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A general framework for memory
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Short term memory
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Duration: short, about 15-20 sec. -can be lengthened through rehearsalCapacity: 7 + or - 2 -chunking
long term memory
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Not really long term. Some things areconstructed, some last forever.No capacity constraints!Visual, verbal, conceptual, procedural etc.
Individuals represent stimuli in context-
dependent perceptions; these perceptions are
all the reality for the individual
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Knowledge in the individual’s mind (including the
perceptions) is organized into hierarchical
categories
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
The individual understand stimuli by forming
or updating beliefs and expressing
preferences
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Individuals evaluate certain representations;
the evaluation is called a judgment (if it is
operational) or an attitude (if it is not)
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
A general framework for memory
Perceptions Categories Preferences Attitudes
Long Term Memory
Representation
Criteria
Representationof stimuli
Organization ofrepresentations
Comprehensionof representation
Evaluation ofrepresentation
Beliefs
Exposure
Attention
Recall
Other mentalprocesses
Stimuli
Working Memory
Specific memoryeffects
Constructed memory
The memory myth
We usually think about ourautobiographical memory as averidical representation
This is not the case!
Memory is constructed
Evidence (Loftus & Pickrell )
Adult participants were implantedwith a childhood memory that atage five they had been lost in ashopping mall and rescued by anelderly person.
People falsely remember shakingMickey and Bugs Bunny’s hand atDisneyland
Constructed memoryEvidence from cases of early childabuse
This is not to say that there is no childabuse
Some people don’t accept thisevidence
How could you study this level ofconstructed memory?
Alien Abduction !
Susan Clancy
Alien abductionSusan Clancy showed that people who claim
that they were abducted have many morefalse positive memories & that they arehigher on the autism scale.
She also proposed a “sleep-awake”mechanism
This work has help not only to show that falsememory are real and that they have realimpact on people, but helped us understandthe mechanism underlying it.
Source monitoring
Even when we remember wedon’t necessarily rememberwhere the information is from
Implication
The legal system usually treatsperson eye witnesses and memoryas the highest level of accurateevidence
The same goes in our personal andprofessional life
THE MERE EXPOSURE “Costanza” EFFECT:
We like things that are familiar
Evidence for mere exposure
Zajonc (1968) showed Chinese characters topeople from one to 25 times, asking them to guessthe meaning. The more they saw a character themore positive a meaning they gave.
Miller (1976) showed people posters aboutstopping foreign aid up to 200 times. They werepersuaded most by moderate exposure. After 200exposures they reacted negatively to the message!
Organizational memory
People use memory as a asset andas a tool to ensure their position
Knowledge management is anattempt to get out of this problem
Urban legends
This is another version of collective(constructed) memory
You only use 10% of your brain.
The Great Wall of China is the only man-made structure visible in space.
Halloween
Newsweek, 1975: “In recent years, several children have diedand hundreds have narrowly escapedinjury from razor blades, sewing needles,and shards of glass purposefully put intotheir goodies by adults.”
ABC News poll, 198560% of parents worried their kids might bevictims
Mad cow in FranceScientific papers, and newspapers
Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1
1995 - 2002
0
40
80
120
160
200
0
40
80
120
160
200
Courtesy of Chip Heath. Used with permission.
Mad cow II
Mad cow had a real effect on beefconsumption in the US.
How many people died?
How many people die each year of salmonella?
Beef
consum
ption
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Courtesy of Chip Heath. Used with permission.
Urban legends summary
Urban legends are a “collective falsememory effect”
Common and interesting
Real effects on the market
An important question is what makesa “good” urban legend?
What predicts that a story willbecome and urban legend?
Applications I
Eyewitness Testimony
Improving memory
Make meaningful (self)
Make Salient (images)
Rehearsal
Mnemonics
Technological aids
The Remembrance AgentBrad Rhodes
ARIA: An Agent for IntegratedAnnotation and Retrieval of ImagesMemory Prosthesis Visualizing health
The Remembrance AgentWatches over the shoulder of thewearer of a wearable computer anddisplays one-line summaries of notes-files, old email, papers, and other textinformation that might be relevant tothe user's current context. Brad Rhodes
Courtesy of Brad Rhodes. Used with permission.
ARIA:[Annotation and Retrieval Integration Agent]
Assists users by proactively looking foropportunities for image annotation and imageretrieval in the context of the user's everydaywork
Continuous, ranked searches are automaticallyperformed from an image library, and imagesrelevant to the current text can be inserted in asingle click
Henry Lieberman
Memory Prosthesiscomputer attempts to determine the mostimportant parts within audio recordings.SpeakingToneHumor
tries to pick a good set of short audioclips that, in turn, will serve as goodmemory triggers
Sunil Vermuri
Courtesy of Sunil Vermuri. Used with permission.
Visualizing healthPhoto journals and data visualizationto understand health practice
Jeana Frost
Courtesy of Jeana Frost. Used with permission.
Other examples
Cell phones
Auto complete
SummaryMemory is complex and important
Memory is about organization and “sense-making” -- and hence not always accurate.
We have volitional access to some aspectsof memory but not others
Memory is a central psychological processthat almost everything we do depends on.
