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GRAMMATICAL THEORIES
Amara Prasithrathsint Yupapan Hoonchamlong
Saranya Savetamalya October 2011
ISBN 974-347-088-3
3 . . 2554 300 . 025141436
Published by A.S.P. Publishers, Bangkok Tel. 025141436
10330
. 022183557, 022183563 http://www.cuprint.chula.ac.th/contact.php
i
( )
. . 2546
2554
ii
( )
. . 2544
(concept)
.
2546
iii
( )
. . 2535 .
.
iv
.
.
1 6
7
10 .
4
11 12
13 14 4
.
4
v
.
. .
.
2544
vi
1 1 1.1 -- 1
1.2 " " 3
1.2.1
" " 3 1.2.2
" " 4
1.2.3
6
1.3 " " 10
1.4 " " 15
1.5 " " 20
( 1) 22
2 25 2.1 25
2.1.1
25
2.1.2
28 2.1.3
30
2.2 32
2.2.1 33
vii
2.2.2 38
2.3
42 2.4 43
( 2) 45
3 47 3.1 47
3.1.1 48
3.1.2 53
3.1.3 54
3.1.4 56
3.1.5 57
3.1.6 60
3.2 64
3.2.1 65
3.2.2 69
3.2.3 70
3.2.4 72
3.3 73
3.3.1 74
3.3.2 75
3.3.3 76
3.3.4 79
3.4 80
( 3) 81
viii
4 83 4.1 83
4.2 84
4.2.1 85
4.2.2 85
4.2.3 86
4.2.4 87
4.3 88
4.4 90
4.4.1 91 4.4.2
91 4.5 93
4.5.1
93
4.5.2 98
4.5.3 99
4.5.4 101
4.6
102
4.6.1 103
4.6.2 106
4.6.3 107
ix
4.6.4 108
4.6.5 108
4.6.6 109
4.7 109
4.7.1 110
4.7.2 110
4.7.3 111
4.7.4 112
4.7.5 112
( 4) 113 5 117 5.1 117
5.2 117 5.2.1 117
5.2.2 121
5.2.3 122
5.2.4
123 5.3 125
5.3.1 128
5.3.2 138
5.4 152
( 5) 153
6 155 6.1 155
6.2
x
157
6.3 163
6.3.1 163
6.3.2 166 6.3.3 167
6.3.4 173
6.3.5 175
6.4 180
6.4.1 180
6.4.2 ( ) 181
6.4.3 186
6.4.4 186
6.4.5 187
6.5
191 6.6 193
( 6) 195 7 197 7.1 197
7.1.1 198
7.1.2 199
7.1.3 200
7.1.4
201 7.1.5
202
xi
7.2 : 209
7.2.1 216
7.2.2 219
7.2.3 227
7.3
1957 228 7.3.1 228
7.3.2 231
7.3.3 231
7.3.4 232
( 7) 232
8 " " 234 8.1
235 8.1.1 235
8.1.2 238
8.1.3 239
8.1.4 242
8.2
243 8.2.1 244
8.2.2 248 8.2.3 248
8.3 249
8.3.1 249
8.3.2 254
xii
( 8) 258
9 260 9.1 260
9.2 274
9.3
281 ( 9) 283
10 285 10.1 1970:
285
10.2 :
286
10.2.1 289 10.2.2
299
10.3 306
10.3.1 306
10.3.2 312
10.3.3 314
10.4 328
( 10) 332
11 1968 334 11.1 334
11.2 343
11.3 1968 346
11.3.1 347
xiii
11.3.2 349
11.4 1968 353
( 11) 354
12 1970 356 12.1 1970 356
12.2 359
12.3 363
12.4 1970 371
12.5 387
( 12) 388
13 390 13.1 390
13.2 394
13.2.1
394 13.2.2 394
13.2.3 395
13.2.4 395
13.2.5
395 13.3 396
13.3.1 398
13.3.2 402
13.4 406
13.4.1 406
13.4.2 408
xiv
13.4.3 414
13.5 417
13.5.1 418
13.5.2
426 13.5.3 430
13.5.4 432
( 13) 435 14 :
437 14.1 437
14.1.1 438
14.1.2 439
14.2 441
14.2.1 443
14.2.2 446
14.2.3 446
14.2.4 447
14.2.5 449
14.2.6 451
14.2.7 461
14.3 464
( 14) 467
470
1
(Basic Concepts in the Grammatical System)
1.1 --
3
3
1 2
(Traditional Grammar)
(Structural
Grammar) (Case Grammar)
(Lexicase Grammar)
(Transformational Grammar)
" " (morphology) (syntax)
(paragraph)
(text) (discourse)
(discourse analysis)
3
(Halliday 1985: 287-314)
1.2 “ ”
“grammar” 2
“ ”
1.2.1 “ ”
"grammar”
1.1
grammar
1) 2)
3)
(Chomsky 1965)
1 4
Generative grammars as theories of linguistic competence.... (p. 4)
A Grammar of a language purports to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer’s intrinsic competence.... (p. 4)
Before entering directly into an investigation of the syntactic component of a generative grammar.... (p. 18) A grammar can be regarded as a theory of a language.... (p. 24)
A linguistic theory must contain a definition of “grammar” that is a specification of the class of potential grammars. We may, correspondingly say that a linguistic theory is descriptively adequate if it makes a descriptively adequate grammar available for each natural language. (p. 24)
1.2.2 “ ”
(Palmer 1971: 11-13)
" " grammar
(1)
grammar
to write
5
“ ”
(2)
amare ‘love’
100
love 4 love, loves, loved loving
John saw Bill. Bill saw John. steel
sheet sheet steel
(3) " " " "
" " " " It’s me. bad grammar
(4)
1 6
1.2.3
(normative rules)
(descriptive) (prescriptive)
It’s I.
It’s me. prepositions
owing to due to each other
one another
preposition
7
preposition This is
the kind of pedantry up with which I will not put. 1
What
did you bring that book I didn’t want to be read to out of up for?
preposition
2
(convention)
It’s me.
(Palmer 1971: 14)
1
preposition
This is the kind of pedantry that I will not put up with.
2
2
What did you bring up that book for? What did
you bring that book up for? I didn’t want you to read out of that book
to me. I didn’t want you to read to me out of that book.
embedded The book (that) I
didn’t want to be read to out of. 2
What did you bring that book I didn’t want to be read to out of up for?
1 8
" "
4
.
.
I didn’t see nobody. I didn’t go
nowhere.
9
( + / )
.
They was there this morning. (They were there this morning.)
He ain’t coming. (He isn’t coming.) Don’t talk to I. (Don’t talk to me.)
I seed him this morning. (I saw him this morning.)
1 10
.
& (Brown &
Miller 1980: 15) This book is different
from that book. 20
This book is different to that book. 10
This book is different than that book.
& 1980
1.3 " "
(system)
(structure)
(function)
(elements)
3
2
11
1 1 3 7 2 5 9 8
2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
3 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
2 3
3
3
1 12
1.1
(parts of speech)
1.2
(Halliday 1985: 151)
(Functional
grammar)
13
middle: The glass broke.
clause active: The cat broke the glass.
effective
+Agent passive: The glass was broken
by the cat.
1.3
1.3
2 middle clause effective
clause Agent effective
active passive clause
(para-digmatic class paradigm)
paradigmatic class (determiners)
a, the, some paradigmatic class
man, boy, house
1 14
DETERMINER NOUN a man
the boy
that cat
some house
determiners a, the,
that some 4
1
1 paradigm
amare ‘to love’ 1st person singular am ‘I love’
plural am mus ‘we love’
2nd person singular am s ‘you love’
plural am tis ‘you (plural) love’
3rd person singular amat ‘he/she/it loves’
15
plural amant ‘they love’
1 paradigm
puella ‘girl’
6 1
paradigm
(Nominative) puella
(Genitive) puellae
(Dative) puellae
(Accusative) puellam
(Ablative) puell
paradigm
paradigmatic relationship
a, the, this, some
1.4 " "
(structure)
1 16
syntagmatic
relationship
(interdependency)
(1) (2) (3)
(1)
(2)
(3) the man
*man the
(
) (1) (2)
17
(3)
The red book (the-
- ) le livre rouge (le-
- ) Adj.+N
N+Adj.
(Structural
Grammar)
(Traditional Grammar)
1 18
(Immediate Constituent Analysis IC Analysis)
2
6
(test frame)
(Fries
1952)
" " blue ( )
a blue tie blue
4
1 (Word Class 1)
The _____
______s
A _______
19
2, 3, 4
verbs, adjectives adverbs
1, 2, 3, 4
A, B (function
words) The concert may be good.
Group Class Group Class Class
A 1 B 2 3
The concert may be good.
2
(1) He has pants. (2) He enjoys dancing women.
He has panted. He enjoys dancing with women.
1 -s -ed pant
2 with
dancing 2
1 20
1.5 " "
(function)
(2520)
21
(Halliday 1985 1994) (Halliday 1994:
XIII)
(Functional Grammar)
(formal)
3
2
3
( 7)
Halliday (1985:27)
adjective noun tall tree
1 22
modifier head tall tree
modifier head
3
-------------------------
( 1)
1.
2.
3.
4. “ ” ” “ ”
5.
6.
23
7.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9) Bathing women are interesting.
Bathing women is interesting.
(10) The pretty girl is young.
The girl is pretty young.
(11) His problem is age.
His problem is aging.
1 24
(12) Those boys love challenge.
Those boys challenge love.
(13) His job is to ticket the merchandise.
His job is to merchandise the ticket.
(14) The photography class will film the exhibit.
The photography class will exhibit the film.
2
(Parts of Speech
and Grammatical Categories)
2.1
parts of speech
word classes
form classes
parts of speech word classes
form classes
2.1.1
( 5)
8
(noun)
(pronoun)
2 26
(verb)
(adjective)
(adverb)
(preposition)
(conjunction)
(interjection)
(2480: 70-112)
1
1
27
adjective
adverb 2
2
... ... ...
“ ...” “ ...” “
2 28
...” 3
,
2.1.2
( 1 1.4 6)
1 2 3 A B
(Lexicase Grammar)
(Starosta
1988, 2001)
8
V (verb)
29
N (noun)
Adj (adjective)
Det (determiner)
Adv (adverb)
P (prepostion postposition)
Cnjc (conjunction)
Sprt (sentence particle)
“ ( )
8
8 ” “...no language
(including Thai) may contain a word class which is not identical
with, or a subclass of, one of the ...eight classes..., though not
every language necessarily utilizes all eight classes.”
universal constraint “ ”
(Generative
Grammar)
(
13 14)
2 30
2.1.3
(Halliday 1994: 214)
common
noun proper
pronoun
nominals adjective
numeral
determiner
lexical
verb auxiliary
verbals finite
preposition
adverb adverbials linker
conjunction binder
continuative
2.1
31
(group) 3
(nominals, verbals
adverbials)
3 proper noun, common noun
pronoun
pronoun
preposition
pronoun
noun (Starosta 1988)
(Lexicase grammar) (
13 14 pronoun noun
(simplicity) preposition
verb Starosta
(derivational process)
white (adj.) whiten
(verb) (Halliday 1994: 212-213)
preposition verb
preposition
non-finite verb
near/adjoining (the house), without/ not wearing (a hat), about/
concerning (the trial) non-finite verb
preposition regarding, considering,
including
preposition
2 32
2.2
grammatical categories
33
2.2.1
( )
2.2.1.1 (person)
1,
2 3
I, we / me, us 1
you 2
he, she, it, they/ him, her, them 3
1
inclusive we
1 exclusive we
2.2.1.2 (gender)
(masculine gender) (feminine
gender) (neuter gender)
2 34
Old
English
the
(determiner) : le la
the blackboard - le tableau (m)
the table - la table (f)
the moon - la lune (f) the sun - le soleil (m) the house - la maison (f)
article determiner
le la le la
definite article
(classifier)
35
2.2.1.3 (number)
(1) (=1) (= 1)
(2) (=1) (=2) (= 2) (3) (=1) (=2) (=3)
(= 3)
(4) (=1) (=2) few (=
) many (= )
1
boy boys
2 36
" "
2.2.1.4 (case)
(inflectional language)
(
11 12)
(Nominative case)
(Accusative case)
(Locative case)
(Ablative case)
37
(Genitive case) (Dative case)
0
/-i/ /-de/
ev ‘house’
evi ‘house’
evde ‘at the house, in the house, etc.’
2.2.1.5 (definiteness)
a man the man
, , ,
"
2 38
" " "
2.2.1.6 (countability)
sugar, rice, hair, water, gas
a, an
man, house, tree, flower,
cup a, an
1 2 3
2.2.2
2.2.2.1 (tense)
39
I play tennis every weekend.
I played tennis yesterday.
El se preoccupa mucho.
El se preoccupo mucho. ( )
( )
( )
say, tell, report
2 40
I am going shopping this afternoon.
Anne said she was going
shopping this afternoon
2.2.2.2 (aspect)
present perfect
He has done it.
(continuous) are playing
The children are playing. (habitual)
gets My daughter gets up late every morning.
2.2.2.3 (mood)
41
(indicative)
(interrogative)
(negative)
(imperative)
(subjunctive)
(conditional)
(potential)
(narrative)
(reportative)
(modal
auxiliary) may, might, can, could, would
vivir 'to live' 2
(t ) vives (indicative) 'you live'
(t ) vivas (subjunctive) '(if) you lived'
2 42
(t ) vive (imperative) 'Live!'
(t ) vivieses (imperfect subjunctive) '(if) you had lived'
(t ) vivir as (conditional) 'you would live'
2.2.2.4 (voice)
(unmarked)
2.3
(overt and covert grammatical categories)
2
(overt categories) (covert categories)
43
-ed
(determiner)
2.4
(
)
2 44
“ ”
“ ”
(universals) (typology)
-----------------------
45
( 2)
1. 2
2. 3
3. 2
4. 1
5.
1)
2)
2 46
3) 4) 5) 6) This book presents select case studies that illustrate
the state-of-the-art of language management.
7) There will be a fascinating show about Thailand’s growing health and beauty industry, covering spas,
hospitals, clinics, health tours, health food and
beverages, medical products and equipment, natural
health products, and herbal treatments.
8) The Bangkok Transit System, also known as the Skytrain, opened on December 5, 1999 as the first
phase of a fully automated, elevated electric train
system linking key areas of the city center.
3
(Grammatical Units)
( )
(grammatical units)
3 (structural units)
(functional units) (informational
units)
3.1
( 1.4)
3 48
3.1.1 (word)
“ ”
(Robins 1964: 193)
(Edward Sapir)
(unwritten languages)
“ ”
3
(semantic)
(phonological phonetic)
(grammatical) (Palmer 1971: 45-51, Brown &
Miller 1980: 162-165)
49
“
” “ ”
sing
singer
(one who sings)
sang “ + past tense”
put up with 3
“ ”
heat reheat
“ ”
heavy smoker
( )
heavy smoke smoker
artificial florist
artificial “ ”
3 50
florist florist
criminal lawyer (
)
the king of England’s hat (
)
(Brown & Miller
1980: 162) 2
(word boundary)
“ ” uncivilized un-er-civilized
(stress)
avion general
51
armario
ventana
( Palmer 1971 : 47)
ev ‘house’ evin ‘my house’ (e i )
goz ‘eye’ gozum ‘my eye’ (o u )
yol ‘way’ yolum ‘my way’ (o u )
kiz ‘daughter’ kizim ‘my daughter’ (i )
(juncture)
(Palmer 1971 : 47)
2
2
that stuff that’s tough
a nice cake an ice cake
keep sticking keeps ticking
grey day grade A
a tack attack
3 52
juncture
at all ( a tall)
(Bloomfield 1933)
“ ” “minimal free form”
the a an ( ) a ' ' ( ) je ' ' ( )
(Brown & Miller 1980: 164)
2
(internal
cohesion) (uninterruptibility)
1
53
2
( )
word
lexeme “
” play played
2 lexeme PLAY
lexeme
3.1.2 (morpheme)
morpheme
(Sapir 1921) Language “
” sing , sings , singer
3 54
2 (
)
(Bloomfield 1933)
“
”
-s, re-, - -
dogs repeat
hens recur
cows return
4
dog
dogs 1 2 -s
3.1.3 (phrase)
in the house
55
“ ” “ ”
(head)
, , , John, Mary
(NP)
NP NP John likes Mary NP NP
NP NP
NP NP
(construction) (constituent)
3 56
3.1.4 (clause)
clause
clause 1
(sentence)
(main clause) (subordinate clause)
.
.
[ [ ] ]
. . . .
.
.
[ They called me [ before I had arrived home ] ]
. . . .
. They called me.
. Before I had arrived home.
. . 2
(mutually exclusive)
The hunters shoot The shooting of
57
the hunters
( the)
NP
PP
Det N P NP
the shooting of Det N
the hunters
(sentence)
1
1
1 1
1 1
3.1.5 (sentence)
(Matthew 1981: 26)
(sentence)
“
1 ”
2 2
Go away ! I’m busy.
3 58
1
“
” (Matthew 1981: 27)
I did
S sentence ( )
1 (clause) S
1
1
S Cl. (Clause)
1 S S
59
Yes, Friday
S
however, therefore, later
(anaphora)
(discourse
analysis)
(mood) (aspect)
3 60
3.1.6 (construction)
(construction)
(constituent)
(noun phrase
construction) (prepositional phrase
construction) (relative clause
construction) (passive construction)
(relativizer)
antecedent
antecedent
The house which you saw belongs to my father. house antecedent which
house
61
( )
( )
( ) The teacher punished him.
( ) He was punished by the teacher.
( )
( )
( ) Dokter itu me-meriksa saja
' '
( ) Saja di-periksa oleh dokter itu
' '
( ) Oya wa kodomo o Nihon ni nokosita
' '
( ) Kodomo wa oya ni Nihon ni nokosareta
' '
( ) Le public a accueilli cet ovurage
' '
3 62
( ) Cet ovurage a été accueilli par le public
' '
(noun
phrase construction )
my house
my beautiful house
my beautiful house built by my father
my beautiful house near a river
my beautiful house near a river that flows from a mountain
5
(determiner) my (beautiful) participial phrase (built by my father)
(near a river)
(which flows from a mountain)
63
(Starosta 1988: 107)
(construction)
(head)
(endocentric construction) (NP)
NP
dog
that angry [+N]
[+Det] [+adj]
NP
( + N )
(constituent)
(obligatory) 1
[+N]
(exocentric construction) 1
(PP)
3 64
PP to NP
[+P] the hills
[+det] [+N]
( P NP
)
(verbal construction)
S S
S
NP
the man came
[+Det] [+N] [+V]
came
3.2 (functional units)
3.1
65
(Halliday 1970: 148)
3.2.1 (subject)
3 -s
3 (grammatical subject)
(logical subject)
(psychological subject)
3 66
The mouse was chased by the cat. The
mouse
( ) (
)
“ ”
(nominative case)
(Starosta 1988) " "
(+NOM
nominative)
(unmarked)
(actor)
The mouse was chased by the cat.
The mouse
67
the cat
(Halliday 1970) theme
& (Brown & Miller 1980: 330)
2
(syntactico-semantic)
(agent NP) NP
(thematic subject) 3 G
L
T ( Brown & Miller 1980 330)
John (G, L, T) took the largest kitten. The largest kitten (G, T) was taken by John.
The largest kitten (T), we (G, L) gave away.
Halliday (1970: 165)
3 68
The Borough Council (G, L, T) will restore this
gazebo next year.
Next year (T) this gazebo (G) will be restored by
the Borough Council (L).
“ ”
NP
“Subject”
nominative subject
(subjectless languages)
(topic languages)
69
( 3.3 topic)
3.2.2 (object)
3
1.
2.
3.
he He
was killed.
2
(direct object) (indirect object)
2
John gave Mary ( ) a book. ( )
( ) ( )
3 70
3.2.3 (complement)
(complement)
(
)
(Generative Transformational
Grammar)
(complement clause)
(sentential complement)
He said that he was leaving soon. My teacher was certain that I would pass the exam.
(subject complement)
That he is leaving soon is known by everyone.
71
(object complement)
We know that he is a good man.
He became a soldier. I weigh 120 pounds.
2
& (Brown & Miller 1980: 350)
5
1) 2)
3)
3 72
4)
5) to be
( )
The litmus paper is turning red. ( 1) John is a chairman. ( 2) Mary is in bed. ( 3) Mary is in London. ( 3) Mary has a little lamb. ( 4) John is a fool. ( 5) John is clever. ( 5)
3.2.4 (adjunct)
3
(Brown & Miller 1980: 353)
(optional)
73
He is walking his dog in the park. He always drives carefully. I turned off the T.V. before I went to bed.
3.3 (informational units)
“ ”
2
2
(theme-rheme)
(topic-comment) (given new information) (end
focus) 1
3 74
3.3.1 (Theme-Rheme)
Theme
Rheme
Brown & Miller (1980:
357)
(1) Someone parked a large furniture van right outside our front door last night.
(2) A large furniture van was parked right outside our front door last night.
(3) Right outside our front door someone parked a large furniture van last night.
(4) Last night someone parked a large furniture van right outside our front door.
4
1
(unmarked
thematically) 2 , 3 4
thematization
75
(marked) 2
(unmarked) 3
4
(Halliday 1994: 37-38) "Theme"
(starting-point of the message)
(the ground
from which the clause is taking off)
wa
Topic-
Comment Theme-Rheme
"Topic"
"Theme" "Given"
"Theme-Rheme"
3.3.2 (end-focus)
4 3.3.1
3 76
(unmarked)1
4
(1) Someone parked a large furniture van last night outside our front door.
(2) It was parked right outside our front door last
night, a large furniture van. (3) Parked right outside our front door last night it
was, a large furniture van. (4) A large furniture van, right outside our front door
last night , parked !
3.3.3 (Topic-Comment)
(Brown & Miller
1980: 376)
topic
1
(active construction)
(passive construction)
100 4-5
(marker)
(marked)
(unmarked)
77
Edinburgh
Edinburgh is the most beautiful city in Scotland.
The most beautiful city in Scotland is Edinburgh.
The most beautiful city in Scotland
(Ekniyom 1981)
(1) (definiteness)
(2) (semantic role)
(3)
(4)
(agreement)
3 78
3 1
He plays.
(5)
“ ” “ ”
(comment)
“ ” “ ”
They have just got married. Tom does have a flair for the original.
There has been a lot of bullying in the school this term.
79
3.2.1
(thematic subject)
3.3.4 ( Given and New Information)
(Theme-Rheme)
2
(Given)
(New)
(Halliday 1994: 298-
299)
you were to blame.
you
you were to blame.
3 80
2
2
I haven’t seen you for ages.
Are you coming back into circulation.
3.4
3
81
3.3
____________________________
( 3)
1.
2. (Subject) (Theme) (Topic) (Given)
3 82
3.
4. " "
5. (Agent) (Patient) (Actor) (Initiator)
6. (Halliday)
7.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8) 500
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
4
(Morpheme and Word)
4.1 (morphology)
3.1.2
(morphology)
(accurate) (concise) (Francis 1958: 26)
(Francis 1958: 30)
“morphology” “morphemics” "
" 1
1
4
(1) (phonetics)
(phones)
(2) (phonemics) (phones)
(groups) (families)
(phoneme)
4 84
“morphology”
“morphemics”
(Nida 1946: 1)
(morphology) (syntax)
(grammar)
4.2
(3) (morphemics)
(morph)
(morpheme) (word)
(4) (grammar)
85
4.2.1
“ ”
1
–er
worker, dancer, runner, singer, walker 1
“ ”
( )
“ ” “ ” (
)
smaller, bigger, wider, deeper, cleaner
–er –er
–er
“ ” “ ”
4.2.2
“ ”
1
(allomorph)
4 86
intolerable (/in-/), intangible(/in-/), indecent (/in-/),
impossible (/im-/), impractical (/im-/), impersonal (/im-/),
income (/i -/), incomplete (/i -/)
/ in-/ (alveolar)
/ im-/ (labial)
/ i -/ (velar)
3
(phonologically conditioned
allomorph)
4.2.3
“ ”
1 -na fi-
87
2 -so ka-
3 -ri po-
3
1 /-na~fi-/ 2 /-so~ka-/ 3
/-ri~po-/
(morphologically conditioned
allomorph)
4.2.4
“ ”
run They run, Their run,
The run in their stockings
pear pair (
) ( ) ( )
run He runs quickly. He runs
4 88
the business.
4.3
(1)
berry
cranberry, raspberry cran, rasp
(Nida
1946)
(Arnoff 1976: 10-11)
blackberry black
black ‘ ’
(“The basic tack is to give
morphemes underdetermined meanings, with contextually
determed allo-meanings.”)
(2)
-er
hammer, ladder, otter, hadger, under, bitter, Roger
89
-er dancer, singer, worker
er
(3) /sl/ slide,
slush, slip, slime, slipper, slick
/sl/
(4)
1
boys,
girls, birds boy, girl, bird
=
(5)
2
du au du restaurant au
restaurant (from the restaurant, to the restaurant) du
de + le (from + the( )) au = à + le (to
4 90
+ the ( )) de + la
à + la = de la maison, à la maison (from the house, to the
house) du au
‘portmanteau’
( 2 )
(6)
took, ran
2
take run
take took run ran
take run
/ / / /
4.4
91
4.4.1
(segmental
phoneme) (suprasegmental phoneme )
(Cuicatec)
(suffix)
(high tone)
(Ngbaka) (Belgian Congo)
-
4.4.2
(prefix)
(suffix) (root)
4 92
(stem)
1-2
/s/, /z/, / z/ /pen/ (pen), / ks/ (axe), /yuniv rsiti/
(university), /piys/ (piece)
: V C
V / -/ alone C /- / cats
CV /ri-/ receive
CVC /p n/ pen
CVCV /l v / lava
CVCVC / / hammer
CCV / / glow
CCVC / / step
CCCV / / spray
CCCVC / / strike
(
)
93
V / -/
CV / /
CVC / /
CVCV / /
CCV / /
CCVC / /
CVCVC / /
CVCVCV / /
4.5
4.5.1
3 (additive
morpheme) (replacive morpheme)
(subtractive morpheme)
4 94
4.5.1.1
re-
receive, return, react, -
(prefix)
(suffix) –er
dancer, writer, organizer -
(infix) /- -/ (
) / / ( / /)
/- -/ / / ‘of a dockyard’
/ / ‘dockyard’
(Nbaka) (suprafix)
(reduplicative)
(Tojolabal): ‘to enter’ ‘to enter little by little’
95
(Samoan):
‘he loves’ ‘they love’
(San Blas) :
‘to rise and fall’ ‘to rise and fall
successively’ ( )
‘to rise
and fall successively ( )
:
( ) ‘ ’
( ) ‘ ’
( ) ‘ ’
/ / ‘ ’ set ‘to go around’
setet ‘to go around and around’ (
) lok ‘to boil’ loklon ‘to boil continuously’ (
/k/ /n/)
4.5.1.2
4.3
took
4 96
2
( take)
took take (1946)
(nasalization)
:
take (present) took (past) / /
/ / / /
safe (noun) save (verb) / /
/ / / / noun verb
bath (noun) bathe (verb) / /
/ /
goose (singular) geese (plural) / /
/ / / /
( )
took
take + / / / / / /
97
4.5.1.3
( Nida
1946: 75)
(base form)
mauvaise / / mauvais / / ‘bad’
heureuse / / heureux / / ‘happy’
grande / ãd/ grand / ã/ ‘big’
froide /f wad/ froid /f wa/ ‘cold’
chaude / od/ chaud / o/ ‘hot’
petite /ptit/ petit / pti/ ‘small’
bonne /b n/ bon /b / ‘good’
grasse /g as/ gras /g a/ ‘fat’
4 98
e
/n/
(nasalization)
4.5.2
3 (successive
morpheme) (included morpheme)
(simultaneous morpheme)
4.5.2.1
1 -
- - bird-s, re-ceive, book-
store
4.5.2.2
99
/pa/ ‘present tense’ /hapya/
‘benefactive’ (Zoque)
4.5.2.3
meet you /t/ meet
/y/ you /t / kiss you /s/
/y/ / / buzz you /z/
/y/ / / lead you /d/ /d/
/d / meet, kiss, buzz,
lead, you
meet: /miyt~ miyt /
kiss: /kis~ki /
buzz: /b z~b /
lead: / liyd~liyd /
you: / ~ ~ ~ ~ /
4.5.3
4 100
(root) (stem)
(affix)
4.5.3.1
hat, house, people
(root) hat hats, like
likely, hand handful
1
(stem)
man manly, friend friends, bookstore bookstores 2
1 bookstores
2
4.5.3.2
(
4.5.1.1)
lavar
‘to wash’, limpiar ‘ to clean’, guisar ‘to cook’, permitir ‘to
101
permit’
–ism
socialism, Buddhism, pragmatism
I do not like this kind of ism.
re-ceive, con-cept, ab-norm, read-er, dis-gust receives,
conceptual, abnormal, readers, disgusted
4.5.4
4.5.4.1 (Derivational morpheme)
–ness happy, good, empty
adjective happiness, goodness, emptiness
noun
un- unhappy, undo re- return, reproduce,
repay
4 102
4.5.4.2 (Inflectional morpheme)
dogs, walked, girl’s
/ / pueri / /
puero
/ /~/ / He sees. She walks.
4.6
2
2 (Gleason 1955: 82) morphophonemic change
(base form)
103
(assimilation) (dissimilation)
(metathesis) (loss of
consonant phoneme) (loss of vowel
phoneme) (palatalization)
4.6.1 (Assimilation)
2
> ( >
)
(base form)3
in-
/ -/ / / imperfect / /
/ / / /
/ / / /
3
(base form)
/ -/ indirect / -/ impossible / -/
incomplete / -/
/ -/ / -/
4 104
4.6.1.1
(progressive vs. regressive assimilation)
> >
gitdi > gitti ‘he went’
> >
/ / (handkerchief) > / /, / /
(line-wood) > / /, / / (income) > / /
4.6.1.2 (contiguous vs.
non-contiguous assimilation)
2 / /
/ / income ( / / / /), / / / /
( / / / /)
2
105
hoz~hez~hÖz ‘toward’
a parthoz ‘toward the shore’
a kerthez ‘toward the garden’
a fÖlthÖz ‘toward the earth’
‘toward’ / /
/ / / / / / /Ö/
/Ö/
4.6.1.3
(partial vs. complete assimilation)
n
> m / / impossible / / / /
2
(/ />/ /)
(/ />/ /) illegal (/ />/ /)4 illiterate
(/ />/ /) irregular (/ />/ /) irrational (/ />/ /)
4 in- (/ -/) in-
/ -/
4 106
4.6.2 (Dissimilation)
2
‘hair’ / /
/- / / / / /
/ / / /
(aspirated)
/ /
/ / / / / / / / / /
/tim/ ‘house’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /tinmo/ ‘palace’ (/n/
/m/)
/rag/ ‘water’+ /gumi/ ‘fast’ --> /radgumi/ ‘waterfall’ (/d/
/g/)
/dab/ ‘man’ + /mo/ ‘big’ --> /dadmo/ ‘giant’ (/d/
/m/)
107
4.6.3 (Metathesis)
2
tapya > taypa
arela > alera
> > >
> > ,
/ / ‘dance’ + / / ‘doer, performer’ /prakesti/ ‘dancer’
(ts > st)
/malat/ ‘work’ + /si/ /malasti/ ‘worker’ (ts > st)
/promin/ ‘speak’ + /si/ /promisni/ ‘speaker’ (ns > sn)
4 108
4.6.4 (Loss of consonant
phoneme)
/och/ ‘to enter’+/caan/ ‘behind’ /ocaan/ (ch ) ‘put
behind’
/sh/ ‘tense prefix’ + /sutut/ ‘to whirl around’ /sutut/ (sh ) ‘He whirls around.’
/s/ ‘3rdsg. possessive’ + /huun/ ‘paper’ /suunil/ (h )
‘its paper’
4.6.5 (Loss of vowel phoneme)
1)
2) 3)
gu da + o --> gu do ( / / )
ndaya + o --> ndayo ( / / )
narugo + o --> narugo ( / / )
naru ho + o --> naru ho ( / / )
109
4.6.6 (Palatalization)
/y/
act + -ion action / / / /
/ /
/malat/ ‘walk’ + /-is/ ‘past tense’ /malat is/ ‘walked’ ( > )
/tidak/ ‘see’ + /-is/ /tidat is/ ‘saw’ ( > )
/wilad/ ‘hunt’ + /-is/ /wilad is/ ‘hunted’ ( > )
/pilas/ ‘give’ + /-is/ /pila is/ ‘gave’ ( > )
4.5.2.3
4.7
(morph) (allomorph)
4 110
(lexeme) (compound word) (complex
word)
4.7.1 (morph)
“ ”
13 10
2 1
1
4.7.2 (allomorph)
(allomorph)
(Gleason 1955: 61)
( ) / /
cats, / / dogz, / / pieces 3
/ /
/ /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / / / /
/ /
111
(phonologically conditioned allomorph )
( 4.2.2)
-en
ox oxen
ox /-en/
(morphologically conditioned allomorph)
( 4.2.3)
4.7.3 (Lexeme)
(phoneme) (morpheme)
die, dies, died, dying
4 1 DIE man men
2 ( ) MAN
DIE
MAN
4 112
The dying man does not want to die.
8 7 dying die
4.7.4 (Compound word)
2
, , , , aircraft, waterfall,
housewife
2
“ ” “ ”, “ ”
4.7.5 (Complex word)
(affix) beautiful (beauty + -ful)
happiness (happy + -ness) indirect (in- + direct)
plays, played
_______________________________
113
( 4)
1. 1 1 1
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6) He is studying medical science. 7) The flowers bloom in spring.
8) You are a jack-of-all-trades.
9) Don’t you believe in laisser-faire.
10) These pineapples are sweet and juicy.
2.
melodious graciousness glorious preciousness
spacious laboriousness
4 114
famous tenaciousness
homophonous curiousness
superstitious
curiosity
tenacity
piety
variety
3.
3.1)
( Language Files, The
Ohio State University 1979: 54-55)
1) ninasoma ‘I am reading.’ 2) unasoma ‘You are reading.’ 3) anasoma ‘He is reading.’ 4) nilisoma ‘I was reading.’ 5) ulisoma ‘You were reading.’ 6) alisoma ‘He was reading.’ 7) nitasoma ‘I will read.’ 8) utasoma ‘You will read.’ 9) atasoma ‘He will read.’ 10) atanipenda ‘He will like me.’ 11) atakupenda ‘He will like you.’ 12) atampenda ‘He will like him.’
115
13) atatupenda ‘He will like us.’ 14) atawapenda ‘He will like them.’ 15) nitakupenda ‘I will like you.’ 16) nitampenda ‘I will like him.’ 17) nitawapenda ‘I will like them.’ 18) utanipenda ‘You will like me.’ 19) utampenda ‘You will like him.’ 20) tutampenda ‘We will like him.’ 21) watampenda ‘They will like him.’ 22) atakusumbua ‘He will annoy you.’ 23) unamsumbua ‘You are annoying him.’ 24) atanipiga ‘He will beat me.’ 25) atakupiga ‘He will beat you.’ 26) atampiga ‘He will beat him.’ 27) ananipiga ‘He is beating me.’ 28) anakupiga ‘He is beating you.’ 29) anampiga ‘He is beating him.’ 30) amekupiga ‘He has beaten you.' 31) amenipiga ‘He has beaten me.’ 32) amempiga ‘He has beaten him.’ 33) alinipiga ‘He beat me.’ 34) alikupiga ‘He beat you.’ 35) alimpiga ‘He beat him.’ 36) wametulipa ‘They have paid us.’ 37) tulikulipa ‘We paid you.’
4 116
3.2)
1) You have read. 4) You have beaten us.
2) I have beaten them. 5) We beat them.
3) They have annoyed me. 6) I am paying him.
3.3)
1) atanilipa 4) nimemsumbua
2) utawapiga 5) tutasoma
3) walikupenda 6) nitakulipa
5
(Traditional Grammar)
5.1
Traditional Grammar tradition
20
5 118
5.2
5.2.1
5
onomatopoeia 'the creation
of names'1
1
crash, tinkle, bang
( ) meow,
neigh, bow-wow
119
grammar the art of
writing
(429-347 B.C.)
(truth)
(Herndon 1970: 8)
onoma "the name of one who performs an action"
rhema "the name of an action, and the relationships of the ideas or meanings expressed by each" (Herndon 1970: 8)
2
noun verb
("Good Greek words")
the Bow-Wow theory
5 120
(384-322 B.C.)
aer " "
2 noun verb
syndesmoi onoma rhema syndesmoi conjuction
2
(Dionysius Thrax)
The Art of Grammar 1 400
20
3 1
2
3
" " " " " "
" " (figures of speech)
2 Herndon (1970: 8)
121
8
noun, verb, participle, conjunction, preposition, article,
pronoun, adverb adjective noun
5.2.2
(MarcusVarro)
4
noun, verb, participle, adverb
Nouns are those with case inflections. Verbs are those with tense inflections. Participles are those with case and tense inflections. Adverbs are those with neither. (Robins 1989: 58-59) adjective case noun
noun
6 (Priscian)
18 3
8 noun, verb,
3 Herndon (1970: 9)
5 122
participle, pronoun, adverb, preposition, interjection,
conjunction
article interjection
(Robins 1989: 39, 66)
(Thomas of Erfurt) 8
noun 2 " "
" (n men substantivum n men adjectivum)
(Robins 1989: 89-90)
5.2.3
(The Middle Ages)
(universal)
" " (accidental)
(vernacular) (Lyons 1968:
16)
123
(Lyons 1968: 17)
5.2.4
. . 1660 Grammaire
Générale et raisonnée
(logical and
rational system)
(The French Academy)
" " "
"
(good usage)
5 124
(the human mind) (Lyons 1968: 18)
(Samuel Johnson) (John
Wallis) (Robert Lowth)
(Lindley Murray)
(Herndon 1970: 11)
1)
2) ( )
3)
4) (Herndon 1970: 51-52)
125
5.3
18
4 1)
(Orthography) 2)
(Etymology) ( )
3) (Syntax) 4) (Prosody)
(Murray 1824: 13 Downey 1991: 28)
5 126
19
Orthography Prosody 2
Etymology
Syntax
William Dwight
Whitney (1877) Essentials of English Grammar
I. Language and Grammar ( ) II. The Sentence; the Parts of Speech (
)
III. Inflection ( ) IV. Derivation and Composition (
)
V. Nouns ( ) VI. Pronouns ( ) VII. Adjectives ( ) VIII. Verbs ( ) IX. Adverbs ( ) X. Prepositions ( ) XI. Conjunctions ( ) XII. Interjections ( ) XIII. Syntax: The Simple Sentence ( :
)
127
XIV. Compound and Complex Sentences ( )
XV. Infinitive and Participle Constructions ()
XVI. Interrogative and Imperative Sentences ( )
XVII. Abbreviated and Incomplete Expressions ( )
(Wachtler 1991: 41)
19 parsing
(the
grammatical description of each word in the sentence)
. . 1900
(Downey 1991:
29)
5 128
5.3.1
8 4 noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, interjection
"A noun is typically defined as the name of a person, place, or thing." "A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being."
"An adjective is defined as a word that modifies a noun." "A preposition is a word that is used to show a relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in a
4 adjective
19 (Sweet 1891)
adjective
Accidence morphology
6 noun, pronoun,
adjective, numeral, verb particle particle
adverb, conjunction, preposition interjection (Sweet 1891:
301-444) 9
noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb, conjunction,
preposition, interjection
numeral adjective
129
sentence." "An interjection is a word or exclamatory sound that has no grammatical relationship to other
words in a sentence." (Herndon 1970: 53-58)
(grammatical categories)
( 2.2)
3 (three grammatical
persons) (First person) (Second person)
(Third person) (singular) (plural)
5.1 Singular Plural
First person I go We go Second person You go (Thou goest) You go Third person He goes/She goes/It goes. They go
5 130
He goes. go
thing-things, cat-cats,
child-children, sheep-sheep, deer-deer
(gender) 3
Masculine ( ) Feminine ( ) Neuter
( )
Masculine Feminine man, boy, lion Masculine
woman, girl lioness Feminine
Neuter gender house, book, food
Feminine ship, moon
Common gender
person, parent, teacher, friend, servant, child, baby, bird, deer,
camel (Trivedi 1958: 7)
(case)
131
5.2
Singular Nominative boy
Genitive boy's
Accusative boy
Dative boy
Instrumental boy
Plural Nominative boys
Genitive boys'
Accusative boys
Dative boys
Instrumental boys
(redundancy)
(genitive)
5 132
3
2
(Conner 1968: 170)
(aspect) verb
inflections which indicate the distinctions, e.g. preterit I have led. Imperfect I was leading. (Conner 1968: 181)
perfect I have
done it. progressive continuous I am doing i (mood) mode
indicative mode, imperative mode subjunctive mode
mood 5.3
(voice) active passive voice 5.3
5.3 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE ( verb to see
)5
5 Herndon (1970: 56-57
133
Indicative Mood Active Voice Passive Voice Singular Plural Singular Plural Present Tense I see we see I am seen we are seen you see you see you are seen you are seen he/she/it sees they see he/she/it is seen they are seen Present Progressive: I am seeing, and so on Present Emphatic: I do see, and so on
Past Tense I saw we saw I was seen we were seen you saw you saw you were seen you were seen he/she/it saw they saw he/she/it was seen they were seen Past Progressive: I was seeing, and so on Past Emphatic: I did see, and so on
Future Tense
I shall see we shall see I shall be seen we shall be seen you will see you will see you will be seen you will be seen he/she/it will see they will see he/she/it will be seen they will be seen Future Progressive: I shall be seeing, and so on
Present Perfect Tense I have seen we have seen I have been seen we have been seen you have seen you have seen you have been seen you have been seen he/she/it has seen they have seen he/she/it has been seen they have been seen Present Perfect Progressive: I have been seeing, and so on
Past Perfect Tense I had seen we had seen I had been seen we had been seen you had seen you had seen you had been seen you had been seen he/she/it had seen they had seen he/she/it had been seen they had been seen Past Perfect Progressive: I had been seeing, and so on Future Perfect Tense I shall have seen we shall have seen I shall have been seen we shall have been seen you will have seen you will have seen you will have been seen you will have been seen he/she/it will have seen they will have seen he/she/it will have been seen they will have been seen Future Perfect Progressive: I shall have been seeing, and so on
5 134
to see
( tense )
( indicative mood) singular
plural person voice (passive active)
3
preposition, adverb, conjunction
8
(phrase) (clause) (sentence)
(phrase)
prepositional phrase in the house, with your help, to the teacher, by car
participial phrase standing near the door, walking along the street, written in French, made in
Thailand, etc.
135
gerund phrase swimming Swimming is good to your health. Seeing, believing Seeing is
believing.
infinitive phrase to dance I want to dance. To speak To speak in public is not easy.
(clause)
independent clause ( ) dependent
subordinate clause ( )
nominal clause, adjective clause,
adverbial clause
nominal clause noun clause Henry Sweet (1891: 171) noun clause 4
(a) Subject noun clause What you say is true. That you should think so is quite natural.
(b) Predicate noun clause This is what I mean. My opinion is that he is mistaken.
(c) Object noun clause: I know what he means. What he wants I cannot make out. I think you are mistaken.
(d) Apposition noun clause: the wish that he may succeed is very general. The fact that he is a foreigner does not excuse him.
5 136
Adjective clause relative clause the door which leads
to the garden, the man I saw yesterday, the house where I was born, the town he lives in, the way in which it is done, the way it is done, the reason why I did not do it. (Sweet 1891: 171) Adverb clause adverb I was having dinner when the light went out. Please call me before I go out. As soon as I finished reading the book, I returned it to the library.
(sentence) 3
simple sentence, compound sentence complex sentence
Simple sentence I like apples. He has passed the qualifying exam. The book is
very interesting.
Compound sentence simple sentence 2 co-ordinate conjunction
and, but, or I saw him and talked to him for an hour.
I enjoyed the movie but none of my friends did. You may meet
me tomorrow here or call me tomorrow night.
compound sentence
co-ordinate clause Complex sentence simple sentence 2 subordinate
conjunction after, because, while, since I will call you
after I finish reading this page. He likes this subject because it
helps him understand life better, etc.
137
complex sentence subordinate conjunction subordinate clause dependent clause main clause I will call you main clause
after I finish reading this page subordinate clause
4 declarative sentence, interrogative sentence,
imperative sentence, exclamatory sentence
Declarative sentence sentence of statement (a) affirmative sentence The moon is full tonight. (b) negative sentence The moon is not full tonight. (Sweet 1891: 172)
Interrogative sentence sentence of question 2 (a) general interrogative Is the moon full
tonight? (b) special interrogative Who is it? Where does he live? When did he come? (Sweet 1891: 173)
Imperative sentence Come!
You do it at once! Do not do that! (Sweet 1891: 175) Exclamatory sentence exclamative sentence Sweet (1891: 172) How bright
the moon is tonight! What a fool he looks! How well he reads!
5 138
WRONG: It's me. ( verb to be nominative case)
RIGHT: It is I. ( I nominative case)
verb to be (I)
(me)
5.3.2
(2480) " "
4
139
5.3.2.1
"
" (
2480: 1)
3 1 2
3
(phonology)
(prescriptive)
5.3.2.2
" "
(1) (2)
5 140
2 (3)
3
6
3 1 2 3
1
' ' ' ' , ' ' (
2480: 64-65)
" "
" " ' ' ' ' ' ' (= ) ' '
(= ) ( 2480: 65-66)
7
6
141
(1) 4
(2) ( 6
7 (
)
7
()
5 142
(3) 4
(4)
( )
( )
( )
143
(
)
(5)
" "
" " " " (
2480: 58)
, ( )
( )
( 2480: 67) (6)
5 144
( ) … … … ( )
(7)
8
5.3.2.3
" " 8 7
( 5.3.1)
infinitive
(causative)
8
145
9 4
10
3
5
9 " "
" " gender 10
(determiner)
5 146
(
noun in apposition )
5
4
4
3
147
30
5.3.2.4
" "
( 2480: 191)
" 2
…"
( 2480: 199-
208)
() ( 1
)
5 148
( + ) (
" ") ()
(
)
( )
….. ….. ….
! !
" " clause
sentence
3
(1)
149
(2) 2
(3)
(main clause)
(subordinate clause)
3
5 150
( 2 ) ( )
(
)
5.3.2.5
parsing
(formal)
151
5.4 1) 2) ( )
3) 4)
5)
1) . -- -- -- --
2) . 1 2 ( ) -- -- 1.
2.
3) . -- -- --
4)
- 3 ( 4 -- -- 3.
) . 4.
- ( ) --
5)
- ( ( --
) )
- ( ) 5 5 -- 5. " "
- -- -- --
" " - -- --
( 2480: 232, 234, 270,271)
5 152
5.4
(1)
(2) (prescriptive)
(3)
(4)
(5)
153
(6)
(7)
__________________________
( 5)
1. 1
2.
3. to drive, to consider,
4.
(1)
(2)
5 154
(3)
(4) (5)
(6)
(7) In 1936 things were far different from the way they are today, especially in terms of financial matters.
(8) Dad stands still for a moment, then slowly sits down, looking sullen still.
(9) I used to think that all small towns were alike. (10)There were some wonderful people outside of the
political parties who set up an organization called
Justice in Transition.
6
(Structural Grammar)
6.1
20
(layer) (level)
(
)
156 6
(form)
( 2532: 111)
( )
( )
( 2532: 111-112)
(pattern drill)
(substitution drill)
157
2
(Charles C.
Fries) (W. Nelson Francis)
6.2
(structuralism) "
" (a way of
thinking about the world which is predominantly concerned with
the perception and description of structures…") (Hawkes
1977:17)
(structure)
(Jean Piaget 1971: 5-16 Hawkes 1977: 16-17)
(an
arrangement of entities) 3
(1) (wholeness)
(2) (transformation)
(3) (self-regulation)
158 6
(static)
(a basic
human structure)
(… it makes no appeals beyond
itself in order to validate its transformational procedures….)
" "
(A language… does not construct its
formations of words by reference to the patterns of 'reality', but
on the basis of its own internal and self-sufficient rules.)
dog
4
" " " "
(Bloomfield 1933)
Language phoneme ( )
159
(form)
Grammatical forms ( )
morpheme ( ), free forms ( ), grammar
( )
(meaningful arrangements of forms in a language)
3
1. John, ran, away 2. Poor John
ran away Poor John
ran away
3.
John Mary
phoneme, taxeme, glosseme,
morpheme, tagmeme
noeme, sememe episememe
glosseme, morpheme, tagmeme
160 6
(Otto
Jespersen) (Henry Sweet)
In considering the use of grammar as a corrective of
what are called 'ungrammatical' expressions, it must be
borne in mind that the rules of grammar have no value
except as statements of facts: whatever is in general use
in a language is for that very reason grammatically
correct.
" "
:
(Sweet 1891: 5 cited in Fries1940: 4)
161
It has been my endeavor in this work to represent
English Grammar not as a set of stiff dogmatic precepts,
according to which some things are correct and others
absolutely wrong, but as something living and
developing under continual fluctuations and undulations,
something that is founded on the past and prepares the
way for the future, something that is not always
consistent or perfect, but progressing and perfectible--in
one word, human.
--
(Jesperson 1909: preface, cited in Fries 1940: 4)
The grammar of a language is not a list of rules imposed
upon its speakers by scholastic authorities, but is a
scientific record of the actual phenomena of that
language, written and spoken. If any community
162 6
habitually uses certain forms of speech, these forms are
part of the grammar of the speech of that community.
(Grattan and Gurrey 1925: 25 cited in Fries 1940: 4)
A grammar book does not attempt to teach people how
they ought to speak, but on the contrary, unless it is a
very bad or a very old work, it merely states how, as a
matter of fact, certain people do speak at the time at
which it is written.
(
)
(Wyld 1925: 12 cited in Fries 1940: 4-5)
All considerations of an absolute "correctness" in accord
with the conventional rules of grammar or the dicta of
handbooks must be set aside, because these rules or these
dicta very frequently do not represent the actual practice
of "standard" English but prescribe forms which have
little currency outside the English classroom. We
163
assume, therefore, that there can be no "correctness"
apart from usage and that the true forms of "standard"
English are those that are actually used in that particular
dialect. Deviations from these usages are "incorrect"
only when used in the dialect to which they do not
belong…."
(Fries1940: 15)
6.3
6.3.1
The Structure of English
Charles Carpenter Fries (1952) The Structure of
American English W. Nelson Francis (1958)
164 6
The linguistic approach adopted here will differ,
therefore, from that made familiar by the common school
grammars, for it is an attempt to apply more fully, in this
study of sentence structure, some of the principles
underlying the modern scientific study of language.
(Fries 1952: 2)
Since linguistics is a very active science just now, it is
constantly engaged in revising and overhauling all parts
of its methods, findings, and generalizations. In fact, so
rapidly is it moving that parts of this book may well be
out of date by the time it is printed. This would also be
true of a textbook in physics, chemistry, or, indeed, any
other active science.
165
(Francis 1958: 16)
Structural linguistics-- the kind of linguistics which is
primarily interested in discovering and describing as
concisely and accurately as possible the interrelationships
and patterns which make up the intricate structures of
languages.
(Francis 1958: 26)
4
Phonetics ( ), Phonemics ( ),
Morphemics ( ) Grammar ( )
Grammar Morphology ( ) Syntax
( ) (Francis 1958: 41)
166 6
6.3.2
" " "A language is an arbitrary system
of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society." (
) (Francis 1958: 13)
(utterance unit)
(Fries 1952: 23)
(utterance unit)
…utterance unit will mean any stretch of speech by one person before which there was silence on his part and
after which there was silence on his part. Utterance units
are thus those chunks of talk that are marked off by a
shift of a speaker."
( 2 )
167
(Fries 1952: 23)
(a single
minimum free utterance) (sentence)
form classes
( Fries 1952: 64)
6.3.3
(a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing)
blue ( )
a blue tie blue
adjective adjective "a
word that modifies a noun or pronoun" (
)
(structural
signals)
168 6
1) Woggles ugged diggles 2) Uggs woggled diggs 3) Woggs diggled uggles
1-3 woggles, uggs, woggs "thing" words
ugged,
woggled, diggled "action" words
(Fries 1952: 71-72)
" " (structural
meanings)
When morphemes (or the groups of morphemes we call
words) are organized into utterances, a new kind of
meaning emerges which is not associated with the
individual morphemes at all, but is solely a function of
the way they are combined.
( )
(Francis 1958: 227)
169
(signals of syntactic
structures) 5
1) (word order)
2) (prosody) (stress)
(pitch) (juncture)
3) (function words)
4) (inflections)
5) (derivational contrast)
(derivational affix) happy
happiness, beautiful beautifully
1(content word) 4 Class 1, Class
2, Class 3 Class 4 noun,
verb, adjective, adverb
1
adjective nice, pretty, serious adverb carefully,
seriously content word (lexical word), (contentive),
(full word) (function word)
170 6
Class 1
Class 1 Frame A (The) ____is/ was good The concert was good.
____s are/were good Reports were good. Frame B The ___remembered the ___The woman remembered
the tax. Frame C The ____went there The team went there.
Class 2, Class 3, Class 4
Class 2 Frame A The concert ____ good The concert was good.
Reports ____ good Reports were good. Frame B The woman ____ the tax. The woman remembered the
tax. Frame C The team ____ there. The team went there.
Class 3 Frame A The concert was ____ The concert was good. Reports are/were ____ Reports were good. Frame B (The) ____ concert was necessary The good concert
was necessary.
171
Class 4 Frame A The concert was good ____ The concert was good
sometimes. Reports are good ____ Reports are good now.
2
(function words) 15 Group
A Group O
Group A the, a, an , every, no, my, our, your, each,
all, any, some, more, many, this, five
Group B may, might, will, must, has, has to, had,
kept ( kept moving), did
Group C not
Group D very, really, pretty, too, rather, fairly (
very good, really good, pretty good, too good,
rather good, fairlygood)
2
(determiner) the
at, in, for,
(grammatical word), (form word), (structural
word), (functor), (empty word)
172 6 Group E and The concerts and the lectures are
and were interesting and profitable now and
earlier.
Group F at The concerts at the school are at
the top.
Group G do, does, did Do the boys
correct their work promptly?
Group H there There is a man at the door.
Group I WH words when, where,
how, why, who, which, what
When did the student call? Who came?
Group J after, when, whenever, although, because,
since, before, and, but The orchestra
was good after the new director came.
Group K well, oh, now, why Well,
that's more helpful. Oh, I have another suit.
Group L yes, no Yes, we're on our way
now. No, they don't arrive until eight.
Group M look, say, listen Say, I just got on
Saturday another letter from… Listen, did you
get any shoes. Look, I want to ask you two
questions.
Group N please Please take these two letters.
Group O Let's, let us Let us go through the list
and then we'll let you know. Let's do the
173
invitation right away.
Class
Group 4
noun, verb, adjective, adverb
8 ( 15 )
(1) noun determiners: a , the, my, your (2) auxiliaries: can, could, be, get (3) qualifiers: very, right, still (4) prepositions: after, among, in front of, together
with
(5) coordinators: and, not, but, nor, rather than, either…or
(6) interrogators: when, where, which , whichever (7) includers: after, although, relative pronouns (8) sentence linkers: consequently, in addition
attention claimers hey, oh, attention signals yes, yeah, responses yes,
not at all, infinitive marker to, negator--not, hesitators--well
6.3.4 (Types of syntactic structures)
174 6 4
1) (structure of modification) + (head + modifier) a mile from here,
a book from under the table, a tale for after dinner, a trip to
beyond the mountains, the hungry child
2) (structure of predication) + (subject + predicate) he did it at
all; he is here
3) (structure of complementation) + (verbal
element + complement) sailing a boat; electing him
president
4) (structure of coordination) his
father and mother; red, white and blue
3
he lived a year he lived his life
3
175
he walks this way he likes his own way
he saw a mile he measured a mile
6.3.5
(Immediate Constituents)
ran away
ran away
(1) The other things of the monastery
(2) A little arm of the sea
(3) Approved his promotion
(4) The king of England's empire
(5) The king of England's empire
(6) An examination of the students which is thorough
(7) An examination of the students who are here now
(8) The uniforms of the regiment which are there
176 6
(9) The uniforms of the regiment which is there
(10) A good book to read
(11) A book good to read
(12) A heavy box to lift
(13) A box too heavy to lift
(14) The salary checks for the staff
(15) The most well-known faculty member
(endocentric construction)
(exocentric construction) (coordinate
construction)
2
177
6.3.4
6.3.4
and, but, or ( 6.3.4)
(16) The most well-known faculty member
(17) My colleagues are having lunch at a restaurant near our university
178 6 (18) I like durians and magosteens but my daughter likes apples and cherries
(19) The man that I met said that he would come back soon.
(16) faculty
member, most well-known, most well-known faculty member,
the most well-known faculty member
( )
( )
faculty member
member faculty
(17)
near our university ( ), at a
restaurant near our university ( ),
my colleagues …university ( )
179
(18)
and, or, but durians and
mangosteens, apples and cherries, I like … but my daughter
likes ….
(19) that I met man
that he would come back soon said
(binary feature)
2
a pretty girl 3 a, pretty, girl
a pretty girl pretty girl
pretty girl
(17) near our university restaurant
my colleagues are
having lunch at a restaurant in the afternoon in
the afternoon are having lunch at a restaurant
restaurant near our university in the
afternoon
180 6
6.4
6.4.1
181
(
)
6.4.2 ( )
" "
26
1. ____ ( )
2. ____ ( )
____ ( )
3. ____ ( )
4. ____ ( )
____ ( )
5. ____ ( )
____ ( )
6.
182 6
( 2532:
64)
____
____
____ ( )
____ ( ) ____ ( )
( 2532: 67)
7. _____ ( )
_____ ( )
_____ ( )
8. _____ ( )
____ ( )
183
( )
1 2
2
9. ____ (
) 10.
____(
)
11. ____ (
)
12. ____ (
)
13. ____ ( )
14. ____ ( )
15. ____ (
)
184 6
____ ( ( ) ( )
( ) )
16.
17.
18. ____ ____ ( )
19. ____ ____ (
)
20. ____ ( )
21. 2
22. 11
185
(
2532:61) 23.
____ ( )
____ (
)
24. ____ ( )
____ ( )
25. 5 ( )
____ ( ) ____
( )4
26.
4
186 6 6.4.3
5
(
)
6.4.4
clause "
" ( 2532: 97)
187
4
( )
( )5
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
6.4.5
6
5
" "
" " " " " " 6 ( 119)
188 6
" "
" " " " "" 2
" " " "
" "
( 2532: 24)
( 2532: 32-33)
189
( 2532: 97-99)
3
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
15)
190 6
4
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
4
( ) ( 1)
( 2) ( )
1
1
191
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2
1
1 2
1 2
6.5
(6.3.5)
(20)
192 6 (21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
193
( )
(20)
(21, 22)
(22) 2 (23) 2 (24)
6.6
(1)
(2) (inductive)
(3) (corpu