield LIS programmes purpose to guarantee all of their graduates with sufficient
information literacy, and review information literacy in all of their courses.
Interviewee D identified the benefits of strategic supports as increasing supports from
colleagues, and making students to be aware of the significance of information literacy.
8. Barriers for effective information literacy education
Barriers including limited time and resource, practitioners’ varying conceptions regarding
information literacy, and learners’ different backgrounds and expectations were identified
that constrain the effectiveness of information literacy education in Sheffield iSchool.
One-year-long programme makes it difficult for teachers to cover and balance the teaching
content of information literacy. Additionally, the limited time and resource partly constrain
the delivery of information literacy education in Sheffield iSchool. For instance, as
interviewee S stated, once iSchool tends to add some new teaching content, they have to
reduce some existed things, which is never easy to perform. Another two examples could be
the delay of distance learning programmes of information literacy and restriction of physical
learning environment.
Sheffield academics show different understandings toward information literacy and teaching
information literacy, which to some extent hinder their teaching practices.
“Sometimes, people may say that is not information literacy I think it’s really
information management or something else. So it is not really so clear yet,
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especially how information literacy as a personal thing is going to be
developed…” (Interviewee S)
The variety of learner’s backgrounds results in their different expectations and motivations
for modules and programmes.
In addition, some practical problems are tricky. For instance, both participants highlighted
the significance of translating information literacy from the academic context to other
contexts, meanwhile both of them also mentioned a successful transfer is challenging and
demanding.
Additionally, interviewee A stated that SCONUL Seven Pillars as a widely used framework,
however, is too simplistic, academic, and lack of critical and generic aspects. Therefore, it is
helpless in terms of helping LIS students transfer their information literacy.
9. Transferability of Information Literacy
Interviewee D stated that, finally every LIS student needs to connect their information
literacy with their workplace. According to interviewee A, only when LIS student
understand the information literacy at a generic level, their information literacy would be
transferable. During the teaching process, teachers need to help them be aware of what they
have learnt and encourage students to construct their information literacy according to the
requirements of their intended workplace. As the director of MSc Programme in Digital
Library and Management, interviewee A noted:
“In this digital library context, of course we talked about the information skills
relevant to the practical and theoretical needs of that area.” (Interviewee A)
Similarly, interviewee D suggested that activities, such as experience of work placement,
which might be useful in enabling students to transfer their information literacy successfully.
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10. Summary
Academics of Sheffield iSchool clearly defined information literacy as not only a kind of
personal abilities, but also a subject. Their conceptions of information literacy include
academic literacy, abilities of handling information, and capabilities of transferring
information literacy with varying contexts, and developing other peoples’ information
literacy. Information literacy education is across each LIS programme. In terms of the
curricular education, information literacy is explicitly labelled in some of modules titles.
Concepts and theories of information literacy are delivered to LIS students. Coursework and
dissertation, by contrast, provides students with practical opportunities. Personal education
has been identified as an approach to constructing students’ personal information literacy
and enabling them to better transfer their information literacy. Constructivist teaching
approaches are preferred by academics, while the extracurricular activity is rarely integrated
into information literacy education. Information literacy is mainly assessed through students’
assignments and self-reflection.
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Appendix 7: Case Study on UCL iSchool
1. Academics’ conceptions of information literacy: UCL iSchool
According to interviewee V, information literacy to LIS students in UCL iSchool is
recognized with a wide view, which contains a wide range of elements locating different
places of the programme.
From a theoretical perspective, interviewee L stated information literacy as:
“…the understanding about what is knowledge and how knowledge is managed,
disseminated, and used”. (Interviewee L)
She also indicated that information literacy is not only a concept about information, but also
an information process. According to UCL academics, information literacy to LIS students
includes two aspects: as students and as professionals. LIS information literate graduates are
expected to achieve both aspects.
For LIS students, information literacy is a kind of personal skills that is academic-focused
and should be involved within their learning and researching process. During this process,
LIS students should consider:
what information is needed by what research/problems;
how the information can be applied into research process.
LIS information literate students should also acquire essential research capabilities, such as
methodologies, research skills and criteria for researches.
Additionally, considering the nature of the discipline they are in, LIS students are expected
to:
understand information;
be aware of information literacy in a general sense;
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understand and effectively practice the information literacy process including
information identification, location, retrieval (e.g. smart searching and search
engines), selection, manipulation, dissemination, and legal and ethical use of
information;
be able to deal with various information resources according to their purposes,
access, and forms;
possess skills of presentation and communication.
Particularly, interviewee V identified information organization and knowledge organization
as a component of information literacy for LIS students. It can not only help students better
understand how information is structured, and contribute to students’ searching process; but
also can enable them to be familiar with facilitating users, who usually search in basic ways.
Moreover, information literacy for LIS professionals requires students to connect their
information literacy with a real world context. LIS information literate thereby should be
able to incorporate their personal information literacy relevant capabilities into a whole, and
correlate their abilities with varying sectors, end-users, and information resources. According
to that, LIS students are expected to
connect information organization, dissemination, and retrieval with supporting users;
understand theories, principles, and ethical and legal issues connecting with effective
information users;
identify users’ information needs;
act as effective and confident information literacy facilitators and communicator to
interrupt users about information literacy, and develop users’ information literacy;
realize the benefits of applying this process.
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As interviewee L stated, LIS professionals’ role as teachers is not always visible. However,
most information professionals who are engaged in consumer-facing jobs need awareness of
pedagogies.
3. Importance of information literacy
Importance of information literacy and its relevant education has been stated from three
aspects. Firstly, interviewee L highlighted information literacy education is fundamental in
LIS programme. Secondly, information literacy is vital for every student in different
disciplines. Thirdly, information literacy is closely aligned with the nature of LIS field, and
interviewees particularly noted its key role in LIS practices.
Further, when asking about LIS students’ awareness regarding the importance of information
literacy, interviewee V confirmed that confidently.
4. Teaching and assessing information literacy of LIS students
4.1 Curricula Education
Interviewee L highlighted that information literacy as a vital content has been “spread across
lots of modules” and “should be throughout the whole programme” (Interviewee L). Both
participants confirmed information literacy as a component of their teaching content, and
four key modules relevant to information literacy were identified.
As to interviewee V, the compulsory module, Information Sources and Retrieval is the major
approach to information literacy training in UCL iSchool. The first step of this module is to
construct students’ generic skills, by delivering them content in the area of information
resources, the nature of information skills, searching skills, search engines and information
dissemination. Based on that, students are expected to build their own information literacy
through personal assignments.
The module of Introduction to Management was highlighted as an important way to develop
LIS students’ skills of presentation and communication. Additionally, the awareness of
information literacy relevant skills is delivered by the Module Professional Awareness.
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As an optional module, Services to Children and Young People develops LIS students’
information literacy as “professional activities” (Interviewee V). It contextualizes
information literacy into a specific circumstance. According to interviewee L, within such
specific context, LIS students need to study information literacy relevant terminology,
history and evolution, models, impacts, and relationship with learning styles and lesson
planning. Moreover, she identified the theories of teaching and learning, and pedagogies as
elements of her module.
4.2 Teaching Approaches and Assessment
Learner-based approaches were identified as a vital way to develop LIS students’
information literacy at UCL iSchool. An example could be the coursework of Module
Introduction to Management, which focuses on developing students’ presenting and
communicating skills. Another example could be assignment of Module Information Sources
and Retrieval that requires student to make a resources guide for a subject according to
students’ choice.
In addition to that, learners themselves show a great importance in constructing their
personal information literacy. For instance, after learning information literacy relevant
generic skills, LIS students are expected to personalise their skills at a higher level through
combining it with a specific setting and sector.
Additionally, interviewee L highlighted the importance of stimulating students by the
module credits and assessment.
According to Interviewee V, UCL iSchool assesses LIS students’ information literacy
mainly through assessing their assignments.
“We wouldn’t assess their personal information literacy, but we would assess
their quality of that assignment”. (Interviewee V)
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For instance, LIS students’ presenting and communicating abilities are evaluated through
their coursework of the Module Introduction to Management. Moreover, self-reflection was
identified as a kind of effective assessment.
4.3 Extracurricular activities
Limited extracurricular activities were identified by UCL academics. One example would be
a one-day event conducted for fostering students’ research skills. Interviewee V however
stated that the majority of LIS students in the UCL iSchool have part-time jobs, and the real
world experience would help them be aware of the requirements of workplace and connect
their learning with their users.
5. Collaboration between faculty academics and librarians
Considering the nature of the LIS discipline, the majority of searching content is covered by
the faculty regular courses. Although the university library’s service, such as WISE, provides
a series of online courses about information skills, it shows limited importance for students
of LIS programme (Interviewee V).
According to interviewee V, the subject librarian is involved in developing LIS students’
information literacy.
“…we involve them with us when we have the research methods training we’ll
involve our subject librarians in that. And in the information sources course, the
subject librarians and people in library will come and teach on that, usually with
specialist resources.” (Interviewee V)
Additionally, interviewee V noted librarians contribute to teaching LIS students about how
to communicate with the librarians.
The benefits of their education or assistance would be teaching students in small groups, and
the educational service can be conducted at any working time.
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6. Barriers for effective information literacy education
As a controversial term, interviewee L agreed that information literacy is an important
concept showing discomfort with the term per se, as its paradigm differs sectors.
Both UCL interviewees noted the shortage of current information literacy education. As to
interviewee V, delivering information literacy to users would be a key aspect of LIS
students’ future jobs, while “a lot of them have not been very well prepared for it”
(Interviewee V).
Similarly, interviewee L stated that information literacy education for LIS covers a wide
range of elements, which however has not been comprehensively included in LIS
competencies documents credited by CILIP. An example would be LIS students’ ability to
build relationship with faculty academics.
7. Transferability of information literacy
Interviewee L confirmed that information literacy could be transferable in theory, while in
practice, it depends on individual themselves. In other words, some of students may be better
at transferring than others.
Academics mainly help students realise that information literacy can be applied in various
contexts, and enable them to consider information literacy with different information
resources, training environments and end-users. Differently, interviewee V believed, since
the LIS programme focuses on information, it would be easy for students to take out what
their learning into workplace, and transfer their learning by themselves.
8. Summary
Academics from the UCL iSchool identified information literacy with three categories,
academic information literacy involved in learning and researching process, information
handling skills, and developing other people’s information. Information literacy education is
separated across a range of relevant modules. Although there are limited extracurricular
activities in UCL iSchool, students’ part-time working experiences were identified as an
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approach that helps them connect their information literacy with real-world contexts.
Information literacy is mainly assessed through assignment of each course, while self-
reflection was highlighted as an effective method of evaluation. The collaboration between
faculty staff members and librarians mainly shows on some co-teaching course sections. The
controversial understanding of information literacy and insufficient preparation for LIS
professionals as information literacy facilitators limit the effectiveness of information
literacy education in UCL iSchool.
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Appendix 8: Table of Documents
Documents Titles Data of
Publication/Update Author(s)/Organization(s)
Document 1
‘Subject
Catalogue and
Index’
2008
Ministry of Education of
the People’s Republic of
China.
Document 2
Sheffield iSchool
postgraduate’s
handbook (2011-
2012)
2011
Information School, the
University of Sheffield,
UK.
Document 3
Teaching and
Learning Strategy
of Nanjing
iSchool
(Undergraduates)
2012
School of Information
Management, Nanjing
University, China.
Document 4
Module
Outline—
Information
Description
2012
School of Information
Management, Wuhan
University, China.
Document 5
Module
Outline—
Information
Literacy and
Information
Resources
2011
Information School, the
University of Sheffield,
UK.
Document 6
Learning and
Teaching
Strategy of
Sheffield iSchool
2011
Information School, the
University of Sheffield,
UK.
