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Abstract

Medical Education 2010: 44 : 440448

Objectives As the medical profession continues to change, so do the educational

methods by which medical students are taught. Various authors have acknowledged theneed for alternative teaching and learning strategies that will enable medical students toretain vast amounts of information, integrate critical thinking skills and solve a range ofcomplex clinical problems. Previous research has indicated that concept maps may beone such teaching and learning strategy. This article aims to: i! review the currentresearch on concept maps as a potential pedagogical approach to medical studentlearning, and ii! discuss implications for medical student teaching and learning, as wellas directions for future research.

Methods The literature included in this review was obtained by searching librarydatabases including A"A#$%&" '$A("), $(&", $*'"+)ost, Psych& -+,

PsychA(T&" $', Pub%ed/%$# & $, "& A) and $%*A'$. This literature reviewis a summary of both conceptual and empirically published literature on the uses ofconcept mapping in medical education.

Results The 01 studies reviewed here indicate that concept maps function in four mainways: i! by promoting meaningful learning2 ii! by providing an additional resource forlearning2 iii! by enabling instructors to provide feedback to students, and iv! byconducting assessment of learning and performance.

Conclusions This review provides ideas for medical school faculty staff on the use ofconcept maps in teaching and learning. 'trategies such as fostering critical thinking and

clinical reasoning, incorporating concept mapping within problem3based learning, andusing concept mapping in group and collaborative learning are identified. ewdevelopments in medical education include the use of serial concept maps, concept mapsas a methodology to assist learners with lower cognitive competence, and thecombination of group concept maps with structured feedback.

Professional #evelopment 4 ew )ori5ons 4 6ournals 4 'pring 7898 4 The *rainTargeted Teaching %odelThe *rain Targeted Teaching %odelDr. Mariale Hardiman, Ed.D.

"hair, &nterdisciplinary 'tudies in $ducation and Assistant #ean, rban 'choolsPartnership6ohns )opkins niversity, *altimore, %#
http://education.jhu.edu/PD/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/thebraintargetedteachingmodel/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/thebraintargetedteachingmodel/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/thebraintargetedteachingmodel/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/contents/contributor-biographies/index.htmlhttp://education.jhu.edu/PD/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/thebraintargetedteachingmodel/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/thebraintargetedteachingmodel/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/spring2010/contents/contributor-biographies/index.html


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#uring the past decade the neurological and cognitive sciences have produced a vast frontier of knowledge on how the brain processes, stores, and retrievesinformation. As educators have increasingly recogni5ed their role as consumers of thisemerging knowledge, translating brain research into classroom instruction often becomesa challenge for the typical educational practitioner.

&n an era of high3stakes accountability for student performance, many teachers feel pressured to prepare students to meet proficiency levels on standardi5ed tests. At thesame time, they are often re;uired to implement a plethora of ever3changing educationalinitiatives and reforms handed to them by well3meaning school district supervisors. &nthis climate, it would not be surprising for new teachers to feel overwhelmed and

seasoned teachers to view any educational initiative, including perhaps research in theneurosciences, as merely a fad that soon will be replaced by yet another new initiative.Perhaps this thinking accounts for the fact that educational research is largely ignored by

practitioners2 as a result little actual change has occurred in our nation


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BRAIN !AR"E! ONE# !HE EMO!IONA$ C$IMA!E %OR$EARNIN"

euroscientists have recently described the intricate interactions between the emotionaland cognitive brain systems. (esearch has shown that the brain center,located in the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. @ith information processing short3circuited

first to the emotional center, chronic stress may impair long3term memory and deeplearning. The effects of stress and threat on learning have clear implications foreducators.

@hile we may be unable to control all the factors of stress in the lives of our students, theadept teacher can minimi5e threat3causing practices within the classroom. At the sametime, the teacher should maximi5e strategies that promote positive emotion. (esearch hasshown that while threats impede learning, positive emotional experiences, during whichthe brain produces certain chemicals or neurotransmitters, can contribute to long3termmemory.

&n the *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel, teachers are encouraged to deliberately plan for positive emotional connections within the framework of a specific unit of study, referredto as a learning unit. 'uch connections include specific activities that will connect thestudents emotionally to the content. The infusion of the visual and performing arts is aneffective way to tap into children


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the brain


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that too often never come together into an overarching concept or pattern. ack ofconceptual understanding typically results in loss of retention of the disBointed facts anddetails.

&n The *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel, teachers are encouraged to use content standards

and curriculum guidelines to design overarching goals and concepts, then to display theselearning goals in non3linguistic representations such as concept maps or graphicorgani5ers. Activities are then designed to allow students to understand how theobBectives they will learn during the unit relate to the big picture concept. As theycontinue through the content, students are referred back to the concept map to reinforcethe relevance of each learning activity.

BRAIN !AR"E! %O+R# MA)!ER( O% ) I$$), CON!EN!,AND CONCE'!)

The next stage of The *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel is to engage students in activitiesthat will enable them to demonstrate mastery of skills, content, and concepts. *rain3Target -our promotes mastery of learning goals and obBectives by planning multipleactivities to activate the brain


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@hen information moves, however, from working to long3term memory systems, new proteins are created. $ffective teaching can result in biochemical changes in the brain?

*rain Target -our of The *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel encourages teachers to plan forrepeated rehearsals of content, skills, and concepts so that the information becomes part

of students< long3term memory systems. 'uch repetition would be terribly boring forstudents and teachers too! if the same activities were presented multiple times in thesame way. &nstead, teachers are encouraged to plan varied experiences so that studentscan manipulate information within a variety of modalities. The best way to accomplishthis is through the integration of artful teaching into content instruction.

&ntegration of the arts encourages meaningful connection to concepts, encouragingteachers to pair visual, kinesthetic, and musical thinking with linguistic learning tasks. As)oward Fardner 9IJ0! states, =The abilities involved with the visual arts, with sculptureor painting, with drama, mime, use of the body, with music, all represent separate sets ofcognitive skills.> "ognitive learning and higher3order thinking can be enhanced with

meaningful connection to the arts through such activities as musical performance, role3 playing, visual representations, creative movement, drama, poetry, and creative writing.

*y providing students with multiple ways to manipulate content, skills, and concepts,teachers are not only promoting long3term memory but are providing the opportunity todifferentiate instruction based on students< emotional needs, academic goals, andcognitive learning styles.

*(A& 3TA(F$T -&V$: $GT$ #& F A # APP & FD +@ $#F$

The ac;uisition of knowledge is only the beginning of a sound instructional program.*rain research supports what educators know to be the hallmark of effective instruction

Hlife3long learning best occurs when students are able to apply content, skills, and processes to tasks that re;uire them to engage in higher3order thinking and problem3solving skills. sing knowledge meaningfully re;uires students to extend thinking by

examining concepts in deeper, more analytical ways, thus re;uiring the brain to usemultiple and complex systems of retrieval and integration. *rain researchers have usedthe concept of the modular brain to describe differentiated functions of brain regions.%odules from one part of the brain connect to other modules when we perform complextasks. (esearch has demonstrated, for example, that the motor cortex, originally thoughtonly to control motor functions, becomes activated when the brain engages in problem3solving that includes such cognitive components as memory, language, emotion, andactive learning.


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*rain3Target -ive promotes the use of performance3based instructional activities withineach learning unit. 'uch activities re;uire students to engage in inductive and deductivethinking, analysis, and problem3solving skills. &t allows students to apply what they havelearned in tasks that have real3world application. @ithin the *rain3Targeted Teaching

learning unit, *rain3Target -ive activities include conducting investigations, designingexperiments, creating metaphors and analogies, examining cause and effect patterns,analy5ing perspective, and engaging in creative thinking through the visual and

performing arts.

BRAIN !AR"E! )I-# E*A$+A!IN" $EARNIN"

@hile *rain3Target 'ix is the last stage of the *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel, eachstage of the model includes evaluation activities. The goal of evaluation is to providestudents with relevant feedback about their performance so that the student can adBustlearning habits and the teacher can make sound instructional decisions. "ognitive sciencesupports what teachers know by experience: &mmediate feedback strengthens learningand memory patterns. The *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel supports the use of anevaluation measure for each obBective and activity. &n addition to traditional gradingmethods ;ui55es, tests, essays, etc! evaluation measures should also employ acombination of tools including scoring rubrics, grading keys, and self3grading tools,

student3generated reflections.

!HE BRAIN !AR"E!ED !EACHIN" $EARNIN" +NI!*y using the following format of the *rain3Targeted Teaching earning nit , teacherscan be assured that they are implementing research3based effective teaching strategies aswell as implementing what the neurological and cognitive sciences tell us about how the

brain thinks and learns. Teachers who have implemented this model are ;uick to say that,while it re;uires more =front3loaded> planning than a traditional planning format, oncecompleted they can focus on lesson implementation rather than planning for the two or

three week learning unit time segment. They have also related that the model re;uiresthem to think more deeply about instructional implementation, fostering more creativeand innovative lessons. *y using the *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel , teaching andlearning not only becomes more effective, it becomes more fun?

Please visit #r. )ardimanKs site on her *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel for 'ample nits and a earning nit Template to help you plan your own units using this model.
http://www.braintargetedteaching.org/sampleunits.htmlhttp://www.braintargetedteaching.org/http://www.braintargetedteaching.org/http://www.braintargetedteaching.org/sampleunits.htmlhttp://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5/Hardiman%20-%20Learning%20unit%20templatehttp://www.braintargetedteaching.org/sampleunits.htmlhttp://www.braintargetedteaching.org/http://www.braintargetedteaching.org/http://www.braintargetedteaching.org/sampleunits.htmlhttp://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_5/Hardiman%20-%20Learning%20unit%20template


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#r. )ardimanKs latest book, Connecting Brain Research with Effective Teaching: The Brain Targeted Teaching Model! is available at the ew )ori5ons for earning 'tore.

Re erences

*arber, 6., *arrett, D., *eals, D., *ergman, ., E #iamond, %. 9IIC!. earning Aboutearning. *erkeley: )' F$%'.

"aine, F. E "aine, (. 7889!. The *rain, $ducation, and the "ompetitive $dge. anham,%#: (owman E ittlefield $ducation

#amasio, A. 7880!. ooking for 'pino5a: 6oy, 'orrow, and the -eeling *rain. ework: )arcourt.

#iamond, %. E )opson, 6. 9III!. %agic Trees of the %ind. ew ork: Penguin Froup.

Fa55aniga, %. 7881!. The $thical *rain. ew ork: #ana Press.Foleman, #. 9IIL!. $motional &ntelligence: @hy &t "an %atter %ore than &M. ework: *antam *ooks.

)ardiman, %. 7889!. "onnecting brain research with dimensions of learning.$ducational eadership, 1I 0!, 17311.

)ardiman, %. 7880!. "onnecting brain research with effective teaching: The *rain3Targeted Teaching %odel. andam, %#: (owman E ittlefield $ducation.

)ibbard, D. %. 9IIC!. Performance3*ased earning and Assessment. Alexandria, VA:A'"#.

)oward, P.6. 7888!. The +wner


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%ar5ano, (. 6. 9II7!. A #ifferent Dind of "lassroom: Teaching with #imensions ofearning. Alexandria, VA: A'"#.

%ar5ano, (.6., Pickering, #.6., Pollock, 6. $. 7889!. "lassroom &nstruction that @orks:

(esearch3*ased 'trategies for &ncreasing 'tudent Achievement. Alexandria, VA: A'"#.

(atey, 6.6. 7887!. A ser

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