A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT …pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE595.pdf · A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONALACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICANEDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

DISCLAIMERThis publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Management SystemsInternational (MSI).

EEQQUUAATTEE:: AACCHHIIEEVVIINNGG EEQQUUAALLIITTYY IINN EEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN

EQUATE is a three-year contract awarded by the USAID Office of Women in Developmentto Management Systems International (MSI), who will implement the project in partnership

with Michigan State University.This task order contract, under the Gender Matters IQC, assistsfield missions in strengthening their capacity to institute gender-equitable practices and policiesin basic education activities.

The project aims to:

Develop a conceptual framework for articulating approaches to achieve gender equality inbasic education in consultation with Field Missions, USAID/Washington staff, and otherstakeholders;

Provide cost-free technical asistance that is tailored to meet the needs of Field Missions andUSAID/Washington staff;

Develop practical tools and deliver demand-driven training and technical assistance toenhance the ability of operating units to design, implement, monitor and evaluate projectscontributing to gender equality in basic education, as a means of improving people'sattainment of a basic education, especially girls.

For more information, please contact:

CChhrriissttiinnaa RRaawwlleeyyProject Director

Management Systems International600 Water Street, SWWashington, DC 20024

(202) [email protected]

JJuulliiee HHaannssoonn SSwwaannssoonnTask Order Cognizant Technical Officer

US Agency for International DevelopmentEGAT/WID RRB 3.8-0051300 Pennsylvania AvenueWashington, DC 20523

(202) [email protected]

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONALACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICANEDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

DISCLAIMERThe findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the team and do not necessarilyreflect the views and or the policies of USAID/Jamaica, the United States Agency forInternational Development or the United States Government.

Revised January 2005

EGAT/WID Basic Education Contract # GEW-1-01-02-00021Office of Women in DevelopmentU.S.Agency for International Development

EQUATE ProjectManagement Systems International600 Water Street, SWWashington, DC 20024

IVA GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report presents the findings of a gender analysis of theeducational achievement of boys and girls in the Jamaicaneducational system.

The report was produced for USAID/Jamaica by Management SystemsInternational (MSI), Washington, D.C., with support from EQUATE,a task order of the USAID Office of Women in Development,Education Sector Program. The assessment was conducted by a five-member research team comprised of Oralia Puente, Team Leader;Daniel Gordon and Carol Narcisse, Gender Technical Specialists; andLogistics and Research Assistants Uki Atkinson and Terry-Ann Miller.

We wish to thank the staff of USAID/Jamaica who gave so generouslyof their time and who demonstrated a wholehearted interest in theprogress and findings of the report. We also thank the many Jamaicanstaff of the Ministry of Education, Youth & Culture, non-governmental organizations, and the staff of other donor organizationswho participated in focus groups and interviews. Special thanks go tothe youths, teachers, principals, and parents who participated in theassessment. We thank the Inter-American Development Bank for thecourtesy use of photos on the cover page.

VA GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSCETT Centers for Excellence in Teacher Training

CXC Caribbean Examination Council

DFID Department for International Development (UK)

ESSJ Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica

GCE General Certificate in Education

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GOJ Government of Jamaica

GSAT Grade Six Achievement Test

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

IR Intermediate Result

MOEY&C Ministry of Education, Youth & Culture

MSI Management Systems International

NAP National Assessment Program

NGO Non-governmental organization

HEART/NTA Human Employment and Resource Training Trust/National Training Agency

PATH Program for Advancement in Education and Health

PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica

PLA Participatory Learning and Action

SCOPE School Community Outreach Programme for Education

SO Strategic Objective

SOW Scope of Work

TFER Task Force on Educational Reform

UK United Kingdom

US United States

USAID United States Agency for International Development

UWI University of West Indies

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................IV

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................V

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................VII

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS ......................................XII

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1

SITUATION ANALYSIS ................................................................................5

FINDINGS ......................................................................................................21

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ................................................................................27

REFERENCES ................................................................................................33

ANNEX I:THE FORMAL PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM IN JAMAICA: ORGANIZATION CHART ........................................35

ANNEX II: FLOW CHART OF THE FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEM ............................................................................36

ANNEX III: EDUCATION SECTOR PROGRAMS (1993–2007)....................................................................................................37

ANNEX IV: GENDER EQUALITY PLANNING MODEL ..................................................................................39

VI CONTENTS


The Jamaican education system hasbeen the subject of intense nationalscrutiny and debate as analyses of,

and reports on, severe weaknesses in studentachievement at primary and secondary levelshave made national media headlines in recentmonths. Many share concerns about themarked underachievement of male students,particularly in literacy at the primary level andtheir under-representation in tertiary-levelinstitutions. Stakeholders have engaged in thedebate through various fora, most recentlythose created by the Government of Jamaicain the island-wide public consultations carriedout by the Ministry of Education, Youth &Culture (MOEY&C) and the deliberations ofthe national Task Force on EducationalReform (TFER). These fora have resulted in,among other things, a national visionstatement for education, which emerged fromthe Ministry of Education’s nationalconsultations, and recommendations for atransformed education system contained inthe TFER report published in late 2004.

Within this context, particularly with respectto the widely expressed concern for theperformance of male students in the Jamaicaneducation system, USAID/Jamaicacommissioned this study to determine thereasons for, and possible interventions toaddress, the underachievement of malestudents. The assignment’s Scope of Work(SOW) was based on the local researchfindings, which indicated that genderinequities in school participation andachievement become evident among studentsin Jamaica as soon as they enter school. The

research also indicated that boys laggedbehind girls in both attendance andachievement and that they did not receiveequal treatment and attention in theclassroom.

The purpose of this assessment was to explorethe role that gender plays in boys’ and girls’development, performance, and outcomes inschool, with the goal of unearthing strategiesthat could address differential performanceand impact. In the process, the researchersexamined the nature and function of genderdynamics in teaching and learning at home, atschool, and in the wider society.

The study findings show generalizedweaknesses in overall student attendance andachievement in the Jamaican educationsystem. Our research shows that, while boyslag furthest behind in attendance and literacy,girls also perform below age- and grade-appropriate levels. Like others before it, thisstudy identified a number of causative factorsrelated to student underachievement inJamaica. It indicates the need for a mix ofinterventions undertaken by a variety of actorsto create better outcomes for students.

This study highlights the fact that traditionalgender socialization and stereotypes aresignificant factors in the educationalexperiences, expectations, and outcomes forboys and girls. The findings furtherdemonstrate that there is cause for concernabout, and need for, targeted interventions toaddress gender disparities that exist in theeducational experiences and outcomes of allstudents in the Jamaican education system.

The purpose of this

assessment was to

explore the role that

gender plays in boys’

and girls’ development,

performance, and

outcomes in school,

with the goal of

unearthing strategies

that could address

differential

performance and

impact.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

VIIEXECUTIVE SUMMARY


SUMMARY OF FINDINGSThe study finds clear and persistent genderinequalities, as follows:

Traditional gender roles and expectationsfor boys and girls exist in the home and areperpetuated in school and the broadersociety;

Both sexes have uneven enrollment andattendance records; but the data for girls ishigher than that for boys, with the gapwidening considerably at the tertiary level;

Girls’ academic performance is better thanboys’ at the primary level but is notconsistently so at the secondary level;

Course choice and selection for boys andgirls are gender stereotyped;

Despite the underachievement of boys ineducation, more males are employed andemployable than females.

Alongside gender inequalities, the study showsan education system with wide variation andinequalities in terms of physical, social, andhuman resources, including staffing, quality ofinstruction, and leadership. The net effect ofthese systemic inequalities is that significantnumbers of both boys and girls perform atunacceptable academic standards, which putsthem at a disadvantage for realizing their fullpotential.

RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations offered in this reportbuild on the experiences and successes ofexisting projects, which meet the objectives ofUSAID’s current strategy, specifically:

Strategic Objective (SO) 4: IncreasingLiteracy and Numeracy among TargetedJamaican Youth

Intermediate Result (IR): 1 ImprovedQuality of Teaching

· IR2: Increased School Attendance

IR3: Improved Management of Schools

· IR4.4: Number of Non-governmentalOrganizations (NGOs) Delivering Servicesto “At-Risk” Youth

In addition to being based on the findings ofthis assessment, the recommendations are alsoin keeping with the TFER recommendationsrelating to governance and management,curriculum, teaching and learning support,and stakeholder participation.

The specific recommendations presented herefall into 13 categories.

MAINSTREAM GENDER IN USAIDSTRATEGIC OBJECTIVES FOR EDUCATION

Mechanisms are needed to mainstreamgender-specific analysis and interventions intoUSAID/Jamaica’s Strategic Objectives to movetoward addressing the particular concerns ofboth boys and girls in education. Muchconcern is being expressed in Jamaica aboutthe education system in general and maleunderachievement in particular—but suchfocus runs the risk of undertakinginterventions that improve the performance ofmale students at the expense of females.Assessment findings suggest that achieving“best practice” will depend on a strategy thatis informed by analyses of, and interventionsto meet, the needs of both groups of learners.

USAID/Jamaica should position itself to playa leadership role in addressing boys’ needswithout compromising the educational needsof girls by recognizing and taking a gender-equality approach to its planned interventions.The new strategy should emphasizecommunity partnerships and linkages andsynergies with other strategic interventions.

This study recommends developing a set ofgender-mainstreaming strategies for inclusionin the program design for SO 12 of

Alongside gender

inequalities, the study

shows an education

system with wide

variation and

inequalities in terms of

physical, social, and

human resources ...

significant numbers of

both boys and girls

perform at

unacceptable

academic standards.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VIII


USAID/Jamaica’s new strategy 2005–2009(532-012). It is important to incorporate agender equality perspective in the languageand design of the Education ResultsFramework. In particular, USAID/Jamaicamay wish to consider the inclusion of agender-specific Intermediate Result withsupporting indicators. This would entailincluding objectives, outputs, and activitiesthat expressly focus on promoting genderequality in the design of USAID/Jamaica’seducation projects. The design would thenpresent appropriate indicators to measureprogress and impact in the implementation ofthese gender-based activities.

DEVELOP AND/OR SUPPORTIMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER-TRAININGMODULES

This study found that parents, teachers,principals, and students hold traditional viewson the roles, expected behaviors, andresponsibilities of males and females and thatthese views influence their actions,interactions, and relationships in ways thatperpetuate inequitable gender- specificoutcomes. Therefore, a major recommendationis for an intervention that can:

Provide information on gender socializationand its impact on males and females andincrease awareness of gender dynamicsamong parents, teachers, principals, andstudents;

Sensitize parents and educators to the needfor strategies to achieve equitable and fairtreatment of boys and girls in both thehome and school settings;

Provide technical assistance to schools toenable them to incorporate gender analysisin their School Development Planningprocess and to develop strategies to addressboth boys’ and girls’ confidence and self-esteem while improving their achievementin traditional and non-traditional subjects;

Sensitize students to gender issues throughthe schools’ life skills curricula and otherexisting programs; provide students with anopportunity to make choices that are notbased on traditional gender stereotypes;improve gender relations among studentsand enable them to learn and expressthemselves in both single-sex and co-educational settings.

BUILD CAPACITY OF EDUCATORS TOCREATE CHILD-CENTERED CLASSROOMS

This study recommends building schools’capacity to encourage and implement child-centered classrooms. While too-large class sizesoften compromise an optimal learningenvironment, teachers also need help inidentifying and implementing strategies tomeet students’ needs and enliven the learningexperience. During this research, the teamvisited schools, such as the St. Peter ClaverPrimary School, which are working toward thisgoal despite difficult social and environmentalcircumstances. The efforts of such schools needto be documented, supported, publicized, andgeneralized with appropriate adaptations to suitdifferent contexts.

EXPAND INTERVENTIONS WITH A FOCUSON LITERACY

The USAID/Jamaica-funded project, NewHorizons for Primary Schools, and therecently completed Jamaica All-Age SchoolsProject funded by the UK’s Department forInternational Development (DFID), havestrong literacy strategies that need to be morewidely disseminated among teachers. Thisstudy indicates the critical need to continuethe focus on improving literacy, with greateremphasis on the early childhood years andprimary grades 1 through 4. This focus,linked to the gender training module, wouldemphasize the importance of reading andliteracy as a life skill for both boys and girls.

IXEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

It is important to

incorporate a gender

equality perspective in

the language and

design of the

Education Results

Framework.


BUILD ON SUCCESSFULAT-RISK PROGRAMS

The study recommends continuing supportfor at-risk programs. Two programs, the NewHorizons for Primary Schools Project and theUplifting Adolescents Project, have existingmechanisms of counseling, group discussion,and decision-making. They address the needsof poor-performing students, youths at risk ofdropping out of school, and others who havealready dropped out of school. Theseprograms should incorporate modules forgender equality training, aimed at fosteringpositive and supportive relationships, intotheir HIV/AIDS, health and/or family lifeeducation curricula.

SUPPORT NATIONAL FORA

With the publication and presentation of theTFER findings and recommendations toParliament, an important next step involvesfacilitating public education and discussion onthe recommendations advocating for a radicaloverhaul of the education system. Genderequity in education is a necessary andimportant component of such an overhaul.How this is to be achieved is a matter ofdebate currently underway in Jamaica, but isnot explicitly addressed in the report of theTask Force. USAID could therefore make avaluable contribution to the nationaldiscussion and decision-making by supportingnational fora of stakeholders to:

Become informed about therecommendations of the Task Force and, inthat context, the analysis, findings andrecommendations of this report;

Discuss, debate, and form understandingand consensus on the best strategies forachieving gender equality in education aspart of the recommended overhaul of thesystem.

SUPPORT PROGRAMS TO STRENGTHENSTAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLS

The MOEY&C has implemented projectsaimed at increasing community involvementin the development of schools; however, theseprojects do not seem to have extended beyondthe pilot phase despite their demonstratedeffectiveness. USAID should assist theMOEY&C in reviewing those models (such asthe School Community Outreach Programmefor Education [SCOPE] project and theAdopt-A-School Programme) with a view toreintroducing and/or expanding the relevant,successful components throughout theeducation system.

SUPPORT GENDER-SENSITIVECURRICULUM REVIEW/REFORM

The MOEY&C has ongoing programs forcurriculum reform, and the HumanEmployment and Resource TrainingTrust/National Training Agency(HEART/NTA) takes part in strengtheningtechnical high school curricula. USAID couldadd value to these efforts by providingsupport for activities aimed at achievinggender-balanced curricula, with strategies forachieving equitable representation of boys andgirls in all areas. This goal would necessitatetargeted outreach to students to increaseenrollment in non-traditional courses of study.

PROMOTE TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP TRAINING

On visits to schools, researchers observed thata critical factor in student performance wasthe vision and sense of mission of principalsand teachers. Students had better outcomes inschools where principals and teacherscollaborated to create a challenging andsupportive learning environment; where ruleswere clear, fair, and consistently applied; andwhere all stakeholders, including educators,students, and parents, took part in thedecision-making process and were held

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY X

Students had better

outcomes in schools

where principals and

teachers collaborated

to create a challenging

and supportive

learning environment;

where rules were clear,

fair, and consistently

applied; and where all

stakeholders, including

educators, students,

and parents, took part

in the decision-making

process and were held

accountable for doing

their part.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM XIEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

accountable for doing their part. This was thecase even when such schools were in similarsettings as those schools with poor outcomes.

The study recommends transformationalleadership training (not to be confused withmanagement training) for principals and otherstaff members. Not only does research revealthat effective leadership is key to change andreform in schools, the far-reachingrecommendations of the Task Force onEducation demand implementation of a new,visionary type of school leadership. As part ofthe process of transforming school leadershipand culture, our recommendations includeproviding support for sustaining and expandingthe “Change from Within” program so that ithas system-wide implementation.

STRENGTHEN OVERALL TEACHER TRAINING

We propose the development and strengtheningof pre-service and in-service training curricula toaddress child-centered learning environments,teaching of reading in the integrated curriculumat the primary level, and gender sensitization.This could be achieved in collaboration withactivities already underway, such as the Centersfor Excellence in Teacher Training (CETT)program. In particular, all USAID projects withteacher training activities underway shouldintegrate gender sensitization training modules,and USAID should support efforts of theCentre for Gender and Development Studies,University of West Indies (UWI), to developand implement such modules for use inTeachers’ Colleges.

SUPPORT MOEY&C EFFORTS TO RECRUITAND TRAIN MALE TEACHERS

To respond directly to the dearth of maleteachers and role models across the educationsystem, recommendations have been madethat the MOEY&C implement specialmeasures to recruit more male teachers. Ourfield research found that, while female

teachers agreed with the need for more maleteachers and role models, they were adamantthat their recruitment should not beconducted on a basis that creates inequities inremuneration and other conditions of workfor male and female teachers.

One strategy could serve to increase the numberof male teachers without compromising equityin the profession: a targeted promotional/publicity campaign highlighting the benefits ofteaching as a career option for males. USAIDshould consider hosting consultations with theMOEY&C and relevant stakeholders toexamine the feasibility of a publicity campaignaimed at sensitizing males to the impact theycould have on children’s futures as positive,teaching, role models. The campaign couldhighlight current male teachers as spokespersonsand include vignettes of male and femaleteachers working together to improve theeducation environment for boys and girls. Sucha campaign would contribute to a positive stepforward in dispelling myths that education isnot “macho” and may help make schoolingmore attractive for male learners.

SUPPORT A NATIONAL MENTORSHIP FORSTUDENTS PROGRAM

Existing partners of USAID, such as YouthOpportunities Unlimited, have a strong trackrecord in the implementation of mentoringprograms. A special thrust to recruit malementors and to provide both male and femalementors with gender-sensitivity training couldimpact positively on boys’ and girls’ self-esteem, motivation, and performance.

STRENGTHEN USAID’S EVALUATION PROCEDURES

As supported in the current SO, USAIDshould continue to focus on developing andstrengthening evaluation mechanisms to gaugewhat is working and what should be improvedwith respect to gender-related and othereducation indicators.

To respond directly to

the dearth of male

teachers and role

models across the

education system,

recommendations

have been made that

the MOEY&C

implement special

measures to recruit

more male teachers.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMGLOSSARY XII

Gender refers to a set of qualities andbehaviors expected from males and females bysociety. Gender roles are learned and can beaffected by factors such as education oreconomics. They vary widely within andbetween cultures. While an individual’s(biological) sex does not change, gender rolesare socially determined and can evolve overtime.1

Gender equality means that males andfemales have equal conditions for realizingtheir full potential and for contributing to andbenefiting from economic, social, cultural,and political development (OECD, 1998). Itmeans males and females have equalenjoyment of goods, opportunities, resources,and rewards at home, school, and society. Italso means the society values males andfemales equally for their similarities anddifferences and the diverse roles they are ableto play. It means, too, that males and femalesenjoy equality of rights, freedoms,responsibilities, and opportunities. Strivingtowards gender equality entails a thoughtfuland strategic process that examines long-termoutcomes for males and females and activelycreates actions and mechanisms to minimizeand eliminate disparities. Such a process is notnecessarily linear as different steps or stagescan occur simultaneously.

Gender parity is the first step towardachieving gender equality in education. Itrefers to a situation of proportionalrepresentation of males and females in aneducation system relative to the populationper age group. Gender parity would beachieved in enrollment if the numbers ofmales and females represented werecommensurate with their respectivepopulation percentage for particular ages. It isthe most-often utilized criteria for measuringthe gender situation in a country’s educationsystem. However, reaching gender parity isjust the initial phase in achieving genderequality.

Gender equity is the second step towardsgender equality. It involves fairness inrepresentation, participation, and outcomes orbenefit among males and females. This doesnot mean that boys and girls shouldnecessarily receive the same treatment, asindividual differences among them demanddifferent interventions, or that one groupshould receive preferential treatment. The goalin terms of equity is that both groups have afair chance of having their needs met and haveequal opportunities for realizing their fullpotentials as human beings.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1. http://www.engenderhealth.org/wh/sg/egwhat.html


INTRODUCTION

1INTRODUCTION

The EQUATE project

undertook the task of

providing feedback on

and recommendations

for moving towards

gender equality in

basic education in

Jamaica.

Between September 27 and October 29,2004, a team of five researchersprovided technical assistance to the

United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment/Jamaica (USAID/Jamaica) toconduct a gender analysis of the education ofboys and girls in Jamaica. ManagementSystems International (MSI), through theUSAID Office of Women in DevelopmentEQUATE task order, fielded the team.

STATEMENT OF WORKUSAID/Jamaica proposed focusing on theneeds of boys in grades 1 through 4 of poor-performing primary schools; in grades 7through 9 in selected upgraded secondaryschools; and at-risk youth attending classespresented by selected non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs). The task was toanswer a primary set of questions regardingthe conditions and experiences of these threecategories of students and to propose a menuof activities to address the needs of boys inways that promote gender equality for bothboys and girls.

USAID/Jamaica proposed five primaryresearch areas to frame the research approach.These included:

Factors contributing to gender inequality ineducation;

Teaching methods and practices in schoolsthat have impacts on gender stereotypes;

Measures to mitigate gender inequalities;

Measures to prepare at-risk students; and

Changes needed in institutional practicesand social relations in school.

This research and report aims to furtherUSAID/Jamaica’s efforts to promote genderequality in education. As a result of trendsthat increasingly seem to favor girls in theeducation system, the EQUATE projectundertook the task of providing feedback onand recommendations for moving towardsgender equality in basic education in Jamaica.

This study looks at the situation with respectto the educational experiences and results formale and female students and, thus, applies agender analytical approach. We look at thesituation through a gender lens as if putting ona pair of glasses. Looking through one lens, thestudy examines the participation, needs, andrealities for boys; looking through the secondlens, the study examines the participation,needs, and realties of girls. Thus, the studyprovides a full vision—presenting informationon the distinctive realities for boys and girls,men and women, as well as the factors thatcontribute to those realities.

TECHNICAL TEAMThe five-person technical assistance team,selected for its technical expertise and genderbalance, included two local gender experts, onemale and one female. The principal teammembers were three researchers andpractitioners with extensive experience andqualifications in participatory research andfacilitation methods. A logistician/researcherand an additional research assistant supportedthem during the initial stages of the assessment.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMINTRODUCTION 2

ASSESSMENTMETHODOLOGY The researchers combined participatorylearning and action (PLA) research methods2

with traditional quantitative analysis.Secondary research and qualitative analysis ofprimary and secondary data was carried out.The fieldwork, conducted through a numberof focus groups, enabled the researchers tolisten and capture the experiences andrecommendations of students, parents,teachers, principals, policymakers and otherimportant stakeholders.

FOCUS GROUP PROCEDURES The principal researchers carefully designedopen-ended focus-group questions based onthe primary questions to be addressed as perthe SOW. Focus groups were convened in sixschools from October 4th through 13th withstudents, teachers, and parents; eachdiscussion lasted for approximately 35 to 45minutes. The researches observed classroomsand took notes on teaching methods andpractices, paying particular attention tointeractions among and between males andfemales.

The focus groups in schools brought togetherrandomly selected groups of participants,including teachers, students, and parents.Researchers met with male and femalestudents with separately, each group facilitatedby a male and female researcher, respectively.Questions drew forth discussions byparticipants about gender norms; expectationsfor girls and boys at home and school,including education and school performance;their ways of supporting boys and girls; andtheir methods of disciplining boys and girls.These questions sought to unearth similarities

and differences in attitudes and perceptions inthe rearing and education of boys and girls.

Focus groups were also held with directorswho implemented NGO programs for at-riskboys and girls who had dropped out of theformal school settings. These programsfocused on children’s participation,encouraged student-led initiatives, andincluded strong peer counseling.

In addition, two larger focus-group breakfastmeetings were held. The first involved genderexperts and donors, while participants at thesecond included senior educators and officersof the Ministry of Education, Youth, andCulture; representatives of other governmentagencies, such as the Planning Institute ofJamaica; and other interested stakeholders.Both meetings lasted for approximately twohours. The first group identified critical issuescontributing to the gender equality picture inJamaica and made suggestions as to how andby whom these issues might be addressed. Thesecond group identified positive indicators inthe education of boys and girls in Jamaica,critical and challenging issues in the educationsystem that relate to gender and genderequality, and recommended ways to addressthese challenges and issues.

This qualitative study reports on theobservations and the words of focus groupparticipants to understand and describe thegender dynamics in schools, at home, and insociety.

COMPOSITION OF FOCUS GROUPSStudent Focus Groups: A total of eightstudent focus-group discussions were held,comprising students from one informal andseven formal at-risk programs. Researchers

The fieldwork,

conducted through a

number of focus

groups, enabled the

researchers to listen

and capture the

experiences and

recommendations of

students, parents,

teachers, principals,

policymakers and

other important

stakeholders.

2. PLA is an approach for learning about and engaging with communities.The approach can be used in identifying needs, planning,monitoring. or evaluating projects and programs.While being a powerful consultation tool, it also offers the opportunity to gobeyond mere consultation and promote the active participation of communities in the issues and interventions that shape theirlives. PLA tools combine the sharing of insights with analysis and, as such, provide a catalyst for communities themselves to identifytheir own needs and create action plans.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 3INTRODUCTION

visited seven schools, including one primaryand one junior high; three high schools (onein a rural setting); one all-age rural school;and one at-risk school program. Students inthese schools ranged in age from 9 to 22.Ranging in age from 10 to 18, a total of 251randomly selected students—122 boys and129 girls—participated in the focus groups,which were conducted in a circle-style,informal discussion-group format over fivedays. The team opted to separate the girls andboys to create a safe environment andencourage open and candid discussion.

It is important to note that all students in thefocus groups came from low-income families.3

Teacher Focus Groups: Forty teachers (11male and 29 female) participated in focus-group discussions, which were held in thesame settings as the student focus groups. Theresearchers posed questions that drew onteachers’ perceptions, teaching methods,methods of discipline, gender roles andexpectations, and messages related to gender.

Parent Focus Groups: Seventeen individuals(13 females and 4 males) participated inparent focus-group discussions. This categoryincluded mothers and fathers, single parents,stepmothers and stepfathers, grandmothers,guardians, and other caregivers.

Individual Principal Interviews: Sixprincipals (4 female and 2 male) from thesame schools as teachers and studentsparticipated. These principals had between 8and 30 years of experience.

Directors of At-Risk Programs Interviews:This group included 4 participants, all ofwhom were female.

Educators Focus Group: Eight educators (4male and 4 female) from government andnon-governmental organizations wererepresented in this group.

Gender Experts & Donor Focus Groups:Fifteen representatives (12 female and 3 male)from donor agencies and the government,including the Ministry of Education, Youth &Culture (MOEY&C) were included withinthis group.

STUDY LIMITATIONS The short time span for this assessmentlimited the breadth of the sample, bothnumerically and geographically. Short noticeto potential participants had an impact on thenumber of persons attending focus-groupsessions. This was especially a problem for theparent focus groups.

ORGANIZATION OF THEREPORTThree chapters follow this introduction andcontain the:

Situation analysis

Findings

Recommendations and Conclusions

This qualitative study

reports on the

observations and the

words of focus group

participants to

understand and

describe the gender

dynamics in schools, at

home, and in society.

3. All participants and existing research on the education system make note that boys and girls in private preparatory schools arefaring better than those in public schools. Research on poverty and class indicate that these two factors have a huge impact oneducational outcomes for boys and girls.



A trend over the past

three decades—the

population’s changing

profile—could have a

positive spread effect

on the education

system through

increased opportunity

for investment and a

lower teacher-pupil

ratio.The population of

children under the age

of 18 years fell from 53

percent in 1975 to 39

percent in 2000.

5SITUATION ANALYSIS

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

With an area of 11,244 squarekilometers, Jamaica is the third-largest island in the Caribbean

after Cuba and Hispaniola. The population atthe end of 2003, estimated at 2,641,600,reflects a constant annual rate of growth of0.6 percent since 1999, except for 2002 whenit grew by 0.5 percent.4

A trend over the past three decades—thepopulation’s changing profile—could have apositive spread effect on the education systemthrough increased opportunity for investmentand a lower teacher-pupil ratio. Thepopulation of children under the age of 18years fell from 53 percent in 1975 to 39percent in 2000. This downward movement isexpected to continue into the year 2020 whenthe proportion of this same-age cohort in thepopulation is projected to be 30 percent.5

However, the prospect of increased investmentin education could remain just that, given theisland’s vulnerability to natural disasters, suchas earthquakes and hurricanes that damageinfrastructure and crops and disrupt variousproductive activities. Besides having a negative

impact on the economy, these disasters oftendisrupt children’s education for weeks, asschools are flooded and/or otherwise damagedor are in use as designated shelters.

Additionally, like most small-island economiesof the Caribbean, Jamaica’s economycontinues to be characterized as open,dependent, and vulnerable. It depends largelyon tourism, bauxite mining, agriculture, lightmanufacturing and a growing service sectorfor its mainstay. This vulnerability wasreflected in negative growth with highinflation rates during the 1990s (up to 81percent in 1991). However, the economy grewover the past five years with an increase inReal Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 2.1percent6 in 2003. Notwithstanding theeconomic growth, the debt stock according tothe 2003 Economic and Social Survey ofJamaica (ESSJ) was at J$671,970 million atDecember 2003 compared with J$572,696.7million at December 2002.7 This requires adebt-service payment of a staggering 62percent8 of total expenditure and imposes aserious limitation on funds available foreducation and other sectors of the economy.

SITUATION ANALYSIS

4. The Planning Institute of Jamaica, 2003, Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica (ESSJ), ch. 20.

5. UNICEF 2000, Jaammaaiiccaann CChhiillddrreenn aanndd TThheeiirr FFaammiilliieess,, p. 22.

6. ESSJ, 2003, ch3.

7. ESSJ, 2003, ch3.

8. UNICEF 2000, Jamaican Children and Their Families, p23.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMSITUATION ANALYSIS 6

OVERVIEW OF THEEDUCATION SYSTEMJamaica’s formal public education systemcomprises the following seven levels,9 each ofwhich vary widely as to types of schools, thequality of instruction, and physical facilities.

Early Childhood Education. Three- to six-year-old children may enter the educationalsystem in kindergarten; basic and nurseryschools; and in the infant departments ofsome primary, all-age, and junior highschools.

Primary Education. Young children from sixto eleven years old enter in grades 1 to 6 ofprimary, all-age, primary, and junior high andpreparatory schools.

Secondary Education. Youths from 12 to 16may progress for five years in grades 7 to 11in secondary, technical high, andcomprehensive high schools. There are juniorhigh, all-age and primary and junior highschools with grades 7 through 9 only. Youths17 to 18 years old in grades 12 and 13 mayattend agricultural schools, with three years ofupper secondary education and with someschools offering two years beyond uppersecondary.

First Stage of Tertiary Education. Studentsmay attend teacher-training colleges,community colleges, the school of visual andperforming arts, and the Human Employmentand Resource Training Trust/NationalTraining Agency (HEART/NTA). TheUniversity Council of Jamaica offersaccreditation to first-stage tertiary educationin specific subject areas to a number of privateinstitutions in fields such as theology,insurance, and management training.

Second Stage of Tertiary Education.Students may attend the University of theWest Indies at the undergraduate andpostgraduate levels or the University ofTechnology with some courses coordinatedand in collaboration with the HEART/NTAVocational Training and DevelopmentInstitute in technical and vocational skills. Agrowing number of overseas universities haveestablished linkages in Jamaica and offerunder- and post-graduate courses in areas suchas business administration, computer studies,teaching, and banking.

Special Education. This includes programsacross the country in various locations andinstitutions for blind, deaf and hearing-impaired, mentally handicapped, multiple-handicapped, physically handicapped,learning-disabled and gifted students.

The HEART/NTA. This program offers awide selection of technical and vocationaltraining in a number of locations nationwidefor youth 17 and over.

According to the Planning Institute of Jamaica(PIOJ), the education system in 2001 had atotal of 127 early childhood institutions, 573primary-level schools, and 595-secondary levelinstitutions along with 161 privatepreparatory schools and 59 private secondaryhigh schools. In addition, some 1,700recognized basic schools offer early childhoodeducation.10

STUDENT PLACEMENTMost very young children are registered incost-free infant and basic schools that are a“stone’s throw” away from their homes.Kindergartens, most often fee-paying privatepreparatory schools, are costly and out of the

Jamaica’s formal

public education

system comprises

seven levels, each of

which vary widely as

to types of schools, the

quality of instruction,

and physical facilities.

9. See Figure 1 in the Annex for an illustration of the system.

10. PIOJ, The Jamaican Child (2002), p28.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 7SITUATION ANALYSIS

reach of poor families. From these earlychildhood institutions, children move toprimary schools, which are usually free andprovide universal enrollment. Studentplacement at the lower secondary levels isgoverned by their scores in the Grade SixAchievement Test (GSAT), which replaced theCommon Entrance Examination that lastedfor over 30 years. The Grade NineAchievement Test and the Junior High SchoolCertificate place children in the uppersecondary level. The General Certificate inEducation (GCE) and the CaribbeanExamination Council (CXC), which isphasing out the GCE, place students at thetertiary level of the education system.11

FUNDING EDUCATION The Government of Jamaica (GOJ) is theprincipal source of education financing in thecountry, with an annual allocation ofeducation funds ranging from 10.57 percentto 16.43 percent of the total budget since1978 (except 1994/95). These allocations arevirtually double the amount provided forhealth and housing over the same period.However, allocations have declined over thelast two financial years (FYs). For FY2003–2004 the allocation of J$23.1 billion—8.8 percent of total budget—reflects a declineof J$0.2 billion over revised estimates for FY2002–2003.12 The allocation for 2002–2003was J$23.2 billion—10.4 percent of theGOJ’s Budget and 6.1 percent of the GDP.13

Funds from multilateral and bilateral agencies,non-government organizations, the privatesector and students augment the GOJ’sbudgetary allocation to education; suchprojects are handled through what is calledthe “Capital B Budget.” Taxation revenues

cover the cost of projects funded from theGOJ’s budget, which is called the “Capital ABudget.” For example, Capital expensestotaled J$868.5 million in the GOJ’s2002–2003 budget, of which Capital Aprograms undertaken by the GOJ amountedto J$274.5 million.

The GOJ introduced a cost-sharing scheme insecondary schools in 1994–1995, with thestudents’ share covering school operations lesssalaries. Fees ranged from a low of J$4,000 toa high of J$8,000 per student per year, andsome schools charged an additional amountfor registration. Some J$990.5 million wascollected through the scheme in the2002–2003 financial year (ESSJ, 2003). Thescheme also operated a financial assistanceplan for students unable to pay their portionof cost sharing. The MOEY&C paid J$387.7million, Members of Parliament J$8.9million, and other sources J$3.1 million toassist 122,335 students in the 2002–2003school year. “The Cost Sharing Scheme isscheduled to be phased out by theGovernment over the next three years” (PIOJ,2003, sec. 22.3).

The MOEY&C operates a policy of freeprimary education. Nevertheless, manyprimary schools charge students a fee, andsome families are faced with the challenge ofpaying for school uniforms, some textbooks,pencils, paper, transportation, and lunches.

Poor student performance on both internaland external examinations has generatedincreased stakeholder attention to educationaldevelopment and reform over the past fewmonths. Early childhood education hasbecome a priority focus area for moreresources for two reasons: Low performancecan be detected and addressed at an early

Poor student

performance on

both internal and

external examinations

has generated

increased stakeholder

attention to

educational

development and

reform.

11. See Figure 2 in the Annex for an illustration of the flow chart.

12. Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ), Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica (ESSJ), 2003.

13. Ministry of Education,Youth and Culture (MOEY&C), Estimate of Expenditure for March 31, 2004 (as presented).


stage, and the Government has paid moreattention to other levels of the system over theyears. Thus, early childhood educationreceived an increase of 19.3 percent14 in GOJbudget allocations for FY 2003–2004. AnEarly Childhood Commission was alsoestablished to set standards and to regulateand monitor the operations of early childhoodinstitution nationwide.

The Government and the Opposition alsoagreed on a parliamentary resolutioncommitting them to a five-year educationplan, which included increased expenditure inthe education sector, improvement in teacherquality, and shifting resources to the lowertiers of the education system. TheGovernment recently presented the report andrecommendations of the Task Force onEducational Reform (TFER), which indicatesthat, with respect to financing the educationsystem, the:

Government of Jamaica allocated 10percent of the 2003–04 budget toEducation. The Parliamentary Resolutioncommitted the Government of Jamaica toincreasing the expenditure allocation to theMOEY&C…until its allocation amountsto 15 percent of the national budget…itwas therefore expected that of a total of$328 billion in the 2004–05 budget,education would have been allocated 11percent or $36.1 billion. Instead only$30.1 billion or 9.2 percent was soallocated. 15

The Report notes further that:

Based on the recommendations by the TaskForce, it is estimated that the…system

requires an incremental injection ofapproximately $22 billion in capitalexpenditure and $16 billion in recurrentexpenditure over the next two years (fiscalyears 2005 and 2006). Over ten fiscalyears, 2005–2014, the total capitalexpenditure…is projected at approximately$65 billion. 16

EXISTING PROGRAMS INEDUCATIONThis study reviewed existing programs toadvise USAID of where best to make itsintervention. Most of the existing programslisted in the Appendices will end in 2005,except for those related to the curriculumreform process—Reform of SecondaryEducation (ROSE) 2 and the PrimaryEducation Support Project (PESP), whichcontinue to 2006–2007. Many of theseprograms focused on a select number ofinstitutions with few components beingexpanded and sustained nationwide.

Apart from the programs listed, otherprograms target poverty-related difficulties ofaccess and inequity in the system. TheProgram for Advancement in Education andHealth (PATH), funded by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and theGOJ, provide social support to poor familieswith a requirement that the children in thesefamilies attend school regularly and visitclinics for health checks. The MOEY&Coperates the School Feeding Program, whichprovides a meal per day to augment thenutrition received by children in need.

The Government and

the Opposition agreed

on a parliamentary

resolution committing

them to a five-year

education plan, which

included increased

expenditure in the

education sector,

improvement in

teacher quality, and

shifting resources to

the lower tiers of the

education system.

14. ESSJ, sec 22.2.

15. Task Force on Educational Reform; Report, 2004, pg. 139.

16. Ibid.


THE PERFORMANCE OF THEEDUCATION SYSTEM The performance of boys, girls, and youth atthe early childhood, primary and secondaryeducational levels is a good indicator of theeducation system’s quality and effectiveness.Illustrated and reported below are the formsof students’ assessment, results, andemployment of the results at the three levels,which mirror the efficacy of the educationsystem.

EARLY CHILDHOOD AND PRIMARY LEVELSIn the late 1980s, the GOJ/IDB PrimaryEducation Improvement Project introducedassessment of student performance at theprimary level. The resultant curriculum-basedNational Assessment Program (NAP) allowsfor informed decisions about instructionalmethods and students’ progress for primaryeducation, grades 1 through 6. The NAPtests, piloted in a sample of schools since1987, were formally integrated in the systemduring the late 1990s. The test andinventories are reported below with currentresults.

Grade 1 Reading Readiness Inventory(GRI)—taken by children upon their entryinto primary school from early childhoodinstitutions, provides diagnosticinformation on the preparedness ofprimary-school entrants to participateeffectively.

Grade 3 Diagnostic Test (GTDT)—taken at the end of primary grade 3 todiagnose levels of mastery and weakness inreading and mathematics as a basis forremedial work.

Grade 4 Literacy Test (GFLT)—taken atthe end of primary grade 4 to determinepromotion or repetition. Students whoperform poorly can take summer remedialclasses to improve their likelihood of beingpromoted.

Grade 6 Achievement Test (GSAT)—taken at the end of primary grade 6, helpsdetermine placement of students in varioustypes of secondary schools.

Assessment results show that both boys andgirls performed below expectation. However,girls outperformed boys on all the tests. Thisis not the case for the tests at the secondarylevel.

PRIMARY-LEVEL OUTCOMESThroughout the primary level of theeducation system, upwards of 40 percent to50 percent of students have not achievedmastery of basic literacy and numeracy skills.From as early as grade 1, the 2003 nationalassessment results reflect generally low levelsof student readiness. Failure to address thisproblem in grades 2 and 3 result in highilliteracy levels in grade 4, as indicated bygrade 4 literacy test results.

GRI results for 200317 revealed nationalmastery scores of 86.3 percent for visualmotor coordination, 54.4 percent for visualperception, 57.1 percent for auditorydiscrimination, and 68.7 percent for numberand letter recognition. This indicates that,except for visual-motor coordination, about40 percent of the students assessed neededremedial intervention. In contrast, privatepreparatory school scores exceeded those ofthe public basic and infant schools in everyinventory.

Assessment results

show that both boys

and girls performed

below expectation.

However, girls

outperformed boys on

all the tests, except

for those at the

secondary level.

17. MOEY&C Assessment Unit, 2003.


GTDT18 results for 2003 appear even morediscouraging than the GRI. In language arts,only 13.6 percent mastered five skill areas and11.9 percent mastered four skill areas. Formathematics, only 3.8 percent mastered fiveskill areas and 4.9 percent mastered four skillareas. By grade 4, the problem ofunderachievement is even more acute.

The caption in The Daily Gleaner of October12, 2004, “Disturbing Trend: Henry-Wilson[Minister of Education, Youth and Culture]not happy with grade four reading results,”indicates that the problem is a major concernfor the country. The Daily Gleaner reportedthat, of the 52,910 students who completedthe GFLT, 29 percent attained near masterylevel, 57 percent mastered all three sections ofthe test, and more than 13 percent were at thenon-mastery level. In 2003, 57.7 percent ofstudents mastered all three sections of the test,23 percent were at the near mastery level, and18.4 percent were at the non-mastery level.The Daily Gleaner quoted the Minister asindicating that the problem of inadequatespecialist teachers to detect and addressremedial needs among students from as earlyas grade 1 continued to impact negatively onthe literacy scores of grade 4 students.

GSAT 2003 composite scores for the coresubjects are shown in Table 1.

At every grade level, students of better-resourced preparatory schools generallyachieve at much higher levels than theircounterparts in public schools. On the 2003GSAT, in mathematics, the mean score forprivate preparatory schools was 74 percentcompared to 47.8 percent for primary schools.In language arts, scores were 78.8 percent forprivate preparatory schools compared to 52percent for primary schools.

OUTCOMES AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL The CXC examination and the CaribbeanAdvanced Proficiency Examination measurestudent performance at the secondary level.Four or more subject passes at CXC for grades1 to 11, including mathematics and English,meet the minimum entry requirement formost tertiary programs. Six or more subjectsare required to pursue the Cambridge GCEA-level courses and are needed formatriculation to the island’s three universities.(ESSJ, 2003 sec. 22.12).

Notably, 77 percent of the cohort of studentsin the terminal school grade who should havebeen eligible to sit the examination did so in2003, compared to 70.8 percent in 2002.However, only 55.8 percent of the cohort satEnglish language, while 46.1 percent didmathematics in 2003. “Compared to 2002,there was a 13.7 percentage point decline [in2003] to 45.0 percent passes in Englishlanguage, while pass rate for mathematicsremained at 36.0 percent” (ESSJ, 2003).These outcomes varied dramaticallydepending on the type of secondary schoolthat students attended. Consistently, studentswith the lowest GSAT scores are placed in thenon-traditional secondary, all-age, and juniorhigh schools, and they do poorly on

At every grade level,

students of better-

resourced preparatory

schools generally

achieve at much

higher levels than their

counterparts in

public schools.

TTaabbllee 11:: NNaattiioonnaall LLeevveell GGrraaddee SSiixx AAcchhiieevveemmeenntt TTeessttRReessuullttss,, 22000033

Subject Area Composite Scores (%)

Mathematics 47.7

Language Arts 52

Science 47.6

Social Studies 54.2

18. Task Force on Educational Reform: Final Report, 2004.


secondary-level examinations. The analysisdepicted in Table 2 of the 2001 to 2003 CXCresults gives an indication of the situation.

GENDER ANALYSIS OFEDUCATIONAL OUTCOMESMany and varied reasons account for students’underachievement. Students—boys andgirls—are not a homogenous group. Alllearners come to school with influences,knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and valuesinfluenced by the environments in which theylive. These differences occur not only betweenthe two groups of children but also within thegroups. Factors such as family socio-economicstatus, family formation, and the quality offamily interaction; religious beliefs andpractices; and the extent of adherence totraditional or non-traditional child-rearingpractices all serve to create inter- and intra-group differences.

Schools in Jamaica vary widely as to quality,including those falling within a similarcategory such as early childhood,primary/elementary, or secondary. Variationsrelate to their physical, social and resource(human, financial, instructional)environments and to the effectiveness of theirleadership. Further, school location affects theatmosphere in which learning takes place.Some schools are situated in disaster-proneareas. Others are in communities withconstant and extreme outbreaks of violence,

while still others are in tranquil rural settingsor relatively crime- and violence-free middle-to high-income communities.

The national policy environment also has asignificant impact on, and provides thebackdrop for, the educational process and itsoutcomes. Among changes taking place incurriculum reform and student assessment inJamaica, new measures to achieveaccountability on the part of teachers andschool administrators are being vigorouslydiscussed.19 Continuous strategies to expandaccess and enrollment accompany variousmeasures being instituted to address schooldiscipline. However, in relation to such goalsas Education for All, significant policy gapspreclude a clear mandate with respect tochildren with special needs and clearguidelines on gender equality. While changesare taking place to make schools more child-centered, they are still, for the most part,curriculum-centered, and teachers feel hard-pressed to tailor their instructional activities tothe needs and abilities of students.

One must keep these and other factors inmind in any attempt to explain theeducational results of Jamaica’s schools ingeneral and for males or females in particular.These factors must also be considered whenformulating decisions about appropriateinterventions to support a goal of genderequity/equality in educational outcomes for allstudents.

Among changes taking

place in curriculum

reform and student

assessment in Jamaica,

new measures to

achieve accountability

on the part of

teachers and school

administrators are

being vigorously

discussed.

TTaabbllee 22:: 22000011 aanndd 22000033 CCXXCC TTeesstt RReessuullttss

2001 2003 2001 2003 2001 2003Secondary High Schools Upgraded High Schools Technical High Schools

Mathematics 40.0% 51.0% 11.0% 17.0% 26% 27.00%

English Language 74.0% 65.0% 38.0% 27.0% 40% 30.0%

19. Measures being discussed include contracts for principals and teachers and evaluating teachers and schools on the basis of students’performance.


ENROLLMENT While male and female enrollment numbersat the early childhood level are nearly equal,shifts occur later in the system. The primarylevel has significantly more male than femalestudents, but fewer boys than girls areenrolled at the secondary level and even fewerat post-secondary. Table 3 shows that the gapwidens in favor of female students the furtherup the educational ladder one looks.

Where male students do dominate enrollmentat post-secondary levels is usually in technicalsubjects, sports, or other fields of studytraditional to them. Post-secondaryenrollment reflects both changing patterns inthe male/female division of occupational/career choices as well as the extent to whichgender stereotypes persist and stronglyinfluence what male and female students doand strive for. Enrollment data for 2000–2001for the University of the West Indies indicatethat, overall, far more females than males inthe student body. Female enrollment surpasses

male enrollment in the faculties of law (17%male, 83% female) and medical sciences(37.2% male, 62.8% female), though thegender gap was small in the pure and appliedsciences (48.2% male, 51.8% female).20 SeeTable 2 in the Annex for a breakdown ofenrollment data by tertiary institution(2002–2003).

While looking at university enrollment, notethat only a small percentage of the populationis represented in tertiary education. On theother hand, for enrollment in HEART/NTAprograms where a far greater percentage of thenational youth population accesses post-secondary training, gender stereotypes incourse selection abound.21

ATTENDANCESome 14 to 20 percent of males and femaleshave poor school attendance. One articleprovides data indicating that, in 2002, at theinfant school level, the average male dailyattendance rate was 78.9 percent compared

Post-secondary

enrollment reflects

both changing

patterns in the

male/female division

of occupational/

career choices as well

as the extent to which

gender stereotypes

persist and strongly

influence what male

and female students

do and strive for.

TTAABBLLEE 33:: CCoommppaarriissoonn ooff MMaallee//FFeemmaallee EEnnrroollllmmeenntt ffrroomm EEaarrllyy CChhiillddhhoooodd ttoo TTeerrttiiaarryy LLeevveell ((22000022))

Enrollment Levels/Male, Female,Total Male Female Total

Early ChildhoodUnrecognized Basic Schools 3, 017 3, 149 6, 166Recognized Basic Schools 59, 711 59, 480 119, 191Total 62, 728 62, 629 125, 357

Primary Schools (Grades 1–6) 160, 550 153, 510 314, 060Secondary Schools (Grades 7–13)Grades 7–9 72, 627 71, 678 144, 305Grades 10–13 39, 072 43, 175 82, 247Total Secondary Schools 111, 699 114, 853 226, 552

Non-formal Training Programs 13, 853 19, 196 33, 049

Tertiary Institutions 13, 568 25, 564 39, 132

TToottaall 336622,, 339988 337755,, 775522 773388,, 115500

Source: JA People; Newsletter, Social and Manpower Division, PIOJ;Vol. 9 No 1; page 21

20. Jamaica Education Statistics 2000-2001, MOEY&C, Kingston, Jamaica.

21. See Table 3 in Annex for breakdown of enrollment data by subject/field (2002/3).


with 81.3 percent for females. At the primarylevel, the rates were 82.6 percent and 84.5percent respectively. The disparity widens atthe secondary level with male studentattendance averaging 82.1 percent comparedwith 86.4 percent for female.22

The article notes, however, that attendancerates varied according to school type, with all-age and primary and junior high schoolshaving lower rates of and narrower genderdifferences in attendance. It states that “theaverage daily attendance at all-age schools was70.0 percent with males averaging 70.5percent and females, 69.2 percent. In theprimary and junior high school type, theaverage attendance rate was 77.7 percent withmales averaging 76.3 percent and females 79.6percent.”

MOEY&C data for attendance at secondarylevels by school type show that the lowestattendance rates occur in grades 7 through 9of all-age and primary and junior highschools. Secondary schools that have grades 7through 11/12 have attendance rates in thehigh 80 percent range for both male andfemale students, and technical high schoolshave the highest rates of attendance. See Table4 below.

The attendance data suggest that studentswith lowest levels of academic achievementhave the poorest attendance rates through theall-age, primary and junior high, and newlyupgraded secondary schools. Of this group,boys have lower levels of attendance than girls do.

ACHIEVEMENTGender achievement differences are evidentfrom the earliest years of school life inJamaica. According to one report, “An analysisof results for the four areas of the 1998 Grade1 Readiness Test … showed that, at the time,girls performed better than boys in all fourareas and that the difference was statisticallysignificant in three of the areas: visual andauditory perception, number and letterknowledge.”23 Data supplied by theMOEY&C indicates a similar pattern for theresults of the 2003 assessment.24

As children progress towards the grade 6 level,significant numbers of all students fall behindacademically. Results for the Grade 3Language Diagnostic Test administered in200225 show that some 40 percent of studentswho took the exam fell below the masterylevel for phonics, 63.4 percent were below the

Gender achievement

differences are evident

from the earliest years

of school life in

Jamaica.

TTaabbllee 44:: AAtttteennddaannccee bbyy SScchhooooll TTyyppee

Year/Technical All Age (7-9) Primary Junior High Secondary

MMaallee FFeemmaallee MMaallee FFeemmaallee MMaallee FFeemmaallee MMaallee FFeemmaallee

2000–01 70.3 75.7 75.6 80.9 86.8 89.9 89.1 89.0

2001–02 70.5 69.2 76.3 79.6 84.6 88.3 88.3 90.2

2002–03 63.1 68.1 64.0 68.7 79.2 82.5 83.1 84.3

Source: Planning Institute of Jamaica, July 2004.

22. JA People;Vol.9. No 1; Males in Focus:A Newsletter of the Social and Manpower Planning Division.

23. Bailey, Barbara, Gender-Sensitive Educational Policy and Practice:The Case of Jamaica. Centre for Gender and Development Studies,UWI, Mona,April 2003.

24. See Table 5 in Annex.

25. MOEY&C statistics.


mastery level for structure mechanics, 60.5percent scored below mastery level forvocabulary, 59.4 percent were below masteryfor study skills, and 62.2 percent of the all thechildren who took the test scored below themastery level on reading and listeningcomprehension. On this latter subtest, 36.7percent of the students performed at the levelof near mastery and 25.5 percentdemonstrated non-mastery.

The data imply the need for concern thatmost children are underachieving and forspecial attention to address the fact that theproblem is most pronounced among primary-level boys. The 2001–2003 data showed thatgirls significantly outperformed boys on eachof the subtests of the GLDT. The trendcontinues up to the grade 6 level, with girlsgenerally out-performing boys on all subtestsof the Grade 4 Literacy Test and the Grade 6Achievement Test.26

Among students who progress to secondaryschool, those who attend all-age and primaryand junior high schools usually have lowGSAT scores For students in these schools,the exit point is at grade 9 where they sit theGrade 9 Achievement Test for placement insecondary or technical high schools for grades10 through 12/13. In 2000–2001, of 2,084male students who sat the exam, 1,203(57.7%) were awarded places. Of the 1,244females who sat the exam, 896 (72.0 %) wereplaced.27

After the GSAT, students are placed inupgraded secondary schools and traditional“grammar” high schools that have grades 7through 12/13 and where students followeither a mainly academic program (as in thecase of grammar schools) or a combination of

academic and vocational programs. In the exitexamination for the students at these schools,the CXC, performance is highly correlated tothe type of school, their available resourcesand the academic level of students at entry.Again, at the secondary level there are genderdifferences in courses of study and inachievement. Analyses conducted by BarbaraBailey (2003) on the sex differences inpreparation for and performance in the CXCExamination for the 2000–2001 academicyear show that:

In 2000–2001, the (CXC) examination wastaken by approximately 15.2 percent (5,538)of the grade 11 cohort with femalesaccounting for 52.6 percent of entries for theBasic Proficiency and 68.5 percent of entriesfor the General and Technical Proficiencies.General and Technical Proficiency subjectofferings can be grouped into three tracks: thefirst comprised of 17 “academic” subjects, thesecond with two visual and performing artssubjects, and the third with 15 technical-vocational subjects. In the academic grouping,the only subject for which there were moremale than female entries was physics, andentries for Visual Arts were male dominated.In the technical vocational areas, however,there was a clear gender divide with malesclustered in the technical crafts and females inbusiness studies and the domestic crafts.28

In relation to student performance in the2000–2001 examinations, she notes that “…the academic subject grouping achievementgaps favored females in 13 of the 17 subjectsexamined…the gap favored males in four ofthe 10 science-related subjects includingmathematics and in biology … In the twovisual and performing arts subjects,achievement gaps favored girls …”29

The data imply the

need for concern that

most children are

underachieving and for

special attention to

address the fact that

the problem is most

pronounced among

primary-level boys.

26. See Table 6 in Annex.

27. Jamaica Education Statistics 2000–2001.

28. Bailey, Barbara, Gender-Sensitive Educational Policy and Practices:The Case of Jamaica. 2003, p30.

29. Ibid. p35.


Although in numeric terms female enrollment(at upper secondary and post-secondary levels),attendance and achievement rates are usuallyhigher than that for males, “when the situationis examined from a qualitative perspective, thesesame females because of where they arepositioned in the … curriculum actually haveless of a competitive advantage than their malecounterparts beyond school.”30 This will beexplored in more detail in the following section.

For this review, the gender situation ineducation can be summarized as showing:

More males than females enrolled in pre-primary, primary and lower secondary(grades 7-9) levels and more girls than boysenrolled in upper secondary, tertiary andother post-secondary level institutions;

Lower attendance rates for male thanfemale students, especially in primary andjunior high schools but also in secondaryand technical high schools;

High attendance levels for both male andfemale students in the traditional high andtechnical high schools compared to othertypes of schools at the secondary level;

Higher levels of achievement among girls inall subject areas at the pre-primary andprimary levels;

Gender stereotypes exist in subject selectionand courses of study at the secondary level;

Female students have higher levels ofachievement in academic subjects,particularly those in arts and languages,business subjects, theatre arts, food andnutrition, and home economics, but malestudents outperform female ones inmathematics, integrated sciences, informationtechnology, and the traditionally male-dominated vocational-technical subjects;

Significantly more females than males inthe teaching profession, especially at theprimary level (88.0%)31 with more femalesrepresented at the MOEY&C policymakinglevels; and

Higher male representation amongprincipals at the secondary level and amongheads, lecturers, senior lecturers, and headsof faculties in the University of the WestIndies and other institutions at theuniversity level.

BEYOND SCHOOL:LABOR MARKET TRENDSFOR MEN AND WOMEN The fact that females are doing better thanmales in particular aspects of the educationsystem does not guarantee them a better lifeoutcome beyond school, especially inemployment and income. The Jamaican laborforce consistently shows significantly higherrates of employment for males than for females.While female unemployment is higher, womenhave a significantly higher job-seeking rate thando men—more women than men look forwork but more men than women find work.Men have greater advantage in the labor forcedespite lower levels of academic achievementthan women. Additionally, perhaps because ofthe higher levels of technical skills men are ableto acquire, the array of occupational choicesconsidered to be “men’s work” is wide. See Table5 for a breakdown of employment,unemployment, and job-seeking rates.

As demonstrated in Table 6, in almost allcategories of work, men earn more thanwomen in the private sector.

In keeping with the gender stereotypes insubject and vocational choices of males andfemales in the educational system, the labor

Men have greater

advantage in the labor

force despite lower

levels of academic

achievement than

women.

30. Ibid. p37.

31. Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica, 2003; Planning Institute of Jamaica.


market reflects a very traditional division ofoccupations. Data from the Labor ForceSurvey of 2002 indicate that males dominatethe labor force in the following industry areas:agriculture, forestry and fishing, mining,quarrying and refining, manufacturing,electricity, gas and water; construction andinstallation, transport, storage andcommunications. Females dominate inwholesale and retail; hotels and restaurantservices; financing, insurance, real estate andbusiness services; and community, social, andpersonal services.

These deeply entrenched gender stereotypesact as incentives and disincentives to boys andgirls. Clearly, they have an impact on theirexpectations, choices, actions, and results.

RESEARCH ON GENDERDIFFERENCES INEDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES Some argue that male and female studentsperform differently in education because ofsex differences in maturation rates andlearning styles. While males and females haveinnate differences, influencing factors fromchildren’s social environments likely have amore profound impact on their life outcomesthan do biological and cognitive differences.

According to a UK Department forInternational Development (DFID) report,“within recent years, explorations into sex andgender differences in academic achievementhave become more frequent. Explanations for… differences between boys and girls havemoved away from biological theories intopsycho-social insights concerning patterns ofsocialization and differential experiencesoffered to males and females, especially theexperiences offered by the family home andthe organization/interactions at the school.”34

Errol Miller’s theory of male marginalization35

has had a strong influence on the debateabout male underachievement in education.Chevannes36 traces the development in Miller’s

While males and

females have innate

differences, influencing

factors from children’s

social environments

likely have a more

profound impact on

their life outcomes

than do biological and

cognitive differences.

TTaabbllee 66:: SSaallaarryy DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonn bbyy SSeexx IInn PPrriivvaattee SSeeccttoorrOOrrggaanniizzaattiioonnss ((11999955))

Salaries (in JMD)32 Female (%) Male (%)

Less than $150,000 80 20

150,000–250,000 72 28

251,000–350,000 52 48

351,000–450,000 33 67

451,000–550,000 32 68

551,000–750,000 5233 48

751,000–1,000,000 33 67

1, 001, 000–1, 500,000 21 79

1, 501,000–2,000,000 12 88

Over 2,000,000 0 100

TTaabbllee 55:: LLaabboorr FFoorrccee PPaarrttiicciippaattiioonn,, EEmmppllooyymmeenntt aannddUUnneemmppllooyymmeenntt RRaattee bbyy SSeexx ((AApprriill 22000011--AApprriill 22000033))

Male-Female/Year April April April 2001 2002 2003

MMaalleessLabor force as a %

of population 48.6 48.6 47.4Employment Rate 89.7 89.5 90.2Unemployment Rate 10.3 10.5 9.8Job-Seeking Rate 3.8 5.0 4.8

FFeemmaalleessLabor Force as a %

of Total Population 36.4 38.1 36.1Employment Rate 79.5 79.8 82.9Unemployment Rate 20.5 20.2 17.1Job-Seeking Rate 8.5 8.2 7.8

32. At the time of this writing, 1USD=61.843301JMD.

33. This may reflect a ‘middle management’ level which isincreasingly dominated by females.

34. Gender and School Achievement in the Caribbean; PeterKutnick,Vena Jules and Anthony Layne; Department ForInternational Development (DFID) Education Research, SerialNo. 21, November 1997.

35. Errol Miller. Marginalization of the Black Jamaican Male;Kingston Publishers 1986 and Men At Risk; Kingston; JamaicaPublishing House Ltd. 1991.

36. What We Sow and What We Reap; Problems in the Cultivationof Male Identity in Jamaica; Grace Kennedy FoundationLecture Series 1999.


theory. He identifies the feminization of theteaching profession as a deliberate policy onthe part of the colonial administration and thewhite elite to “clip the wings” of black menand prevent them from posing a challenge towhite rule. They suggest that one’s place insociety is determined by attributes such asrace, class, gender, age, and the like and thatthose who hold the central places of power inthe post-colonial Caribbean states distributethe rest of the population in a queue as a wayof holding on to power. Women have beenmoved up the queue both as a concession totheir demands and as a buffer between theruling elite and the majority of black males.

Yet, both Chevannes and, to a greater extent,Figueroa37 identify the root cause of maleunderachievement as being related tounintended outcomes of male socializationand gender privileging. Figueroa states as hispremise that “historically, the male gender hasbeen privileged in Caribbean Society…. Themale gender has occupied a wider social space,controlled more resources, maintained ahigher social position, and exercised greaterpower.”

This historic privileging, Figueroa suggests,has “constructed maleness as dominant,appropriate to the public sphere,technologically capable, strong, and hard.Femaleness has been constructed assubmissive, appropriate to the private sphere,sensitive, caring, and in need of protection.”These values, he says, “are not onlyinternalized by children themselves, but alsostructure their worlds of home, school,community, and work.”

Figueroa draws on the work of otherresearchers and writers on the subject (W.Bailey, B. Bailey, Brown and Chevannes,Evans, Parry, Lindsay, and Leo-Rhynie) tooutline a comprehensive set of issues having

impacts on male underachievement. Hisfindings, reinforced by research activitythrough the results of focus-group discussions,field inquiry, and a literature review, can besummarized as follows:

Early childhood socialization betterprepares girls for the type of schoolingcommon in the Caribbean. Girls are moreconfined to the house, under greater adultsupervision, given more responsibility,expected to be disciplined, taught to pleaseothers, and involved in doing uninterestingand repetitive tasks;

The match between female genderidentities and the educational system hasgrown while the mismatch between malegender identities and the educationalsystem has grown. The loss of rural malechores has not been replaced by acomparable involvement in domesticity.There is a persistently strong view that menshould discipline boys despite the fact that42 percent of households are headed bywomen and that women dominate inteaching. Further, while outside, boys areless subject to community control; thus, theskills they acquire and the role models theymeet on the street and in the media aredifferent from those required for schoolsuccess;

The expectation that boys will be “bad”results in their facing negativereinforcement at home and school. Thisexpectation, along with that of their being“tough,” results in their being punishedmore severely and more often;

The “hard” male image contributes toresistance to school, particularly thoseaspects seen as girlish (including the use ofEnglish versus Creole and slang) and whichcall sexual orientation into question;

Social scientists have

identified the root

cause of male

underachievement as

being related to

unintended outcomes

of male socialization

and gender privileging.

37. Making Sense of Male Experience;The Case of Academic Underachievement in the English-Speaking Caribbean; Mark Figueroa;IDS Bulletin Vol 31. No. 2 2000; University of East Anglia, UK.


Girls are expected to apply themselves toschoolwork more than boys. They receivemore positive encouragement and help withhomework and more admonition to “takeup their books”;

Streaming in the school system creates akind of homogenization of achievementlevels across the various types of schools. Asboys fall behind, they become over-represented in the lower streams. Suchstreaming has had a negative effect on allstudents;

There is a class bias in the system, withhigher expectations of performance amongstudents of the upper classes who typicallyattend traditional high schools. Among thisgroup, high achievement is consistent witha traditional male image. Boys who do well,especially in the male-oriented subjects, arenot as vulnerable to this bias. These boysusually start their education in preparatoryschools where gender achievement is lessskewed;

The ideology of differences in male andfemale roles, responsibilities, andoccupational choices is deeply entrenched.The research indicates that, even at a youngage, students have clear views on what typesof subjects are appropriate for their sex andwhich careers they can pursue. Girls moreeasily break out of the gender stereotypesthan do boys, as “male” occupations havehigher status than traditionally “female” ones.Additionally, male sexual identity is morelikely to be questioned when a boy chooses anon-traditional course of study; and

Females’ upward social mobility is moreclosely tied to educational attainment thanthat of males’. For males, schooling is lesssignificant in terms of increasing theirearning power, as there are moreopportunities for men to find employment

even with limited education. Men also havegreater access to informal and illegal sourcesof income. Since male identity is in largepart tied to the ability to be a “provider,”there is a stronger social demand on malesfor earning an income, which doesn’tnecessarily require an education.

The factors outlined above in the research, aswell as those related to data gleaned fromschools, including variations in schools’resources, socio-economic status of families andcommunities, the impact of school leadership,the nature of the curricula, teaching methodsand teacher competencies—were all echoed inthe findings of this fieldwork.

SUMMARY OF CHALLENGESIN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM This snapshot of the Jamaican educationalsystem and the available data indicate majorchallenges and find significant weaknesses inquality, equity, and access that will continueto prevent boys, in particular, from achieving,and all boys and girls from attainingacceptable performance and outcomes, unlessthey are addressed soon. Six major challengeshave been identified in the research, the datafrom the education system, and this study.

ENROLLMENT EXCEEDINGSCHOOL CAPACITY This issue alone imposes serious limitationsand consequences on the quality of educationin schools and results in problems ofdiscipline, frustration among teachers andstudents, stressful or lacking instructionalarrangements, and difficult classroommanagement—certainly it is among thefactors contributing to violence in someJamaican schools. One national journal posits,“With the exception of all-age schools, thecurrent enrollment exceeds capacity at allschool types.”38 Primary school enrollment

One national journal

posits,“With the

exception of all-age

schools, the current

enrollment exceeds

capacity at all

school types.”

38. PIOJ, The Jamaican Child, 2002, p32.


exceeds capacity by 23 percent; technical andsecondary schools exceed their capacity by 50percent; primary and junior high schoolenrollment exceeds their capacity by 55percent; and infant schools exceed theircapacity by 25 percent. This calls intoquestion the adequacy of the GOJs’ 2003school building project of 16 new schools.

LOW LITERACY RATE NATIONALLY Nationwide, a low literacy rate continues,with the problem being more pronounced forboys at the primary level. Currently, illiteracyis identified at grade 4, and attempts tocorrect the problem at such a high level seemto be acting “after the horse has gone throughthe gate.” The outcomes of Grade 1 ReadinessInventory and the Grade 3 DiagnosticAssessment indicate the reasons for this graveconcern, and the country lacks comprehensivestrategies to address this issue. However, in2004, the GOJ began placing greateremphasis on early childhood education (3 to 5years). This is strategically an effectivemeasure, as the data and research have shownthat the investment pays off in the long run.

TOO FEW STUDENTS ENROLLINGAND ACHIEVING IN THE CXC EXAMToo few male and female students enroll andachieve in the CXC exam. Only 34.6 percentof students in secondary school terminalgrades sat four or more CXC subjects in2003. Overall, 77 percent of the cohort satthe examination in 2003 compared to 70.8percent in 2002. In the 2003 sitting, some46.1 percent of the cohort sat mathematicsand 55.8 percent sat English Language. Thislow sitting occurred despite the fact that GOJcovered the cost of the examination.

VERY LOW PERFORMANCE RATE INUPGRADED SECONDARY SCHOOLSThe pass rate in mathematics in traditionalhigh schools is 51 percent compared to 17percent for the upgraded secondary schoolsand in English language is 65 percentcompared to 27 percent. The pattern is thesame for prior years. This is similar to theWorld Bank’s observation,39 which categorizedsecondary high schools in Jamaica from themost to the least prestigious. The mostprestigious are the secondary high schools,which emphasize academic subjects; followedby the technical highs, comprehensives (mixedacademic and vocational); the new secondary(pre-vocational); primary; and junior highsand all-age schools (which offer grades 7through 9 in their secondary sections).

LACK OF ADEQUATE TEACHERTRAININGSchools continue to have too many teacherswho are pre-trained or untrained.40 Studentperformance correlates to the quality ofinstruction in schools—better teachers meanhigher-achieving students, so one means todevelop and maintain quality education is tohave well-trained and qualified teachers. Therewas a 17 percent decline in the number ofuntrained teachers and a 22 percent increasein the number of graduates in primary andsecondary schools in 2003 (ESSJ). However,2003 saw 13 percent untrained teachers inprimary schools in 2003 and 21 percent pre-trained or untrained teachers in secondaryschools. Overseas employment of Jamaicanteachers has an impact on the situation, withsome 2,000 teachers being employed in theUnited Kingdom and the United States overthe past three years. Nonetheless, efforts of the

Student performance

correlates to the

quality of instruction

in schools—better

teachers mean higher-

achieving students, so

one means to develop

and maintain quality

education is to have

well-trained and

qualified teachers.

39. World Bank. (1998). A Study of Secondary Education in Jamaica: Improving Quality and Expanding Access. World Bank,Washington D.C.

40. See ESSJ, sec. 22.11 for definitions of pre-trained and untrained teachers.The untrained teacher has a Secondary School Certificateonly; the pre-trained has a degree but not a teaching certification.


MOEY&C and the Jamaica TeachersAssociation to improve the quality of teachersseem to be reaping benefits as the number oftrained university graduates in the systemgrew by 16 percent in 2003 (ESSJ, 2003).

HIGH RATE OF ABSENTEEISM The system continues to be plagued by anexceedingly high rate of absenteeism inschool. The average daily absence for schoolsin Jamaica is 21.75 percent (ESSJ, sec 22.7).The absence rate for primary schools is 19.8percent, for all-age schools is 25 percent, andfor junior high schools is 23.1 percent. Girlshave a lower rate of absence than do boys inall schools types. This has been the pattern foryears with limited fluctuations either ways.

Absenteeism in secondary schools is at anaverage daily rate of 22.6 percent, with thelowest rate of (15.7%) being for girls intechnical high schools. This rate increases

progressively through secondary and juniorhigh schools to a high of 32 percent in all-ageschools. Boys have the lowest rate of 16.9percent absence in technical high schools andincreases similar to that of girls to a high of37.1 percent in all-age schools.

The major reason students gave for beingabsent from school over the years and in 2002were “money problems” (JSLC, sec. 3.7), andthis study echoes that finding. Moneyproblems occur disproportionately with thepoor, and their access to the system is thussimilarly skewed. The JSLC reports (2002)that 38.6 percent of the poorest quintile intheir survey stayed away from school becauseof financial hardship, compared to only 6.9percent of the wealthiest quintile.

Girls have a lower

rate of absence

than do boys in all

schools types.


The Task Force on

Education Reform was

appointed by the Prime

Minister of Jamaica in

February 2004 to

propose reforms to the

Jamaican education

system that were

consistent with “a

vision for the creation

of a world-class

education system

which will generate the

human capital and

produce the skills

necessary for the

Jamaican citizen to

compete in the global

economy.”

21FINDINGS

The findings presented in this sectionare drawn from the nine focus-groupdiscussions, the research on gender

and education, and the data reviewed.Additionally, the discussion takes account ofthe findings and recommendations from theTFER. The TFER was appointed by thePrime Minister of Jamaica in February 2004to propose reforms to the Jamaican educationsystem that were consistent with “a vision forthe creation of a world-class education systemwhich will generate the human capital andproduce the skills necessary for the Jamaicancitizen to compete in the global economy.”The Task Force completed its report inSeptember 2004 and its findings becameavailable to the public in December 2004.

The findings are discussed under the broadheadings: (i) Positive Accomplishments in theEducation System, (ii) Overall Issues in theSystem; (iii) Gender-Related Issues in theTeaching and Learning Environment; and (iv)Effects of Gender Roles on Boys and Girls.

POSITIVEACCOMPLISHMENTS IN THEEDUCATION SYSTEM Some positive things have taken place in theJamaican Education System over the decade ofthe nineties, as enunciated by the educationand donor/lender focus groups and carried inthe report of the TFER. These include:

Revised curricula and national assessmentprograms at the primary and secondarylevels of the education system;

The introduction of universal secondaryeducation with the exodus of the CommonEntrance Examination and the advent ofthe Grade Six Achievement Test;

Initiation of the Grade Four Literacy Testto stem the practice of automaticallypromoting children with very low literacyskills to the higher grades;

Provision of a wider range of technicalopportunities, especially through theHEART/NTA;

Increased partnership with the privatesector, which, according to the TFER,resulted in “a capital investment ineducation worth over 200-billion dollars atreplacement value;”

Convergence of the ruling and oppositionparties in the House of Representatives inOctober 2003 in a unanimouscommitment to increase significantly theallocations to public education over thenext five years;

The establishment of a shared Vision forEducation in Jamaica in 2004 through aprocess of nationwide consultation, whichstates that:

“Each learner will maximize his/herpotential in an enriching, learner-centered education environment withmaximum use of learning technologiessupported by committed, qualified,competent, effective, and professionaleducators and staff.”

FINDINGS

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMFINDINGS 22

“The education system will be equitableand accessible with full attendance toGrade 11. Accountability, transparencyand performance are the hallmarks of asystem that is excellent, self-sustainingand resourced and welcomes fullstakeholder participation. The systemproduces full literacy and numeracy, aglobally competitive, quality workforce,and a disciplined, culturally aware andethical Jamaican citizenry.”

The establishment of an all-embracingEducation Goal that promises: “aneducation which facilitates life-longlearning and acquisition of social and lifeskills for all.”

AT-RISK PROGRAMSIn addition to the positive happenings notedabove, the principals, teachers, and studentsinvolved in the New Horizon for PrimarySchool and the Uplifting Adolescent Projectshad high praise for both. These programs weredesigned and developed with the perspectivethat students and parents were integral to, andkey participants in, both the design andimplementation of the programs. Theseprograms were based on the needs of thewhole person: Children were involved in thefocus and the communication sessions, andthe students expressed their views on subjectsand course content. Counseling andrelationship building between students andadults were key components to the success ofthese programs. In the two at-risks programsobserved, participants reported that neitherboys nor girls were beaten or treated harshly.Key to these programs was a focus on learningrather than teaching.

OVERALL ISSUES IN THE SYSTEM

LOW LEVELS OF ACADEMICACHIEVEMENTThe study shows an education system that hasbeen failing across all groups irrespective ofschool type. This is reflected in anunacceptably low level of academicachievement among both boys and girls atvarious grade levels in all types of schools. TheTFER report supports this finding with thesubmission that “…the most pressing issue isthe chronic underachievement of the systemin terms of the large number of studentsperforming below their grade level.” In thiscontext, the consensus among all concerned isthat the abysmally low level of literacy, whichpersists throughout primary schools and intothe secondary levels of the system, is thenumber-one issue to be addressed. Describingthis phenomenon, the TFER states: “The factthat about one in every two primary schoolleavers is considered illiterate is alarming.”

WEAKNESSES IN TEACHING OF READINGOne major issue relating to literacy, whichkept recurring in the teachers’ focus groupsand in discussions with school principals, isthat teachers find it difficult to teach readingunder the new integrated primary schoolcurriculum. Additionally, the schools havelimited facilities/provisions for undertakingremedial reading and have difficultyconvincing the MOEY&C of the need foradditional resources in this respect.

According to the

TFER report, “…the

most pressing issue is

the chronic

underachievement

of the system

in terms of the large

number of students

performing below

their grade level.”

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 23FINDINGS

MULTIPLE PROBLEMS IMPACTINGTHE EDUCATION SYSTEMApart from the low literacy levels, the studyalso indicated five major challenges (at item 7in the body of the report) that have negativeimpacts on the education system andcompromise both the ability of teachers toteach and the potential of boys and girls tolearn. These include:

Enrollment exceeding school capacity at alllevels of the system (except for all-ageschools) from a low of 23 percent to a highof 55 percent. A related issue here is thelarge class sizes, which are much higherthan that of many other countries in theCaribbean;

Very limited numbers of the eligible cohort(34.6% of the terminal grade) beingenrolled and achieving in the CXCexaminations;

Extremely low performance of upgradedsecondary schools compared to traditionalhigh schools;

Too many pre-trained or untrained teachersin the education system, that is,approximately 13 percent at the primaryand 21 percent at the secondary level; and

High rates of absenteeism from school withincreasingly higher rates for boys at thehigher levels of the system.

VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLSAccording to feedback from members of thevarious focus groups, violence in schools andhouseholds and communities is a serious issuefor education. Educators lamented the manycases of students carrying weapons to schooleither to attack other students or to defendthemselves. They also expressed concern at thelevel of physical attacks of students onteachers. They expressed strong concern thatthe pervasiveness of violence in society, thehome, and the media and the overall

masculinized culture all contribute tochildren’s perceptions of themselves, to theirlife prospects and goals, and to sustaininggender inequalities.

GENDER-RELATED ISSUESIN THE TEACHING ANDLEARNING SITUATION

INSENSITIVITY IN THE CLASSROOMENVIRONMENTMany of the children, especially those frominner-city communities, described ahumiliating environment in which childrenare stigmatized based on the poor, violence-ridden communities in which they live and ontheir inability to read. They reportedinsensitive remarks by teachers who deliveredtelling blows to children’s egos andcontributed to their lack of energy andenthusiasm to participate in and attendschool.

LIMITED TEACHERUNDERSTANDING OF GENDER ISSUESThe study found that teachers had limitedunderstanding of the impact of genderdynamics on educational achievement andoutcomes. The focus group participants—both teachers and educational experts—reported that teachers had limitedunderstanding, knowledge, and trainingrelated to boys’ and girls’ emotional needs.

REPRESENTATION OF BOYS AND GIRLS The data shows that, while boys and girls havelow achievement and attendance levels, boyslag behind girls in almost all areas. There is avery disproportionate representation of boyscompared to girls among children whoperform below grade levels in almost allschool types and examinations. The exception

The focus group

participants—both

teachers and

educational experts—

reported that teachers

had limited

understanding,

knowledge, and

training related to

boys’ and girls’

emotional needs.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMFINDINGS 24

where boys perform better than girls is at theCXC examination in mathematics and scienceand in certain vocational areas.

Girls outstrip boys in school attendance at alllevels of the system, and the presence of boysdiminishes disproportionately to that of girlsas children move from primary school tohigher levels of the system. Given that beingpresent is a pre-requisite to access, boys’absenteeism places them at a seriousdisadvantage relative to the benefits of theeducation system.

The question was posed to focus groups as towhy boys in particular drop out of school.Participant responses included the following:shifting households, the challenges in theformal education system, literacy problems,the pull of get-rich-quick images as portrayedby popular “heroes” and other males in theirenvironment. They also pointed to thedifferential expectations and treatment of boysand girls in the homes and schools, playinginto stereotypes as described in the followingsection. In response to poverty-related issuesof lack of school uniforms, books, and the likeand in the context of societal expectation thatmales are to be providers/breadwinners, boysare absent from school or drop-out in searchof income and employment.

EFFECT OF GENDER ROLESON BOYS AND GIRLSThe study found that parents, teachers andchildren hold strong, traditional, gender-stereotypical ideas of the roles, responsibilities,choices, and life outcomes for males andfemales. These ideas inform child-rearingpatterns, expectations of and responses to boysand girls in the teaching and learningenvironment, and become “self-fulfillingprophecies” that are reinforced andperpetuated. The concern lies in that thesetraditional gender-socialization messagescontribute negatively to boys’ and girls’

educational achievement. Some discussantssaid that girls perform more favorably inprevailing (traditional) classrooms because theyare conditioned to follow directions, sit nicelyin their chairs, and listen to the teachers. Boys,on the other hand, are expected to misbehave,are severely reprimanded and humiliated, skipschool or drop out completely, and have lowself-esteem.

BOYS The responses from parents and teachers andthe children themselves showed clear gendermessages and expectations for boys. Overall,the view was that boys had to be tough,should have more freedom, and were notexpected to have high academic achievements.

The boys themselves internalized and acceptedthat certain roles and treatment were inkeeping with them being boys. Theyresponded to the question of what it meant tobe a boy with answers such as: “being hardand strong,” “being a hero,” “being tough.”and “having more responsibility.”

We will recall that Figueroa indicated in hisfindings that being labeled as “bad” meantnegative reinforcement for boys at home andat school, just as being labeled as “tough”meant, “being punished more severely andmore often.”

Boys in the focus groups reported being onthe receiving end of harsh physical and verbaltreatment by parents, teachers, and otheradults. A consensus among the focus groupswas that boys were usually punished moreoften and harder than were girls. However,boys definitely do not like this part of being aboy. According to some of the boys, “teacherslook down on us and treat us like we are bad.”From other boys we heard statements like:“teachers make us kneel in the sun” and“kneel and get licks.” “Society treats youtough like we don’t have emotions,” remarkeda young boy in a rural school.

The study found that

parents, teachers and

children hold strong,

traditional, gender-

stereotypical ideas of

the roles,

responsibilities,

choices, and life

outcomes for males

and females.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 25FINDINGS

All focus groups, including the boysthemselves, reported that boys wear the labelof being lazy and not attentive to study. Theyindicate that this results in low self-esteem,low academic achievement, dismal test results,low literacy levels, being streamed intoremedial classes, and continuing to fall behindgirls academically.

GIRLS The study also found clear stereotypicalgender socialization patterns and expectationsfor females. Study findings correlate positivelywith Figueroa’s notion of “male privileging”where females are seen and treated as “weak,submissive, suited to the private sphere,sensitive, caring, and in need of protection.”Gender expectations and roles, echoedthroughout the focus groups, were expressedin such messages as: “girls know they arespecial”; “girls have more self-esteem”; “moreis expected from girls”; “girls take up theirbooks”; “girls are dainty”; “girls are sensitive,respectful, and kind”; “girls are treated better

than the boys by parents and teachers”; and“girls are not expected to be breadwinners.”

All focus-group participants reported that girlsget more encouragement, support, and helpwith homework. At first glance, it would seemthat conditions for girls were more or lessbetter than for the boys. However, as Figueroasuggests, girls are prepared and expected toconform to a culture that restricts them to theprivate sphere. A student focus groupsreported that girls have significantly morehousehold responsibilities from an early agethan do their male counterparts. Further, girlsreported being more restricted in theirmovements than boys are. Also, all girls’ focusgroups shared the persistent complaint ofmale harassment and of not feeling safe on thestreets. Comments included: “girls fit better,”“girls are inside cleaning house,” “girls areheld tight,” “girls are given moreresponsibility,” “girls do more homework,”and “girls have babies.”

Boys in the focus

groups reported being

on the receiving end of

harsh physical and

verbal treatment by

parents, teachers, and

other adults.A

consensus among the

focus groups was that

boys were usually

punished more often

and harder than

were girls.



The findings of this

assessment suggest that

achieving “best

practice” will depend

on a strategy that is

informed by analyses

of, and interventions to

meet, the needs of both

boys and girls.

27RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations aregeared toward maximizing resourcesand avoiding overlap by building on

prior and current achievements in Jamaica’seducation sector and creating synergies withother efforts in the sector. In this vein, weendorse the recommendations of the TFERunder the headings of Government andManagement, Curriculum, Teaching andLearning Support, Stakeholder Participation,and Finance, along with TFER’srecommendation for the promotion ofsynergies.

The following specific recommendationsemerged from the assessment.

We strongly recommend, based on thefindings of the research, that USAID shouldcontinue to develop and implement programsin the education sector under SO 4 and withthe IRs indicated below, but with adjustmentsto focus on the specific needs of boys and girlsas outlined below.

Strategic Objective 4 (SO 4): IncreasingLiteracy and Numeracy among TargetedJamaican Youth

IR: 1 Improved Quality of Teaching

IR2: Increased School Attendance

IR3: Improved Management of Schools

IR4.4: Number of NGOs DeliveringServices to At-Risk Youth

MAINSTREAM GENDER IN USAID STRATEGIC OBJECTIVESFOR EDUCATIONMechanisms are needed to mainstream genderspecific analysis and interventions intoUSAID/Jamaica’s Strategic Objectives to movetoward addressing the particular concerns ofboth boys and girls in education. Muchconcern is being expressed in various quartersin Jamaica, about the education system ingeneral and male underachievement inparticular. One possible outcome of thediscussions is a move towards interventionsthat improve the performance of males andignore the needs of females. The findings ofthis assessment suggest that achieving “bestpractice” will depend on a strategy that isinformed by analyses of, and interventions tomeet, the needs of both groups of learners.

USAID/Jamaica should position itself to playa leadership role in addressing boys’ needs,without compromising the educational needsof girls, by recognizing and taking a gender-equality approach to its planned interventions.The new strategy should emphasizecommunity partnerships and linkages as wellas synergies with other strategic interventions.

A set of gender-mainstreaming strategiesshould be developed for inclusion in thedesign of programs in SO 12 ofUSAID/Jamaica’s new strategy 2005–2009(532-012). Moreover, the language and designof the Education Results Framework shouldincorporate a gender-equality perspective. Inparticular, USAID/Jamaica may wish toconsider the inclusion of a gender-specificIntermediate Result with supporting

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 28

indicators. This would entail includingobjectives, outputs, and activities that focusexpressly on the promotion of gender equalityin the design of USAID/Jamaica’s educationprojects. The design would also presentappropriate indicators to measure progress andimpact in the implementation of thesegender-based activities.

DEVELOP AND/OR SUPPORTIMPLEMENTATION OF GENDERTRAINING MODULES This study found that parents, teachers,principals, and students hold traditional viewson the roles, expected behaviors, andresponsibilities of males and females and thatthese views influence their actions,interactions, and relationships in ways thatperpetuate inequitable, gender-specificoutcomes. Therefore, a majorrecommendation is for an intervention thatcan:

Provide information on gender socializationand its impact on males and females andthus increase awareness of gender dynamicsamong parents, teachers, principals, andstudents;

Sensitize parents and educators to the needfor and strategies to achieve equitable andfair treatment of boys and girls in bothhome and school settings;

Provide technical assistance to schools toenable them to incorporate gender analysisin their School Development Planningprocess and to develop strategies thataddress the confidence and self-esteem ofboth boys and girls and improve theirachievement in traditional and non-traditional subjects; and

Sensitize students to gender issues throughthe schools’ life skills curricula and otherexisting programs; provide students with anopportunity to make choices that are not

based on traditional gender stereotypes; andimprove gender relations among studentsand enable them to learn and expressthemselves in both single-sex and co-educational settings.

BUILD CAPACITY OF EDUCATORSTO CREATE CHILD-CENTEREDCLASSROOMSThis study recommends building schools’capacity to encourage and implement child-centered classrooms. While too-large classsizes often compromise an optimal learningenvironment, teachers also need help inidentifying and implementing strategies tomeet students’ needs and enliven the learningexperience. During this research, the teamvisited schools, such as the St. Peter ClaverPrimary School, that are working toward thisgoal despite difficult social and environmentalcircumstances. The efforts of such schoolsneed to be documented, supported,publicized, and generalized with appropriateadaptations to suit different contexts.

EXPAND INTERVENTIONS WITH AFOCUS ON LITERACYThe USAID/Jamaica-funded project, NewHorizons for Primary Schools, and therecently completed DFID-funded Jamaica All-Age Schools Project, have strong literacystrategies that need to be more widelydisseminated among teachers. This studyindicates the critical need to continue thefocus on improving literacy, with greateremphasis on the early childhood years andprimary grades 1 through 4. This focus,linked to the gender training module, wouldemphasize the importance of reading andliteracy as a life skill for both boys and girls.Given the existing low levels of literacy,USAID may wish to support therecommendation of the TFER for theimplementation of a remedial literacyprogram.

While too-large

class sizes often

compromise an

optimal learning

environment, teachers

also need help in

identifying and

implementing

strategies to meet

students’ needs and

enliven the learning

experience.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 29RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

BUILD ON SUCCESSFUL AT-RISK PROGRAMSThe study recommends continuing supportfor at-risk programs. Two programs, the NewHorizons for Primary Schools Project and theUplifting Adolescents Project, have existingmechanisms of counseling, group discussion,and decision-making. They address the needsof poor-performing students, youths at risk ofdropping out of school, and others who havealready dropped out of school. Theseprograms should incorporate modules forgender equality training, aimed at fosteringpositive and supportive relationships, intotheir HIV/AIDS, health and/or family lifeeducation curricula.

SUPPORT NATIONAL FORAWith the publication and presentation to theParliament of the findings andrecommendations of the TFER, an importantnext step will be the facilitation of publiceducation and discussion on therecommendations that are advocating a radicaloverhaul of the system. Gender equity ineducation is a necessary and importantcomponent of such an overhaul. How this isto be achieved is a matter of debate currentlyin Jamaica, but is not explicitly addressed inthe report of the Task Force. USAID couldtherefore make a valuable contribution to thenational discussion and decision-making bysupporting national fora of stakeholders to:

Become informed about therecommendations of the Task Force, and, inthat context, the analysis, findings, andrecommendations of this report; and

Discuss, debate, and form understandingand consensus on the best strategies forachieving gender equality in education aspart of the recommended overhaul of thesystem.

SUPPORT PROGRAMS TOSTRENGTHEN STAKEHOLDERINVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOLSThe MOEY&C has implemented projectsaimed at increasing community involvementin the development of schools, however theseprojects do not seem to have extended beyondthe pilot phase despite demonstratedeffectiveness. USAID should assist theMOEY&C to review those models (such asthe SCOPE project, the Adopt-A-SchoolProgramme, and the like) with a view toreintroducing and/or expanding the relevant,successful components throughout theeducation system.

SUPPORT GENDER-SENSITIVECURRICULUM REVIEW/REFORMThe MOEY&C has ongoing programs forcurriculum reform, and the HEART/NTAtakes part in strengthening technical highschool curricula. USAID could add value tothese efforts by providing support for activitiesaimed at achieving gender-balanced curricula,with strategies for achieving equitablerepresentation of boys and girls in all areas.This goal would necessitate targeted outreachto students to increase enrollment in non-traditional courses of study.

PROMOTE TRANSFORMATIONALLEADERSHIP TRAININGOn visits to schools, the researchers observedthat a critical factor in the performance ofprincipals and teachers was their vision andsense of mission. Collaboration amongprincipals and teachers to create a challengingand supportive learning environment; clear,fair, and consistently applied rules; and apattern of including all stakeholders—educators, students, and parents—in thedecision-making process and holding themaccountable for “doing their part” consistentlyresulted in better student outcomes. This heldtrue even when compared to other schools in

With the publication

and presentation to

the Parliament of the

findings and

recommendations of

the TFER, an

important next step

will be the facilitation

of public education

and discussion on the

recommendations that

are advocating a

radical overhaul of the

system. Gender equity

in education is a

necessary and

important component

of such an overhaul.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 30

similar settings with poor outcomes. Thisstudy recommends transformationalleadership training—not to be confused withmanagement training—for principals andother staff members. Research reveals thateffective leadership is key to change andreform in schools. Further, the far-reachingrecommendations of the Task Force onEducation will demand a new, visionary typeof school leadership to be implementedsuccessfully. As part of the process oftransforming leadership and the culture ofschools, we recommend giving support tosustaining and expanding the “Change fromWithin” Programme so that it has system-wide implementation.

STRENGTHEN OVERALL TEACHER TRAININGWe propose the development andstrengthening of pre-service and in-servicetraining curricula that address child-centeredlearning environments, teaching of reading inthe integrated curriculum at the primary level,and gender sensitization. This could beachieved in collaboration with activitiesalready underway, for example, with teachersparticipating in the CETT program. Inparticular, existing USAID projects shouldintegrate gender sensitization trainingmodules into all teacher-training activities andshould support the efforts of the Centre forGender and Development Studies, Universityof West Indies , to develop and implementsuch modules for use in teachers’ colleges.

SUPPORT MOEY&C EFFORTS TO RECRUIT AND TRAIN MALE TEACHERS To respond directly to the dearth of maleteachers and role models across the educationsystem, we recommend that the MOEY&Cimplement special measures for recruitingmore male teachers. Our field research foundthat, while female teachers agreed with the

need for more male teachers and role models,they were adamant that their recruitmentshould not be on a basis that creates inequitiesin remuneration and other conditions of workfor male and female teachers. One strategy tohelp increase the number of male teacherswithout compromising equity in theprofession would be a targetedpromotional/publicity campaign highlightingthe benefits of teaching as a career option formales. USAID should consider hostingconsultations with the MOEY&C andrelevant stakeholders to examine the feasibilityof a publicity campaign aimed at sensitizingmales to the impact they could have onchildren’s future as positive role models.Current male teachers could be highlightedand used as spokespersons. Such a campaignwould contribute to a positive step forward indispelling myths that education is not“macho” and may help make schooling moreattractive for male learners.

SUPPORT A NATIONALMENTORSHIP FOR STUDENTSPROGRAM Existing USAID partners, such as YouthOpportunities Unlimited, have a strong trackrecord in the implementation of mentoringprograms. A special thrust to recruit malementors and to provide both male and femalementors with gender-sensitivity training couldhave positive impacts on boys’ and girls’ self-esteem, motivation, and performance.

STRENGTHEN USAID’SEVALUATION PROCEDURESAs in the current SO, USAID shouldcontinue to focus on developing andstrengthening evaluation mechanisms in orderto gauge what works and what should beimproved with respect to gender-related andother indicators in education.

One strategy to help

increase the number

of male teachers

without compromising

equity in the

profession would be a

targeted promotional/

publicity campaign

highlighting the

benefits of teaching as

a career option

for males.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 31RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

FOSTER COLLABORATIONBETWEEN NATIONAL ANDCOMMUNITY LEVELS Building on existing national networks andexpertise, opportunities for district- andcommunity-level educators and administratorsshould be created. Further, support forcollaboration between NGOs and otherimplementers at the community level wouldcontribute to building local capacity.

CONCLUSIONThis study finds that:

Gender stereotypes influence teachingmethods, curricular content, and classroominteractions among students and betweenstudents and teachers, and

Gender dynamics significantly drive andinfluence expectations and outcomes forboys and girls at home, the school, and theworkplace.

The research reviewed, conducted, andanalyzed for this study clearly shows that boyswill more likely experience educational failurethan girls will, but that a significantpercentage of girls do not fare much better.Contrary to popular belief that girls succeed

at the expense of boys, the findings of thisstudy indicate that a high proportion of maleand female students fail to meet or exceedacademic expectations. In many ways,therefore, the debate about whether boys orgirls are most disadvantaged in Jamaicanschools masks the reality that most schoolsprovide poor education for both.

These findings beg an immediate response.USAID/Jamaica can play a key role in helpingto redress the negative gender dynamics inschooling so that boys and girls have equalopportunity to achieve their fullest potential.

The ultimate objective of educational reformin Jamaica should be to improve the quality ofthe education system and raise the bar for allstudents—to the benefit of all learners, bothmale and female. The findings of this study,with respect to gender equality in theeducation system in Jamaica, suggest the needfor interventions that can produce a teaching-learning environment that meets the needs ofall male and female children, including at-riskyouths. Interventions should also broadlymobilize stakeholders at every level, butespecially in the school communities, to builda critical mass of support and leadership forchange in education.

The ultimate objective

of educational reform

in Jamaica should be

to improve the quality

of the education

system and raise the

bar for all students—

to the benefit of all

learners, both male

and female.


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Bailey. B. (2000). Issues of Gender and Education inJamaica: What about the Boys? UNESCO, Kingston,Jamaica.

Bailey, B. & Brown, M. (1997). “Reengineering thePrimary Curriculum in Jamaica: ImprovingEffectiveness.” Caribbean Journal of Education 19 Vol. 2:147–161 UWI, Mona.

Barriteau, V. E. (2000). Re-examining Issues of MaleMarginalization and Masculinity In the Caribbean: TheNeed for a New Policy. Working Paper No. 4, Centre forGender and Development Studies, UWI, Mona.

Bryan, B. & Mitchell, I. (1999). Inter-Agency NationalLiteracy Improvement Initiative. Education ResourceCentre, School of Education, UWI, Mona.

Bryan, B. & Mitchell, I. (1999). Literacy Development inJamaica, Background Paper for Department forInternational Development (DFID). School of Education,UWI, Mona.

Caribbean Group for Cooperation in EconomicDevelopment. (2002). Youth Development in theCaribbean. Discussion Draft Report No. 24163-LACCaribbean Country Management Unit Latin Americaand the Caribbean Region. The World Bank.

Chevannes, B. (1999). What We Sow and What We Reap:Problems in the Cultivation of Male Identity in Jamaica.Grace Kennedy Foundation Lecture Series.

Davis, R. (2004). Task Force on Educational ReformJamaica. A Transformed Education System. 2004 ReportPresented to the Most Hon. P. J, Patterson, ON, PC,QC, MP.

Dunn, L.(2002). Jamaica Situation of Children inProstitution: A Rapid Assessment: International Programmeon the Elimination of Child Labour Investigating the WorstForms of Child Labour. International Labour Organization(ILO).

Evans, H. (1999). Gender and Achievement in SecondaryEducation in Jamaica. Working Paper No. 2, PolicyDevelopment Unit Planning Institute of Jamaica.

Evans, H. (2003). Assessment of the Institutional Capacity ofthe Jamaican Primary Education System. USAID,Kingston, Jamaica.

Figueroa, M. (2000). Making Sense of Male Experience: TheCase of Academic Underachievement in the English-Speaking Caribbean. IDS Bulletin, Vol. 31, No 2University of East Anglia, UK.

Grieshaber, S. (2004). Issues Paper on Inclusion of GenderPerspectives in Family Education. UNESCO. Centre forApplied Studies in Early Childhood, QueenslandUniversity of Technology, Victoria Park Road. KelvinGrove, Queensland 4059, Australia. http://www.unescobkk.org/gender/gender/documents/report2004/GenderPerspective.pdf

IDS Bulletin. (2000). Masculinities and Development,Politics, Policies and Practice. Vol. 31, No 2. PatrickWarwick Co. Ltd., London SEI, UK.

Insights Education. (2000). “Jamaican Boys BehavingBadly: Changing Schools to Change Male Behaviour—Community Development Research,” Insights Education,Issue No. 2. Kingston, Jamaica.

Jamaica Employers Federation. (1995). Optimizing theContribution of Women to the Jamaican Workplace. Reporton the Symposium JEF, Kingston.

King, R. & Morrissey, M. (1998). Images in Print: Biasand Prejudice in Caribbean Textbooks. Institute of Social& Economic Research (ISER), UWI, Mona.

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Kutnick, P., Jules, V & Layne, A. (1997). Gender andSchool Achievement in the Caribbean. Department forInternational Development Serial # 21.

Miller, E. (2000). “Retaining Boys in School—Developing aModel of Intervention,” Institute of Education, Vol.3.UWI, Mona.

Miller, E. (1998). Education Reform in IndependentJamaica: Themes in Education Reform in the Populist Era.UWI, Mona

Miller, E. (1991). Men at Risk. Jamaica Publishing House,Kingston Jamaica

Miller, E. (1986). Marginalization of the Black JamaicanMale. Kingston Publishers, Jamaica

Ministry of Education Youth & Culture. (2000). Directoryof Projects of the Ministry of Education Youth and Culture.Programming and Evaluation Unit, MOEY&C.

Ministry of Education Youth & Culture. (2003). JamaicaEducation Statistics 2000–2003 Statistics Section,Planning and Development Division, MOEY&C.

National Centre for Youth Development. (2002). Youth inJamaica: Meeting Their DevelopmentNeeds: Focus on YoungAdults Program, Pathfinder International. MOEY&CPolicy II Project.

Noibe, W. & Chu, J., eds. (2004). Adolescent BoysExploring Diverse Cultures of Boyhood. New YorkUniversity Press.

Pantin, D. (2000). Revisiting the Challenge of YouthEmployment in the Caribbean. Revised Study for theInternational Labour Office (ILO), Caribbean Office.

Parry, O. (2000). Male Underachievement in High SchoolEducation in Jamaica, Barbados and St. Vincent and theGrenadines. Canoe Press, UWI, Mona.

Planning Institute of Jamaica, Canadian DevelopmentAgency & United Nations Development Program.(2000). The Construction of Gender DevelopmentIndicators for Jamaica. Planning Institute of Jamaica.

Planning Institute of Jamaica. (2002). The JamaicanChild—A Report of the Social Indicators MonitoringSystem. Policy Research Unit PIOJ, National Library ofJamaica.

Planning Institute of Jamaica & Statistical Institute ofJamaica (STATIN). (2003). Jamaica Survey of LivingConditions 2002, PIOJ & STATIN.

Planning Institute of Jamaica. (2004). Economic and SocialSurvey Jamaica 2003, PIOJ.

Planning Institute of Jamaica. (2004). JA People—Males inFocus: A Newsletter of the Social & Manpower Division. Vol.9 No. 1 PIOJ

United States Agency for International Development(USAID/Jamaica). (1995). Baseline Project for UpliftingAdolescents Demographic and Ethnographic Analyses.USAID/Jamaica.

United States Agency for International Development.(2004). Achieving Equality in Education: SituationAnalysis Identifying and Building Programs to PromoteUSAID Programming for Achieving Equally in BasicEducation. USAID.

United States Agency for International Development(Kingston). Annual Report. Strategic Objective No. 4Education Results Framework, pp. 33–40, USAID,Kingston.

World Bank. (1998). A Study of Secondary Education inJamaica: Improving Quality and Expanding Access. WorldBank, Washington D.C.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 35ANNEX 1

ANNEX I:THE FORMAL PUBLICEDUCATION SYSTEM IN JAMAICA:ORGANIZATION CHARTAGE BY SINGLE YEAR

Kindergarten

Basic

Infant

Primary, Grades 1-6

All Age, Grades 1-9

Primary & Junior High Grades 1-9

Special

IInnddeeppeennddeenntt,, PPrreeppaarraattoorryy aanndd HHiigghh,, GGrraaddeess 11 --1111//1133 ((VVaarriieess aaccccoorrddiinngg ttoo iinnddiivviidduuaall sscchhoooollss))

Jnr High, Grades 7-9

Secondary High, Grades 7 or 13

Technical High, Grades 7 or 8-11/12

Agricultural High Grades 10-11 or 12

Commercial & Secretarial (Independent)

Community Colleges

Teachers’ Colleges

Multi-Disciplinary Colleges

GG..CC.. FFoosstteerr CCoolllleeggee ooff PPhhyyssiiccaall EEdduuccaattiioonn && SSppoorrttss

CCoolllleeggee ooff AAggrriiccuullttuurree , Science & Education

EEddnnaa MMaannlleeyy CCoolllleeggee ooff tthhee VViissuuaall && PPeerrffoorrmmiinngg AArrttss

University of Technology

University of the West Indies 5,6

Classification of level of education provided in each type of institution indicated by number preceding type, using U.N.E.S.C.O’s International Standard Classification of Education (I.S.C.E.D):

0 Pre-primary Education1 First Stage of Basic Education (Primary)2 Secondary Stage of Basic Education (Lower Secondary)3 Upper Secondary Education4 Post-secondary non-tertiary Education5 First Stage of Tertiary Education6 Second Stage of Tertiary Education

NNootteess::

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21+

0

0

1

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2, 3, 4

2

2, 3, 4

2, 3

3

4

4, 5

5

4, 5

5

5

5

5,6

0

Source:: “Jamaica Education Statistics 2001 – 2002, Annual Statistical Review” Ministry of Education and Culture, Kingston, Jamaica, Page 6.

Kindergarten

Basic

Infant

Primary, Grades 1-6

All Age, Grades 1-9


Special







Community Colleges










NNootteess::

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21+

0

0

1

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2, 3, 4

2

2, 3, 4

2, 3

3

4

4, 5

5

4, 5

5

5

5

5,6

0

Kindergarten

Basic

Infant

Primary, Grades 1-6

All Age, Grades 1-9


Special







Community Colleges










NNootteess::

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21+

0

0

1

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2

1, 2, 3, 4

2

2, 3, 4

2, 3

3

4

4, 5

5

4, 5

5

5

5

5,6

0

Source:: “Jamaica Education Statistics 2001 – 2002, Annual Statistical Review” Ministry of Education and Culture, Kingston, Jamaica, Page 6.

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMANNEX II36

ANNEX II: FLOW CHART OF THEFORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEMUWI & UTECH PRE-PRIMARY, PRIMARY, SECONDARY,AND TERTIARY LEVELS

Tertiary Level

Secondary Level

C.A.S.EC.A.S.E

Teachers’ College

Teachers’ College

G.C. FosterC.P.E. & S

G.C. FosterC.P.E. & S

Multi-Disciplinary College

Multi-Disciplinary College

Community College

Community College

E. ManleyC.V. & P.A.E. Manley

C.V. & P.A.

Early Childhood Level

7 8 9 10 11 1312

♦Principal’s DiscretionΟGrade Six Achievement Test (G.S.A.T. 11+)•Grade 9 Achievement Test (G.N.A.T: 13+) / Junior High School Certificate Exam

Common Entrance Examination (C.E.E. 13+)? G.C.E “O” LevelφSecondary School Certificate (S.S.C)

Caribbean Examinations Council (C.X.C)G.C.E. “A” Levels / C.A.P.E.Vocational Examination

⇒Free Flow

U.W.I.&

UTECH

⇒

Ο7 8

10 11 12

1110987

Technical High

Secondary High Secondary High

Junior High, All Age Primary & Junior High

Agricultural High

Infant, Basic & Kindergarten

Primary Level

1 2 3 4 5

Primary, All Age, Primary & Jnr High, Preparatory

6

?

9

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 37ANNEX III

ANNEX III: EDUCATION SECTORPROGRAMS (1993–2007)

Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP)

Grades 1 to 6 Primary & All-Age schools

Language Arts Curriculum review, National Assessment Programmedevelopment, Schools Library & Civil Works

US$28.0M.NDF, OPEC,USAID, GOJ

Sept 1993 to Sept 1999

Income Generating Project

Primary & Secondary Schools

Income Generation as revolving fund; equipment purchase or refurbishing

J$11.0 M MOEY&C Ongoing

Technical & Vocational Education & Training Rationalization Project

Jose Marti Technical High (Pilot)

Curriculum revision, Improved Machinery and equipment for practical training, Computer Aided Design (CAD)

J$37,940,000Japan Intern. Corp. Agency & GOJ

May 1997 To June 2002 (5 years)

Technical High School Development Project

Secondary Schools Grades 10 & 11

Develop profiles for 16 schoolsRecommend school clustersOptimal mix of vocational subjects per school & cost estimates for tools and equipment

US$5.6 MMOEY&C and HEART/NTA

Oct. 1997 To Oct. 2001 (3 years)

Child Health Education & Development Project (CHED)

440 Primary schools Grades 1 to 6 all parishes

Infusion of healthy living lessons in primary school curriculum

Not known

TMRU U.W.I. UNICEF Italian Health Corp. Mother & Child Health Programme

1979 to 1989

Ongoing

Reform of Secondary Education (ROSE) Project

Secondary Schools 7-9

10 & 11 Pilot

Curriculum development, Teacher Training, Student Assessment, Civil Works (Refurbish 28 schools, build 3 new ones) Guidance and Counseling, Text Books provision, Resource and Technology and Evaluation

J$38 MWorld Bank and MOEY&C

1993 to 2000

2001 – 2003 -2007

Competency Shelter Project

Primary and All-Age Schools

Remedial work with underachievers JJ$1,510,000UNESCO, UNICEF & MOEY&C

Ongoing

Integration of Day Care & Early Childhood Education

Nurseries, basic schools, infant schools & infant departments, kindergarten

Integration of Early Childhood care and Education Nationwide starting with pilot in St. Catherine and Clarendon

J$6.8 MGOJ, UNICEF & Bernard Van Leer Foundation

Sept 1997 To 2000

EDUNET104 schools of all types

Provide computers, internet access and computer literacy training in schools, develop intranet linkages

J$47 MHEART/NTA MOEY&C

August 1997 to 1998

PPrrooggrraammss TTaarrggeett GGrroouupp FFooccuuss FFuunnddiinngg LLeevveell FFuunnddiinngg AAggeennccyy DDuurraattiioonn

Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP)

Grades 1 to 6 Primary & All-Age schools

Language Arts Curriculum review, National Assessment Programmedevelopment, Schools Library & Civil Works

US$28.0M.NDF, OPEC,USAID, GOJ

Sept 1993 to Sept 1999

Income Generating Project

Primary & Secondary Schools

Income Generation as revolving fund; equipment purchase or refurbishing

J$11.0 M MOEY&C Ongoing

Technical & Vocational Education & Training Rationalization Project

Jose Marti Technical High (Pilot)

Curriculum revision, Improved Machinery and equipment for practical training, Computer Aided Design (CAD)

J$37,940,000Japan Intern. Corp. Agency & GOJ

May 1997 To June 2002 (5 years)

Technical High School Development Project

Secondary Schools Grades 10 & 11

Develop profiles for 16 schoolsRecommend school clustersOptimal mix of vocational subjects per school & cost estimates for tools and equipment

US$5.6 MMOEY&C and HEART/NTA

Oct. 1997 To Oct. 2001 (3 years)

Child Health Education & Development Project (CHED)

440 Primary schools Grades 1 to 6 all parishes

Infusion of healthy living lessons in primary school curriculum

Not known

TMRU U.W.I. UNICEF Italian Health Corp. Mother & Child Health Programme

1979 to 1989

Ongoing

Reform of Secondary Education (ROSE) Project

Secondary Schools 7-9

10 & 11 Pilot

Curriculum development, Teacher Training, Student Assessment, Civil Works (Refurbish 28 schools, build 3 new ones) Guidance and Counseling, Text Books provision, Resource and Technology and Evaluation

J$38 MWorld Bank and MOEY&C

1993 to 2000

2001 – 2003 -2007

Competency Shelter Project


Remedial work with underachievers JJ$1,510,000UNESCO, UNICEF & MOEY&C

Ongoing

Integration of Day Care & Early Childhood Education

Nurseries, basic schools, infant schools & infant departments, kindergarten

Integration of Early Childhood care and Education Nationwide starting with pilot in St. Catherine and Clarendon

J$6.8 MGOJ, UNICEF & Bernard Van Leer Foundation

Sept 1997 To 2000

EDUNET104 schools of all types

Provide computers, internet access and computer literacy training in schools, develop intranet linkages

J$47 MHEART/NTA MOEY&C

August 1997 to 1998


A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMANNEX III38

Family Life Education Curriculum Development Sub-Project

Primary & All-Ages schools

Integrating Health & Family Life in the Curriculum

US$323,735USAID & MOEY&C

Sept. 1996 To Feb. 1999

School Bus ProjectAll children nationwide

Provide safe, reliable transportation for school children

J$2.3 M GOJ1997/98 & Ongoing

New Horizon For Primary Schools Project

72 poor performing Primary schools

Curriculum development, Materials supply, teacher training, school management, technology use in school, Parenting Education

US$14 MUSAID & MOEY&C

August 1997 To May 1995

Primary Education Support Project (PESP)

Primary schools

Teacher training, curriculum implementation, materials supply use of technology in school, use of school administrative software, principals diploma programmed, civil works

IADB & MOEY&C

Dec 2002 to March 2006

Enhancement of Basic Schools Project

Training of Early Child hood Practitioners, parenting education, teacher certification

US$15.8 MCaribbean Development Bank & MOEY&C

2002 to 2005

Jamaica All-Age School Project


Improved School Community relations; improved School management, teacher training

DFID & MOEY&C


Family Life Education Curriculum Development Sub-Project

Primary & All-Ages schools

Integrating Health & Family Life in the Curriculum

US$323,735USAID & MOEY&C

Sept. 1996 To Feb. 1999

School Bus ProjectAll children nationwide

Provide safe, reliable transportation for school children

J$2.3 M GOJ1997/98 & Ongoing

New Horizon For Primary Schools Project

72 poor performing Primary schools

Curriculum development, Materials supply, teacher training, school management, technology use in school, Parenting Education

US$14 MUSAID & MOEY&C

August 1997 To May 1995

Primary Education Support Project (PESP)

Primary schools

Teacher training, curriculum implementation, materials supply use of technology in school, use of school administrative software, principals diploma programmed, civil works

IADB & MOEY&C

Dec 2002 to March 2006

Enhancement of Basic Schools Project

Training of Early Child hood Practitioners, parenting education, teacher certification

US$15.8 MCaribbean Development Bank & MOEY&C

2002 to 2005

Jamaica All-Age School Project


Improved School Community relations; improved School management, teacher training

DFID & MOEY&C

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A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 39ANNEX IV

ANNEX IV:GENDER EQUALITYPLANNING MODEL

Gender Recommendations• Collaboration at all

levels• Capacity building• Policy development

and teacher certification

• Database of research and practice

• A Guiding Manual

Implementation

Gender Equality Modules with discreet activities or initiatives for boys and girls. Facilitated by trained school staff and parents

Quality EducationFor All

Gender Analysis

Benchmarks of Gender Equality

• Opportunities• Resources• Rewards

Outcomes

• Gender equality• Literacy for all• Child Centered

Environment

Evaluation of Gender Plan

• Capacity Building• Leadership Training• Analysis of Gaps• Baseline Data

CapacityPolicies and Procedures

Communication and Collaboration on Gender

InfrastructureToolsResources & Rewards

Public Will & Motivation

Leadership

Gender Recommendations• Collaboration at all

levels• Capacity building• Policy development

and teacher certification

• Database of research and practice

• A Guiding Manual

Implementation

Gender Equality Modules with discreet activities or initiatives for boys and girls. Facilitated by trained school staff and parents

Quality EducationFor All

Gender Analysis

Benchmarks of Gender Equality

• Opportunities• Resources• Rewards

Outcomes

• Gender equality• Literacy for all• Child Centered

Environment

Evaluation of Gender Plan

• Capacity Building• Leadership Training• Analysis of Gaps• Baseline Data





Leadership





Leadership

U.S.Agency for International Development1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20523Tel: (202) 712-0000Fax: (202) 216-3524

www.usaid.gov

Documents

A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT …pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE595.pdf · A GENDER ANALYSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE JAMAICAN EDUCATIONAL