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AP Language & Composition Reference Guide – Weiler 1

AP Language & Composition Reference Guide

Rhetorical Modes of DiscourseDescription

Presents factual information about an object or experience (objective description) or reports an impression or evaluation of an object or experience (subjective description)

Structured by spatial order (top to bottom, left to right, etc.) or order of importanceNarration

Giving an account of a sequence of real or imagined events; storytelling Structured by chronology (time order) or order of importance

Exposition Providing objective information about or an explanation of an issue, subject, method, or idea Structured by rhetorical strategies below

Argument Attempts to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s viewpoint or position through logic and the

reader’s intellect (logical argument) or through the reader’s emotions and a call to action or change in the reader’s belief (persuasive argument)

*Logical argument structured by induction, deduction, and/or analogy

The Range of ExpositionExpository writing includes writing as familiar and as ephemeral as daily newspaper stories and magazine articles and as monumental as the philosophical works of Aristotle, the history of Gibbon, or the science of Darwin. Exposition also includes technical writing such as is found in an encyclopedia and in business and engineering reports. Expository writing also includes non-fiction personal writing such as journals, diaries, and essays of individual experience and opinion, of which Montaigne, Thoreau, Orwell, E.B. White, James Baldwin, Joan Didion, and Virginia Woolf are notable practitioners. It is this branch of exposition, the personal experience essay, sometimes also called "Creative Nonfiction," with which we are mainly concerned in this course. This kind of personal essay naturally transforms itself into the higher-level journalism characteristic of such a publication as The New York Times Magazine. The essential difference between "expository" writing and fictional short stories is that everything narrated in a piece of "expository" writing must be absolutely and literally true. The events MUST have actually happened and have happened where you say they happened and how you say they happened and when you say they happened. Nothing can be "made up." But otherwise, the techniques needed for good fiction are the same as those needed for good creative non-fiction --- vivid storytelling, suspense, pace, scene setting, characterization, organic structure, sound themes, irony, figurative language, style and the fundamental secret of superior expository creative non-fiction writing, what I call “literal symbolism,” where a real event is made into a symbol for an entire class of events. All the resources of verbal and literary expression you will be practicing for expository writing are identical to those you might use in writing a good short story, except that exposition claims to be literally true whereas short stories do not. A good many of the devices are also applicable to poetry, though, of course, exposition is in prose, not verse.

--Harlan Underhill, adapted from Modern Rhetoric

“If fiction is a world, nonfiction is the world. In the end all writing is about the business of being human.”

-- William Sloan, The Craft of Writing


Rhetorical Strategies for Exposition(Plan for Achieving a Specific Writing Purpose)

Analogy is a method of development that explains something abstract or difficult to understand by comparing it to something simpler and more concrete, with which the reader is likely to be familiar.

Cause and Effect is a seemingly simple method of development in which either the cause of a particular effect or the effects of a particular cause are investigated. However, because of the philosophical difficulties surrounding causality, the writer should be cautious in ascribing causes.

Classification/Division is the division of a whole into the classes that comprise it; or the placement of a subject into the whole of which it is a part.

Comparison and Contrast is the presentation of a subject by indicating similarities between two or more things (comparison) or by indicating differences (contrast). The basic elements in a comparative process, then, are (1) the terms of the comparison, or the various objects compared, and (2) the points of likeness or difference between the objects compared. Often comparison and contrast are used in definition and other methods of exposition.

Definition, in logic, is the placing of the word to be defined in a general class and then showing how it differs from other members of the class; in rhetoric, it is the meaningful extension (usually enriched by the use of detail, concrete illustration, anecdote, metaphor) of a logical definition in order to answer fully, clearly, and often implicitly the question, “What is _____?”

Example/Illustration is the use of a particular member of a class to explain or dramatize a class, a type, a thing, a person, a method, an idea, or a condition. The idea explained may be either stated or implied. For purposes of illustration, the individual member of a class must be a fair representation of the distinctive qualities of the class. The use of illustrations, examples, and specific instances adds to the concreteness and vividness of writing.

Process Analysis is a method of exposition by logical sequence, applicable to any process, from mining coal to writing a poem. Processes may be described technically and factually or impressionistically and selectively. In the latter method the steps in the sequence are organized in relation to a single governing idea so that the mutually supporting function of each of the components in the total structure becomes clear to the reader. Processes may be explained in terms of their characteristic function. Analysis may also be concerned with the connection of events; given this condition or series of conditions, what effects will follow.

--Adapted from The Essay by Michael F. Shugrue (1981)


Rhetorical Appeals

Ethos refers to a character, speaker, writer, or persona and their credibility (authority) on the topic or a common belief statement that cannot be refuted but accepted as true: “Life is a precious gift;” the use of pronouns such as “we,” “ours,” or “us” strengthens the ties between the persona and the audience/reader creating a connection between the speaker and the audience. The speaker is seen as “one of us.” Pronouns such as “they” or “he/she” distances the speaker/writer from the audience. Pronouns such as “I” focus on the credibility of the author/speaker.

Pathos appeals to the emotions of the reader and needed if the purpose of the speaker is to incite action. Remember, a person is typically moved in the end by his or her emotions but only after a strong logical argument has laid the foundation for a change in attitude. A strictly emotional argument is a rant or a tirade and is not effective.

Logos appeals to the reasoning or logic of the argument with data and common knowledge and often involves a concession to the opposing side of an argument typically followed by a counterargument. An effective argument always addresses the opposing side in an effort to persuade because it demonstrates thorough knowledge of the subject and increases the speaker/writer’s credibility with the audience.

Rhetorical Devices: Schemes (Structure/Organization) & Tropes (Meaning/Interpretation)

Schemes of BalanceParallelism—similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses. Emphasizes similarities and connections:

He tried to make the law, clear, precise and equitable. ...for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Protection, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. (The Declaration of Independence)

Isocolon (ī-sō-cō-lon)—use of parallel elements similar not only in structure, as in parallelism, but in length (that is, the same number of words or even syllables). Addition of symmetry of length to similarity of structure contributes to the rhythm of sentences:

His purpose was to impress the ignorant, to perplex the dubious, and to confound the scrupulous.

Antithesis (an-tith-a-sis)—the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure. Emphasizes dissimilarities and contraries; produces the quality of an aphorism: Though studious, he was popular; though argumentative, he was modest; though inflexible, he was candid; and though metaphysical, yet orthodox. (Dr. Samuel Johnson on the character of the Reverend Zacariah Mudge, in the London Chronicle, May 2, 1769)


Schemes of Unusual or Inverted Word OrderAnastrophe (a-nas-trō-fē)—inversion of the natural or usual word order. Because deviation surprises expectation, anastrophe can be an effective device for gaining attention, though its chief function is to secure emphasis:

Backward run the sentences, till reels the mind. (From a parody of the style of Time magazine.)

Parenthesis (pa-ren-tha-sis)—insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentence. Allows the author’s voice to be heard commenting or editorializing, thereby charging the statement with emotion:

But wherein any man is bold—I am speaking foolishly—I also am bold.... Are they ministers of Christ? I—to speak as a fool—am more. (St. Paul, 2 Cor. 11, 21 and 23.)

Apposition (ap-a-zish-en)—placing side by side two coordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first. Less intrusive than parenthesis, it allows for the insertion of additional information or emphasis:

John Morgan, the president of the Sons of the Republic, could not be reached by phone.

Schemes of OmissionEllipsis (ē-lip-sis)—deliberate omission of a word or of words which are readily implied by the context. An artful and arresting means of securing economy of expression:

And he to England shall along with you. (Hamlet, III, iii, 4)

Asyndeton (a-sin-da-ton)—deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses. Produces a hurried rhythm in the sentence:

I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)

Schemes of RepetitionPolysyndeton (pol-ē-sin-de-ton)— the opposite of asyndeton: polysyndeton is the deliberate use of many conjunctions. Suggests flow or continuity in some instances, special emphasis in others:

I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right," and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was all right only she was full of water. (Hemingway, "After the Storm")

This semester I am taking English and history and biology and mathematics and sociology and physical education.

Alliteration (a-lit-er-ā-shun)—repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words. Contributes to euphony of verse; sometimes used for humorous effect:

A sable, silent, solemn forest stood. (James Thomson, "The Castle of Indolence," I.38) Tart, tingling, and even ticklish. (Caption from an ad for Sprite)


Assonance (as-a-nuns)—the repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words. Produces euphonious, onomatopoetic or humorous effect:

An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king—Princes, the dregs of their dull race, who flow Through public scorn—mud from a muddy spring— (Shelley, "Sonnet: England in 1819")

Anaphora (a-naf-a-ra)—repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses. Always used deliberately, this scheme helps to establish a marked rhythm and often produces strong emotional effect:

The Lord sitteth above the water floods. The Lord remaineth a King forever. The Lord shall give strength unto his people. The Lord shall give his people the blessingof peace. (Psalm 29)

Epistrophe (a-pis-trō-fē)—repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. Sets up a pronounced rhythm and secures a special emphasis: Shylock: I'll have my bond! Speak not against my bond! I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond! (The Merchant of Venice, III, iii, 3-4)

Epanalepsis (e-pon-a-lep-sis)—repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause. Gives language an appearance of emotional spontaneity:

Blood hath bought blood, and blows have answered blows: Strength match’ with strength, and power confronted power. (Shakespeare, King John, II, i, 329-30)

Anadiplosis (an-a-di-plō-sis)—repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause:

Labor and care are rewarded with success, success produces confidence, confidence relaxes industry, and negligence ruins the reputation which diligence had raised. (Samuel Johnson, Rambler No. 21)

Climax (klī-maks)—arrangement of words, phrases or clauses in an order of increasing importance:

More than that, we rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance, endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, because God's love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit which has been given to us. (St. Paul, Romans, 5, 3-5)

Renounce my love, my life, myself—and you. (Alexander Pope, "Eloisa to Abelard")

I think we've reached a point of great decision, not just for our nation, not only for all humanity, but for life upon the earth. (George Wald, "A Generation in Search of a Future," speech delivered at MIT on March 4, 1969)

Antimetabole (an-tē-ma-tab-ō-lē)—repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. Produces the impressive turn of phrase typical of an aphorism:

One should eat to live, not live to eat. (Moliere, L 'Avare)


Chiasmus (kī-az-mus)—reversal of grammatical structure in successive phrases or clauses (literally, “the criss-cross). Like antimetabole, but without the repetition:

By day the frolic, and the dance by night. (Samuel Johnson, “The Vanity of Human Wishes)

“And so, my fellow Americans, ask now what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country” (John F. Kennedy)

Polyptoton (pō-lip-ta-than)—repetition of words derived from the same root. Similar to word play, but the meanings of the words do not lose their literal meaning:

The Greeks are strong, and skilful to their strengthFierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant. (Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, I, i, 7-8)

Tropes of ComparisonMetaphor (met-a-for)—an implied comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common; a comparison of two things without using the words “like” or “as”.

Simile (sim-a-lē)—an explicit comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common; a comparison of two things using either “like” or “as.”

Synecdoche (si-nek-da-kē)—a figure of speech in which a part stands for the whole:

All hands on deck. •genus substituted for the species: vessel for ship, weapon for sword, creature for man, arms for rifles, vehicle for bicycle •species substituted for the genus: bread for food, cutthroat for assassin •part substituted for the whole: sail for ship, hands for helpers, roofs for houses •matter for what is made from it: silver for money, canvas for sail, steel for sword

Metonymy (me-tahn-a-mē)—substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant.

crown for royalty, mitre for bishop, wealth for rich people, brass military officers, bottle for wine, pen for writers. In Europe, we gave the cold shoulder to De Gaulle, and the warm hand to Mao Tse-tung. (Richard M. Nixon, Speech, 1960)

Tropes of Word PlayPuns—generic name for those figures which make a play on words.

Antanaclasis (an-ta-nak-la-sis)—repetition of a word in two different senses:

But lest I should be condemned of introducing license, when I oppose licensing. (John Milton, Areopagitica, 1644)


Paranomasia (par-a-nō-mā-zha)—use of words alike in sound but different in meaning.

Neither hide nor hair of him had been seen since the day that Kwame Nkrumah had been ostrichized, accused of being the biggest cheetah in Ghana, but safaris anyone knew, no fowl play was involved. (Article in Time, April 8, 1966)

Syllepsis (si-lep-sis)—use of a word understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs:

There is a certain type of woman who’d rather press grapes than clothes. (Ad for Peck & Peck suits)

Zeugma (zoog-ma)—like syllepsis, except that whereas in syllepsis the single word is grammatically and idiomatically compatible with both of the other words that it governs, in a zeugma the single word does not fit grammatically or idiomatically with one member of the pair. N.B.: Zeugma is not considered a form of pun. If skillfully managed, zeugma can be an impressive display of wit, but often enough zeugma is nothing more than a faulty use of the scheme of ellipsis:

He maintained a flourishing business and racehorse.

Anthimeria (an-tha-mer-ē-a)—the substitution of one part of speech for another. In the example below, a noun is used as a verb. Dozens of examples are found in Shakespeare’s plays. Writers today must use anthimeria seldom and with great discretion. An apt creation can be witty and evocative:

The thunder would not peace at my bidding. —Shakespeare, King Lear, IV, vi, 103

Think of all the ways in which a word like smokehas been used since it first came into the language: The smoke rose from the chimney. The chimney smokes. He smoked the ham. He smokes. She asked for a smoke. He objected to the smoke nuisance. She noticed the smoky atmosphere. He tried smoking on the sly. She smoked out the thief. His dreams went up in smoke. The Ferrari smoked along the wet track. Someday someone will say, if it hasn't been said already, "He looked at her smokily."

Periphrasis (pa-rif-a-sis)—substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name:

They do not escape Jim Crow; they merely encounter another, not less deadly variety. (James Baldwin, Nobody Knows My Name)

When you’re out of Schlitz, you’re out of beer. (Ad slogan for Schlitz beer)

Personification (Prosopopoeia) (pra-sō-pō-pē-a)—investing abstractions or inanimate objects with human qualities or abilities. The way in which this trope gives its subject human qualities allows it to lend itself to emotional appeals:

He glanced at the dew-covered grass, and it winked back at him. (Student paper)


Apostrophe (a-pos-tra-fē)—addressing an absent person or a personified abstraction. Apostrophe imbues its subject with an emotional charge as personification does:

O eloquent, just and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou hast persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all the world has flattered, thou only hast cast out the world and despised. (Sir Walter Raleigh’s History of the World)

Tropes of ExaggerationHyperbole (hī-pur-ba-lē)—the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect. Hyperbole can be a serviceable figure of speech if we learn to use it with restraint and for a calculated effect. Under the stress of emotion, it will slip out naturally and seem appropriate. Original and unique hyperboles will produce the right note of emphasis:

It’s really ironical...I have gray hair. I really do. The one side of my head—the right side—is full of millions of gray hairs. (Holden Caufield in Catcher in the Rye)

My left leg weighs three tons. It is embalmed in spices like a mummy. I can’t move. I haven’t moved for five thousand years. I’m of the time of the Pharaoh. (Thomas Bailey Aldrich, “Marjorie Dew”)

Litotes (lī-ta-tēz)—deliberate use of understatement, not to deceive someone but to enhance the impressiveness of what is stated:

To write is, indeed, no unpleasing employment. (Samuel Johnson, Adventurer, No. 138)

Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her appearance for the worse. (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub)

Rhetorical Question (erotema) (er-ot-a-ma)—asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something obliquely. Rhetorical questions can be an effective persuasive device, subtly influencing the kind of response one wants to get from an audience, and are often more effective as a persuasive device than is a direct assertion.

Irony (ī-ra-nē)—use of a word in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the word. Irony must be used with great caution: if the speaker misjudges the intelligence of her audience, she may find that her audience takes her words in their ostensible sense rather than in the intended opposite sense:

For Brutus is an honourable man; So are they all, honourable men. (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III, ii, 88-89)

Fielder smiled, “I like the English, he said. “That gives me a nice warm feeling,” Leamas retorted. (John LeCarré, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold)

Sarcasm (sar-ka-zum)—witty language used to convey insults or scorn:

No opera plot can be sensible, for in sensible situations people do not sing. (W.H. Auden)

Ugliness is in a way superior to beauty because it lasts. (Serge Gainsbourg)


Tropes of LogicOnomatopoeia (on-a-mot-a-pē-a)—use of words whose sound echoes the sense:

Strong gongs groaning as the guns boom far. (G.K. Chesterton, Lepanto)

Oxymoron (ok-sē-mor-on)—the yoking of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory. By thus combining contradictories, writers produce a startling effect. If fresh and apt, oxymorons display the subtle and shrewd ability to see similarities:

O miserable abundance, O beggarly riches! (John Donne, Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions)

Other examples include expressions like sweet pain, cheerful pessimist, conspicuous by her absence, cruel kindness, thunderous silence, luxurious poverty, abject arrogance, make haste slowly, jumbo shrimp.

Paradox (par-a-doks)—an apparently contradictory statement that nevertheless contains a measure of truth. Paradox is like oxymoron in that both are built on contradictories, but paradox may not be a trope at all, because it involves not so much a “turn” of meaning in juxtaposed words as a “turn” of meaning in the whole statement:

Art is a form of lying to tell the truth. (Pablo Picasso)

The less we copy the reknowned ancients, the more we shall resemble them. (Edward Young, Conjectures on Original Composition)


Logical Fallacies

Often during the course of constructing an argument, we fall into the trap of a logical fallacy. These mistakes in reasoning seriously affect our ability to argue effectively. Sometimes we fool ourselves into believing that a faulty argument is sound; other times we deliberately use a flawed argument for the sake of winning the battle. In any case, we should be aware that logical fallacies obscure the truth. Use this list of logical fallacies to identify them in your writing and the writing of others.

Begging the Question (or circular logic) happens when the writer presents an arguable point as a fact that supports the argument. This error leads to an argument that goes around and around, with evidence making the same claim as the proposition. Because it is much easier to make a claim than to support it, many writers fall into this trap.

Example: "These movies are popular because they make so much money. They make a lot of money because people like them. People like them because they are so popular." The argument continues around in the logical circle because the support assumes that the claim is true rather than proving its truth.

Non Sequitur arguments don’t follow a logical sequence. The conclusion doesn’t logically follow the explanation. These fallacies can be found on both the sentence level and the level of the argument itself.

Example: "The rain came down so hard that Jennifer actually called me." Rain and phone calls have nothing to do with one another. The force of the rain does not affect Jennifer’s decision to pick up the phone.

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (after this, therefore also this) arguments, or post hoc for short, assume a faulty causal relationship. One event following another in time does not mean that the first event caused the later event. Writers must be able to prove that one event caused another event and did not simply follow in time. Because the cause is often in question in this fallacy, we sometimes call it a false cause fallacy.

Example: "Eating five candy bars and drinking two sodas before a test helps me get better grades. I did that and got an A on my last test in history." This arguer ignores other possible causes like how much he had studied and how easy the test was.

Faulty Analogies lead to faulty conclusions. Writers often use similar situations to explain a relationship. Sometimes, though, these extended comparisons and metaphors attempt to relate ideas or situations that upon closer inspection aren’t really that similar. Be sure that the ideas you’re comparing are really related. Also remember that even though analogies can offer support and insight, they can’t prove anything.

Example: "Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. The students stampede in to the event where they are systematically ‘put to sleep’ by the program." While the analogy is vivid, the difference between cultural events and cattle slaughter is so vast that the analogy becomes a fallacy.

Hasty Generalizations base an argument on insufficient evidence. Writers may draw conclusions too quickly, not considering the whole issue. They may look only at a small group as representative of the whole or may look only at a small piece of the issue.

Example: Concluding that all fraternities are party houses because you have seen three parties at one fraternity is a hasty generalization. The evidence is too limited to draw an adequate conclusion.


Red Herrings have little relevance to the argument at hand. Desperate arguers often try to change the ground of the argument by changing the subject. The new subject may be related to the original argument, but does little to resolve it.

Example: "Winthrop should pave the lot behind Dinkins. Besides, I can never find a parking space on campus anyway." The writer has changed the focus of the argument from paving to the scarcity of parking spaces, two ideas that may be related, but are not the same argument.

Equivocation happens when the writer makes use of a word’s multiple meanings and changes the meanings in the middle of the argument without really telling the audience about the shift. Often when we use vague or ambiguous words like "right," "justice," or "experience," we aren’t sure ourselves what we mean. Be sure to know how you are using a word and stick with that meaning throughout your argument. If you need to change meanings for any reason, let your audience know of the change.

Example: When representing himself in court, a defendant said "I have told the truth, and I have always heard that the truth would set me free." In this case, the arguer switches the meaning of truth. In the first instance, he refers to truth as an accurate representation of the events; in the second, he paraphrases a Biblical passage that refers to truth as a religious absolute. While the argument may be catchy and memorable, the double references fail to support his claim.

Ignoring the Question is similar to presenting a red herring. Rather than answering the question that has been asked or addressing the issue at hand, the writer shifts focus, supplying an unrelated argument. In this way, the writer dodges the real issues of the debate.

Example: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about some potentially illegal fund-raising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a rousing speech thanking all of his financial supporters. The speech was eloquent and moving, but shifted the focus from the issue at hand.

Opposing a Straw Man is a tactic used by a lot of writers because they find it easier to refute an oversimplified opposition. Writers may also pick only the opposition’s weakest or most insignificant point to refute. Doing so diverts attention from the real issues and rarely, if ever, leads to resolution or truth.

Example: The debate over drink machines centers around cost and choice. Opponents of the new drink machines bring up their location as an important issue. This insignificant point has little relevance to the actual issues.

Either—Or arguments reduce complex issues to black and white choices. Most often issues will have a number of choices for resolution. Because writers who use the either-or argument are creating a problem that doesn’t really exist, we sometimes refer to this fallacy as a false dilemma.

Example: "Either we go to Panama City for the whole week of Spring Break, or we don’t go anywhere at all." This rigid argument ignores the possibilities of spending part of the week in Panama City, spending the whole week somewhere else, or any other options.


Slippery Slopes suggest that one step will inevitably lead to more, eventually negative steps. While sometimes the results may be negative, the slippery slope argues that the descent is inevitable and unalterable. Stirring up emotions against the downward slipping, this fallacy can be avoided by providing solid evidence of the eventuality rather than speculation.

Example: "If we force public elementary school pupils to wear uniforms, eventually we will require middle school students to wear uniforms. If we require middle school students to wear uniforms, high school requirements aren’t far off. Eventually even college students who attend state-funded, public universities will be forced to wear uniforms."

Bandwagon Appeals (ad populum) try to get everyone on board. Writers who use this approach try to convince readers that everyone else believes something, so the reader should also. The fact that a lot of people believe it does not make it so.

Example: "Fifty million Elvis fans can’t be wrong!" Of course they can. The merit of Elvis is not related to how many people do or do not like him or his music.

False Authority is a tactic used by many writers, especially in advertising. An authority in one field may know nothing of another field. Being knowledgeable in one area doesn’t constitute knowledge in other areas.

Example: A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream. His expertise on the playing field does not qualify him to intelligentlydiscuss the benefits of aloe.

Ad Hominem (attacking the character of the opponent) arguments limit themselves not to the issues, but to the opposition itself. Writers who fall into this fallacy attempt to refute the claims of the opposition by bringing the opposition’s character into question. These arguments ignore the issues and attack the people.

Example: Candidate A claims that Candidate B cannot possibly be an advocate for the working people because he enjoys the opera more than professional wrestling. Candidate B’s personal entertainment preferences probably have little if anything to do with his stance on labor laws.

Tu Quoque (you’re another) fallacies avoid the real argument by making similar charges against the opponent. Like ad hominem arguments, they do little to arrive at conflict resolution.

Example: "How can the police ticket me for speeding? I see cops speeding all the time."


Aristotelian Triangle

SUBJECT

OCCASION (CONTEXT)

AUDIENCE

PURPOSE (FUNCTION/INTENT)

SPEAKER (PERSONA)

Speaker/Writer/PersonaEthos, I

ContextContext

Purpose/Intent/Function

AudiencePathos, Them

Context

Subject(Logos, It)


Argumentative Structure & Organization

The Classical Oration Introduction

Establish Ethos Introduce Claim

Narration Elicit Pathos Contextualize Importance of Claim and Subject

Confirmation Provide Logos Analyze Evidence to Clearly Define Connections to Claim

Refutation Address Counterargument Through Logos

Conclusion Reestablish Ethos, Pathos, Logos Finalize Argument Answer “So What?”

InductionParticulars to Universal

Particular AP Language & Composition requires hours of student-motivated studying and homework each

week. AP Language & Composition maximizes cognitive challenge through extended analysis. AP Language & Composition is a college course adapted for exceptional high school students.

Universal Students in AP Language & Composition will successfully be prepared for college upon

completion of the course.

DeductionUniversal (Major Premise) to Particular (Minor Premise) to Conclusion (Enthymeme)

Major Premise Enrollment and success in higher education courses enhances a student’s value.

Minor Premise AP Language & Composition is a higher education course.

Conclusion Enrollment and success in AP Language & Composition enhances a student’s value.

The Toulmin Model of Argumentative Writing


Evidence: Support, LogosAssumption: Connection between Evidence and ClaimBacking: Additional Support, Logos to Establish Credibility in AssumptionQualifier: Reduces Absolutism in ClaimReservation: Explains Terms and Conditions Necessitated by QualifierClaim: Argumentative Thesis

Toulmin Model Template

“Because _____________ (Evidence), therefore _____________ (Claim/Qualifier), since _____________ (Assumption), on account of _____________ (Backing), unless _____________ (Reservation).

Because it is raining, therefore I should (probably) take my umbrella, since an umbrella will keep me dry, on account of the material is waterproof, unless it has a hole in it.

Student Analysis Strategies

Evidence Claim

Assumption

Backing

Qualifier Reservation

It is raining I should take my

umbrellaAn umbrella will keep me

dry

The material is waterproof

Probably

Unless it has a hole in it


Subject-Occasion-Audience-Purpose-Speaker-Tone (SOAPSTone) • Speaker – the individual or collective voice of the text• Occasion – the event or catalyst causing the writing of the text to occur• Audience – the group of readers to whom the piece is directed• Purpose – the reason behind the text• Subject – the general topic and/or main idea• Tone – the attitude of the author

Rhetorical Analysis – Active ReadingWhile reading a rhetorical text, students must analyze the following: Arrangement (Mode & Organization of Essay, Emphases, Concessions, Refutations, Tone

Shifts) Appeal (Ethos, Pathos, Logos) Assumptions (Induction, Deduction) Audience Style (Rhetorical Device, Diction, Syntax)

*Diction: analyze only unusual word choice such as archaic language or especially evocative choices that contain powerful connotations

*Tone shift: because tone radiates from the author, through a speaker(s) or narrator(s) and then to the reader, a tone shift indicates a shift in attitude about the subject. A tone shift may be the result of a change in speaker, subject, audience, or intention. The shift may indicate irony, a deeper and more complex understanding of the topic, a new way of addressing the topic, etc. Notice how and why the tone shift occurs and utilize two contrasting tone words to express the change and its effect. This will tie to the argument or point of view perhaps highlighting a change in position.

Overview-Parts-Title-Interrelationships-Conclusion (OPTIC)While viewing a visual text, students must analyze the following:• Overview – write down a few notes on what the visual appears to be about• Parts – focus on the parts of the visual. Write down any elements or details that seem important• Title – highlight the words of the title of the visual (if one is available)• Interrelationships – use the title as the theory and the parts of the visual as clues to detect and specify the interrelationships in the graphic• Conclusion – draw a conclusion about the visual as a whole. What does the visual mean? Summarize the message of the visual in one or two sentences.


Source & Quote Integration in an Academic Essay

Introduce a Source Identify author (first & last name), author’s title(s)/importance, and source title

Pro Tip: If source is the basis of the essay (like an analysis essay), include all of the above and a description of the source in the introduction paragraph

Pro Tip: After the author is introduced, only refer to him/her by last name thereafter

Example: George Orwell, an English author famous for his criticism of government censorship and control in novels Animal Farm and 1984, states in his essay Politics and the English Language …

Integrate Quote after Source Introduction (in Same Sentence) Quote must be integrated into existing sentence using quotation marks (“”)

Pro Tip: Most sentences require a comma before a quote (see examples below); exceptions exist when a comma interrupts the sentence’s fluidity

Pro Tip: Insert all commas and periods inside quotation marks (see examples below) Pro Tip: Use quotes sparingly to promote your own ideas; alternatively, use paraphrase

and summary when a direct quote is unnecessary

Example 1: George Orwell, an English author famous for his criticism of government censorship and control in novels Animal Farm and 1984, states in his essay Politics and the English Language, “in a time of universal deceit, telling the truth is a revolutionary act.”

Example 2: George Orwell, an English author famous for his criticism of government censorship and control in novels Animal Farm and 1984, states in his essay Politics and the English Language, “in a time of universal deceit, telling the truth is a revolutionary act,” which contains implications today.

Quote Modifications

Ellipsis - Long Quote Edit If a quote is too long and/or parts are irrelevant to your essay, use an ellipsis (…) to indicate

the purposeful skipping of words in the quote

Example 1: “…telling the truth is a revolutionary act”Example 2: “in a time…telling the truth is a revolutionary act”Example 3: George Orwell, an English author famous for his criticism of government censorship and control in novels Animal Farm and 1984, states in his essay Politics and the English Language, “…telling the truth is a revolutionary act,” which contains implications today.

Brackets - Word Substitution If, after an ellipsis, a quote is still too long or able to be misunderstood, substitute words

from the quote with your own using brackets ([ ]) Pro Tip: Avoid brackets unless they are absolutely necessary; if your substituted words

alter the meaning of the original quote, you are guilty of fraudulent attribution

Example: George Orwell, an English author famous for his criticism of government censorship and control in novels Animal Farm and 1984, states in his essay Politics and the English Language, “in a time of universal deceit, telling the truth is [politically significant],” which contains implications today. Format for Extended Quotes (Longer than Four (4) Typed Lines)


Include a colon (:) at the end of the sentence integrating the quote Begin the quote on a separate line below the sentence integrating it Indent the entire quote Remove quotation marks (they are implied) After the quote, continue the paragraph on a new line below the quote (no new indentation)

Example Paragraph with Extended Quote:I start my paragraph by indenting, introduce my quote in a sentence using a colon, separate the entire quote with indentations, and continue my paragraph without a new indentation, since this paragraph is the same one I was on before the extended quote.

On April 8, 2002, National Football League (NFL) defenseman Pat Tillman typed a personal document, thoughtfully deliberating his future. The document read:

For much of my life I’ve tried to follow a path I believed important. Sports embodied many of the qualities I deem meaningful: courage, toughness, strength, etc., while at the same time, the attention I received reinforced its seeming importance. In the pursuit of athletics I have picked up a college degree, learned invaluable lessons, met incredible people, and made my journey much more valuable than any destination. However, these last few years, and especially after recent events, I’ve come to appreciate just how shallow and insignificant my role is. I’m no longer satisfied with the path I’ve been following…it’s no longer important;…(Krakauer 138).

Reflecting on the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City and President George W. Bush’s subsequent demand for military intervention, the aforementioned “recent events,” Tillman decided to voluntarily serve four years under the respectable United States Army Rangers (Krakauer 137). The typed document was his final confirmation.

******************************************************************************

REMEMBER TO USE IN-TEXT CITATIONS WHEN QUOTING OR REFERENCING INFORMATION FROM

SOURCES

PLEASE CONSULT CONTAINING MLA GUIDE AND MLA ESSAY EXAMPLE

Preparing for the Synthesis Question: Six Moves Toward Success


In most college courses that require substantial writing, you are called upon to write researched arguments in which you take a stand on a topic or an issue and then enter into conversation with what has already been written on it.

The synthesis question provides you with a number of relatively brief sources on a topic or an issue -- texts of no longer than one page, plus at least one source that is a graphic, a visual, a picture, or a cartoon. The prompt will call upon you to write a composition that develops a position on the issue and that synthesizes and incorporates perspectives from at least three of the provided sources. You may, of course, draw upon whatever you know about the issue as well, but you must make use of at least three of the provided sources to earn an upper-half score.

What moves should a writer make to accomplish this task? Essentially, there are six: read, analyze, generalize, converse, finesse , and argue .

Read Closely, Then AnalyzeFirst, you must read the sources carefully. There will be an extra 15 minutes of time allotted to the free-response section to do so. You will be permitted to read and write on the cover sheet to the synthesis question, which will contain some introductory material, the prompt itself, and a list of the sources. You will also be permitted to read and annotate the sources themselves. You will not be permitted to open your test booklet and actually begin writing the composition until after the 15 minutes has elapsed.

Second, you must analyze the argument each source is making: What claim is the source making about the issue? What data or evidence does the source offer in support of that claim? What are the assumptions or beliefs (explicit or unspoken) that warrant using this evidence or data to support the claim? Note that you will need to learn how to perform such analyses of nontextual sources: graphs, charts, pictures, cartoons, and so on.

After Analysis: Finding and Establishing a PositionThird, you need to generalize about your own potential stands on the issue. You should ask, "What are two or three (or more) possible positions on this issue that I could take? Which of those positions do I really want to take? Why?" It's vital at this point for you to keep an open mind. A stronger, more mature, more persuasive essay will result if you resist the temptation to oversimplify the issue, to hone in immediately on an obvious thesis. All of the synthesis essay prompts will be based on issues that invite careful, critical thinking. The best responses will be those in which the thesis and development suggest clearly that the writer has given some thought to the nuances, the complexities of the assigned topic.

Fourth – and this is the most challenging move – you need to imagine presenting each of your best positions on the issue to each of the authors of the provided sources. Role-playing the author or creator of each source, you need to create an imaginary conversation between yourself and the author/creator of the source. Would the author/creator agree with your position? Why? Disagree? Why? Want to qualify it in some way? Why and how?

Fifth, on the basis of this imagined conversation, you need to finesse, to refine, the point that you would like to make about the issue so that it can serve as a central proposition, a thesis – as


complicated and robust as the topic demands – for your composition. This proposition or thesis should probably appear relatively quickly in the composition, after a sentence or two that contextualizes the topic or issue for the reader.

Sixth, you need to argue your position. You must develop the case for the position by incorporating within your own thinking the conversations you have had with the authors/creators of the primary sources. You should feel free to say things like, "Source A takes a position similar to mine," or "Source C would oppose my position, but here's why I still maintain its validity," or "Source E offers a slightly different perspective, one that I would alter a bit."

A Skill for CollegeIn short, on the synthesis question the successful writer is going to be able to show readers how he or she has thought through the topic at hand by considering the sources critically and creating a composition that draws conversations with the sources into his or her own thinking. It will be a task that the college-bound student should willingly pursue. From: Jolliffe, David.“Preparing for the 2007 Synthesis Question: Six Moves Toward Success.” College Board: AP

Central 28 November 2006 < http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/courses/teachers_corner/51307.html >

Academic Writing ChecklistReview, Complete, & Attach to the Front of Your Essay before Submission

http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/courses/teachers_corner/51307.html


Confirmation(Sign Initials) Academic Writing Concept

1. Employ Precise & Effective Language

2. Present Others’ Arguments Fairly & With Appropriate Tone;Introduce Others’ Arguments & Follow With Your Response

(They Say, I Say)

3. Use Active Voice & Present Tense (Exceptions Apply)

4. Write, Don’t Tell Your Reader You Will Write

5. Employ Concise Language; Avoid Wordiness & Run-On Syntax

6. Avoid Contractions

7. Avoid Second-Person Language

8. Avoid Biased or Racially Offensive Language

9. Avoid Slang, Jargon, Clichés, & Conversational Language

10. Avoid Pretentious Language/Euphemisms

*Pro Tip: Substitute Academic Language for Pretentious Language to Achieve the Effect of Credibility & Specificity Without Appearing a Jerk!

11. Avoid Ambiguous References (Things & Stuff)

I have scrutinized my essay to ensure all eleven academic writing concepts listed above are effectively integrated into my essay without exception and acknowledge that ineffectively integrating one or more of the academic writing concepts listed above will unconditionally result in an essay score of 0, or a 0% assessment grade, with the available option of resubmission requiring enough extra time and effort for me to seriously rethink and avoid signing this document without actually completing any of its agreements ever again. In fact, after reading this intimidating section, I’ve decided to triple-check my essay to ensure all eleven academic writing concepts listed above are effectively integrated. Actually, make that quadruple-check. I would continue with my check count, but I’m unsure of the word for “fifth check,” but I promise you I checked this essay at least five times.

______________________________ ______________________________ Printed Name Signed Signature

Documents

weilerela.weebly.comweilerela.weebly.com/.../ap_reference_guide.docx · Web viewGiving an account of a sequence of real or imagined events ... Exposition. Providing objective information