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PDHPE: Better health for individuals MODULE 1
What does health mean to individuals
Meanings of healthDefinitions of health:
● World Health Organisation (WHO) definition: “a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”
● Health definitions have changed over time; up until mid 20th century health was seen as the ‘absence of illness or disease’
● Health has different meanings to different people Dimensions of health:
● Closely interrelated: change in one dimension leads to change in others
● Body mind and spirit MESSP
● M- mental
● E - emotional
● S - social
● S - spiritual
● P - physical
● Mental: ability to adapt to change and cope with adversity. Similar to emotional, mental and spiritual health.
● determines individual's self confidence, communication skills, resilience and learning abilities
● Emotional: the way a person reacts to a stimulus within their life
● Maintain a realistic perspective of a situation, manage feelings appropriately and develop resilience and ability to develop good self-esteem/positive image
● Social: the way people interact with others
● Depends on personality of individual and opportunities for social development relates to parents, teachers and friends
● Spiritual: moral or religious wellbeing, or a deep sense of life’s purpose and being in harmony with oneself and surroundings.
● Physical: the physical matter of the body and its functions
● Depends on level of fitness, energy levels, size, weight, movement capacity and the level of physical disease or disability
● The concept of good health relies on all the dimensions interacting positively Relative and dynamic nature of health :
● Relative nature: a person’s health status in comparison to others’, or another time or place. Health differs from time to time, and from person to person.
● Dynamic nature: Changes in health status that occurs at any point in a person's lifetime. Can be acute (minute to minute) or chronic (over a long period of time). Health is constantly changing.
The concept of good health:
● Environmental factors to change an individuals health
● Water supplies, waste disposal, sanitation leading to poor health
● social, economic and political environments and impacting our health status Health continuum:
Measures health status of an individual at any point in time Poor -------------------------excellent
● Level can move at each minute, hour, day or year
● Determines on dimensions of healthHow health changes overtime:
● Health has potential to change any time of the day
● Changes as we age, new friendships, status, physical health
● Overtime health can improve or deteriorate depending on circumstances How an individuals circumstances impacts health:
● Our health potential is determined by heredity, experiences, decisions to improve health rates and access to health services.
● Heredity is linked to the body type of an individual
● Environmental factors
Perceptions of healthPerceptions of the health of an individual:
● Everyone will have their own understanding of how “healthy” they are
● Health perspectives will vary depending on one's well being
● Some people may say they are healthy despite having diseases while others may say that they are unhealthy when there are no signs that they are ill.
Perceptions of the health of others:
● Factors that contribute to health inequalities include; age, gender, ethnicity, social and economic status, disability and geographic location.
● Inequalities result from socio-economic differences
● E.g. homeless people will have more mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia. Their social and physical health will also be poor.
Implications of different perceptions of health:
● Identifies health issues to the public and addresses them
● Campaigns, programs or events - healthy education, lifestyle advicePerceptions of health as social constructs:
● A person's health status is not solely their responsibility. Their health is a result of the sociocultural factors surrounding them.
● Does not blame the individual for their own level of health
● Sociocultural factors: gender, SES, geographical location, age, media, environment, heredity & access to health care services
Impact of the media, peers and family
● Media, peers and family can impact an individual in a positive/negative way
● Can learn healthy/unhealthy habits e.g. smoking , drinking, eating patterns
● Can be peer pressuring or teasing
● Media influences young people's attitudes and intentions in relation to health e.g. copying smoking habits because favourite character in movie smokes
Health behaviours of young people ● Young people making decisions impacting their health and wellbeing for future
● Including; schooling, relationships, sexual behaviours, employment, drug usage & alcohol usage
The positive health status of young people:
● Life expectancy
● Life expectancy has improved to a further 5 years
● men: 78 years and women: 83 years
● Death rates
● Death rates decreased 50%
● Suicide decrecred 40%
● Rates of disease, disability and injury
● 2% of young people are likely to have a severe disability
● Asthma rates have declined
● Home life
● Families provide physical, emotional and economical support
● 90% of young people are living in a stable house
● Education
● Higher levels of education report fewer levels of illnesses and have a better mental health
● Increase of young people staying until year 12Protective behaviours and risk behaviours:
● Changes in the lives of children and young people in australia
● Changes in families (blended families)
● Having fewer children and having children later in life
● Increased use of childcare
● Better health and less disease rate in young children
● Morality
● Mortality rates provide important information and indications about the populations health
● Information about changes in social environment and conditions
● Common hazards for young people include traffic accidents,and drugs/alcohol
● Injury and poisoning
● Leading cause of death for young people is injury and poisoning
● Second highest contributor to the burden of disease after mental disorders
● Injury includes falls from heights, or sports, transport accidents, assault and self-harm
● Mental health
● Anxiety and depression are the main cause of disability in young people
● Many young people are undiagnosed or do not seek help
● Characteristics that may develop a mental health issue include: family, social, community, cultural factors and life changing events/situations
● Young people with a mental health disorder are more likely to have poor physical health, lower academic and experience joblessness.
● Overweight and obesity
● Young people who are overweight or obese are more likely to be obese as adults
● Increased risk of disabilities; cardiovascular conditions, asthma and diabetes
● Reducing youth overweight and obesity is important in the prevention of chronic disease
● Risk factors linked with obesity includes; amount of physical activity, eating patterns, screen time, ethnicity and inherited characteristics
● Substance use
● Most common substance use includes alcohol and tobacco
● Health and social problems associated with substance use in short term may result in; injuries, disorders, and irresponsible consumption
● Long term effects include; depression, liver damage, heart and brain damage and risk of cancer/ other serious health conditions
● Drug abuse is linked to legal and financial difficulties within the family and relationships; antisocial behaviour, poor parenting, poor family-bonding, low self-esteem, poor connection with family/school/community
● Education and employment
● Higher levels of education tend to experience fewer illnesses and have better mental health
● Young people gain knowledge and understanding about health; health risks, and protective factors
● Access to safe employment, and better paid jobs
● Lower stress levels and reduced risk of injury
● Young people having a job gains financial independence with more self-control and self-confidence
● Crime
● Most young people are at risk of being victims of crime and becoming involved with criminal activities
● More vulnerable to being victimised; may lead to not finishing school which impacts their socio-economic situation; may lead to depression and suicide
● Young people in criminal justice system are disadvantaged as they experience high levels of socio-economic stress, physical and mental health needs and a history of physical abuse and childhood neglect.
What influences the health of individuals
The determinants of health ● Determinants help explain and predict trends in health
● Many factors influence the health of individuals and these factors can either protect health or place it at risk
● Both risk and protective factors determine the health of individuals
● Determinants can vary in the level of risk they poseIndividual factors:knowledge , skills and attitudes:
● Ability to know about health and develop health-related skills
● Enables individual to recognise health related problems, make choices about behaviours and access health services when required
● Being informed about health risks can motivate health-enhancing behaviours
● Technology has enabled more information and knowledge about healthGenetics:
● Genes that were passed onto us by our parents
● Certain diseases can be inherited; asthma, heart disease and some cancers Sociocultural factors:Family:
● Impacts health and wellbeing of children and their parents
● Depending on family and financial outcome can influence how healthy a family isPeers:
● A social need for acceptance
● Individuals seek companionship, support, approval & acceptance of others
● Young people are influenced by their peers
● Peers may have a positive or negative effect on health decisionsMedia:
● The media shapes how we see the world
● Influences socialisation, values, development, opinions and knowledge
● Tv reflecting on good health and positive lifestyle behavioursReligion:
● Health-enhancing developments; social support, sense of meaning and purpose, a belief system and a clear moral code
● Can justify hatred, aggression and prejudiceCulture:
● Accepted ways of behaving within a particular group in society
● Culture can vary across and within ethnic groups
● Can be both positive and negativeSocioeconomic factors
● Groups who are socially and economically disadvantaged tend to have worse health
● illness/ disability can prevent employment which results in reduced income
● Health problems can affect a person's ability to continue or succeed in educationEmployment:
● Employment is strongly related to health status
● Unemployed people have higher morality, illnesses and disease
● Lack of employment can reduce access to health services & poor self esteem
● Relationship between occupation and healthEducation:
● Higher levels of education are related to higher income and better employment
● Provides knowledge and skills on health to achieve a healthy lifestyle Income:
● Relationship with income, education and employment
● People with high level education will more likely have a higher paid job
● High income increases access to goods and services that are beneficial to health; better housing, health care, joining gyms
Environmental factors:● Factors that may affect human health in positive/negative way
● Includes climate change and land degradationGeographic location:
● Affects access to health care services
● Rural residents will struggle to reach health care services resulting in; teenage pregnancies, depression, and alcohol and drug addiction
Access to health services:
● Some groups may have difficulty accessing, understanding or using information about health Access to technology:
● Families in remote areas don't have much public transport available
● People in rural areas commonly suffer poor physical health and emotional wellbeing
● Internet access can provide more information about health
The degree of control individuals can exert over their health Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants:
● A person's health behaviours are modifiable actions that affect their health
● Determinants may vary in how easy they are to modifyThe changing influence of determinants influence
● The influence of health determinants changes through the different life stages
● Transition from school to work influences determinants of healthHealth as a social construct
● Health varies from one society to another
● A social view of health helps to understand the range of health determinants and how they influence an individual's health
Recognises the interrelationship of determinants:
● Health is a dynamic quality that is affected by an individual's physical, social, economic and political views
● Personal skills development
● Creation of social and physical environments that are supportive of health
● Empowerment to take action to promote health
● Awareness of impacts on health public policiesChallenges the notion that health is solely an individual's responsibility:
● Social view of health recognises that health risk cannot be attributed solely to individual risk behaviours
● Understand a person's health and wellbeing are associated with social institutions What strategies help to promote the health of individuals
What is health promotion● The process that enables people to improve or have greater control over their health
● The aim is to reach a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing
● Identify and realise aspirations
● Satisfy needs and wants
● Change with the environmentResponsibility for health promotion
● Responsibility is shared among individuals, community groups/schools, health professionals, health service institutions and governments
● Responsibility to provide a health care system that promotes healthIndividuals:
● Health is created by caring for oneself and others, by being able to make decisions and have control over one's life circumstances
Community groups/schools:
● Community health programs may have targets; individuals, communities, states
● Schools may implement health-promoting policies
Non-government organisations:
● Important role in community education, providing health services and research
● Governments help to support NGOs to provide resources aimed at health promotionGovernment:
● Local, state and federal; play a role in health promotion
● Manage environmental and land use planning, recreational facilities, community development, home care, child care and community transport
International organisations:
● Helps in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems
● Promotes respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
● World health organisation (WHO), United nations, united nations children fund
Health promotion approaches and strategies● Aimed at improving the health of an individual or community or changing behaviour that many
have a negative influence on health
● Educational and motivational approaches addressing health risks Lifestyle/behavioural approaches:
● Individuals whose behavioural or social situations place them at risk of an unhealthy lifestyle
● Directed at people who smoke, have low nutrituition, physically inactive or misuse substances
● Health education; increase awareness about health; positive influence on health
● Quit smoking programs
● Creating environments that support health; school providing trees and shade
● Advocating for public policy; health promoting school
● Harm minimisation approach aims to reduce risk taking behaviours
● Drug control; supply control, demanded reduction, safer drug use, controlled use
● Zero-tolerance approachPreventative medical approaches:
● Directed at improving physiological risk factors
● Childhood immunisation
● Cancer screeningPublic health approaches:
● Health promoting schools; curriculum, teaching, learning, organisation, services
● Health promoting workplaces; physical, mental, economic and social well being
● Includes activities and strategies designed to improve the health of the workersThe Ottawa Charter as an effective health promotion framework
● Reflects the belief that health is socially based
● Empowers individuals to support positive health choices and behaviours
● 1978; WHO and UNICEF held a conference on health care, 130 countries attended to create the declaration of Alma-Ata. There were 5 major frameworks that implement health promotion:
Dead Cats Smell Really Bad ● Dead - developing personal skills
● Cats - Creating supportive environments
● Smell - Strengthening community action
● Really - Reorienting health services
● Bad - Building healthy public policy Developing personal skills:
● Supports personal and social development through providing information, education for health and enhancing life skills
● Health education in schools
● Anti-smoking programsCreating supportive environments:
● The need to encourage; take care of each other, communities and natural environments
● Recycling programs
● Healthy food canteensStrengthening community action:
● Effective community action in setting priorities, making decisions, planning strategies and implementing them to achieve better health
● Health promoting schools
● Driver reviver stationsReorienting health services:
● Health promotion in health services is shared among individuals, community, groups, health professionals, health service institutions and governments
● Promote immunisation programs
● Police working in schools to address drink driving and crimeBuilding healthy public policy:
● Joint action contributes to ensuring safer and healthier goods and services, healthier public services, and cleaner, more enjoyable environments
● Smoke-free workplaces and public buildings
● Compulsory swimming pool fencing Principles of social justice
● Reaching optimum health, equal opportunity is essential; reduce disadvantages
● Equality does not mean giving everyone the same thing but giving each group what they need to achieve optimum health
Equity:
● Making sure resources and funding are distributes fairly and without discrimination
● Everyone has access to the health services and support they needDiversity:
● Valuing diversity helps to eliminate prejudice and discrimination
● Encouraging men and women of diverse, racial, social and economic groups play major roles with mutual respect, come to an understanding and appreciate eachother
Supportive environments:
● People are encouraged to engage actively in making environments more supportive
● Includes where people live, where people work and play; supportive of health
PDHPE: The body in motion MODULE 2
How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to movementWhat strategies help to promote the health of individuals
Skeletal system● The skeletal system consists of bone tissue, bone marrow, cartlidge and the periosteum
● Functions of skeletal system:
● Support; provides a framework for muscles
● Protection; protect internal organs
● Movement; when muscles contract they pull on bones
● Mineral storage; store calcium
● Blood cell production; through the red bone marrow
● Storage of energy; yellow bone marrow
Major bones involved in movement:
● Long bones; arms and legs
● Short bones; wrists, ankles, fingers and toes
● Flat bones; skull and breastbone
● Irregular bones; vertebrae, facial bones and shoulder blade
● Sesamoid bones; kneecap
● Sutural bones; cranial bones
Structure and function of synovial joints:
● Majority of joints in the body are synovial joints
● Structures:
● Articular capsule; encloses the joint cavity
● Articular cartilage; tissue covering the surface of articulating bones
● Synovial fluid; lubricates and nourishes the articular cartilage
● Bursa; synovial fluid, friction between bones and tendons
● Support and functions:
● Tendons; tissue that attaches muscle to bone
● Ligaments; tissue that attaches bone to boneJoint actions:
● Flexion; decreasing the angle between two bones
● Extension; increasing the angle between two bones
● Abduction; movement of a bone away from the midline
● Adduction; movement of a bone towards the midline
● Pronation; movement of forearm so that palm is posterior or inferior
● Supination; movement of forearm so that palm is anterior or superior
● Elevation; raising of a body part
● Depression; lowering of a body part
● Protraction; thrusting forward of a body part
● Retraction; withdrawing of a body part
● Dorsiflexion; bending of foot towards shin
● Plantarflexion; bending of foot away from shin
● Inversion; rotation of sole of foot inwards
● Eversion; rotation of sole of foot outwards
● Rotation: movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
● Hyperextension; excessive extension of a body part
Muscular system● Muscles convert chemical energy into mechanical energy to create a force
● Three types of muscle tissue in the body
● Skeletal muscle; attached to bones
● Cardiac muscle; most of the heart
● Smooth muscle; wall in the internal structures
● Three main functions that muscle tissue serve through contracting and serving;
● Movement to walk, jump, breathe and digest
● Stabilisation of posture and internal organs
● Generate heart to maintain body temperature Major muscles involved in movement:
● Movement that a muscle produces is called an action
● Most muscles cross over at least one joint
● Major muscles:
Muscle relationships:
● Agonists; muscle provides the main force that causes the desired movement
● Antagonists; opposes or reverses a particular movement
● Stabilisers; the muscle that aid agnosists by promoting the same movement or by reducing unnecessary movement or undesired action
Types of muscle contraction;
● When muscles are in a relaxed state they are soft and loose
● Contract to produce a force and become hard and elastic
● Two main types of contractions in muscles:
● Isotonic contraction;muscle fibres produce a tension. Muscle length changes as tension develops
● Concentric - the muscles shorten to pull on bones and brings them closer
● Eccentric - the muscle lengthens
● Isometric contraction; tension develops in the muscle, but it neither shortens or lengthens
Respiratory system● Cells use oxygen in metabolic reactions to create energy; these reactions make carbon
dioxide
● Provides oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide and other wastes through the blood Structure and function:
● The organs in the respiratory system are nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), teachea (wind pipe), bronchi and the lungs
● Respiration is the exchange of gases between the cells, blood and atmosphere
Lung function: inspiration, expiration:
● Four process of the lung:
● Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) - movement of air into the alveoli
● Pulmonary diffusion - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood
● Transport of respiratory gases - between the lungs and the tissue cells through the blood
● Internal respiration - exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells
● Inspiration - breathing in
● Expiration - breathing out Exchange of gases;
● Exchange of gases begins with inspiration and ends with the expiration of the breath
● Between the air in alveoli and the blood capillaries occur across the respiratory membrane in a process known as pulmonary diffusion
Circulatory system● Cardiovascular system; consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels
● The system delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells, removes waste from cells and maintains the balance of water in the body
Components of blood:
● Blood is a type of connective tissue; thick liquid
● blood:
● Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products and hormones to cells and organs around the body
● Protects us from bleeding to death; clotting and protects us from disease
● Acts as a regulator of temperature and water content in cells
● Blood has red blood cells; red colour , white blood cells; combat infection and inflammation and platelets; clotting
Structure and function:
● Provides the pump for circulating blood to the blood vessels in cells of the body
● Blood flows through the tissues of the body, oxygen and nutrients are dropped off and carbon dioxide and wastes are picked up
● Heart; an involuntary muscle
● Left and right atrium are apart of the heart
● Left and right ventricle
● Network of blood vessels that transport the blood around the entire body; arteries, veins and capillaries
● Arteries carry blood away from the heart to tissues
● Veins carry blood from tissues back to the heart
● Valves within veins prevent the blood from flowing back the wrong way against the force of gravity
● Capillaries are small networks of vessels through which nutrients are exchanged between blood and the cells of the body
Pulmonary and systemic circulation:
● Pulmonary circulation; circulates blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, then back to the heart
● Systemic circulation; pumps blood from the left side of the heart out to all body tissues, then back to the right side of the heart
● Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium
● The oxygenated blood then enters the left atriumBlood pressure:
● The force that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels
● Systolic blood pressure increases in direct proportion
● Diastolic blood pressure changes very little during exercise
● Blood pressure is measured using a stethoscope
What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement efficiency
Health-related components of physical fitness● Aspects of fitness that enable us to maintain our health, perform daily tasks and jobs, perform
well in sporting activities and protects us from sicknessCardiorespiratory endurance:
● Ability of the heart, lungs and circulatory system to supply oxygen and nutrients efficiently to working muscles and remove waste products
Muscular strength:
● The greatest maximal force or tension that a muscle group can exert against a resistance in one maximal contraction
Muscular endurance:
● The ability to sustain or repeat a muscular effort for a relatively long period of timeFlexibility:
● The range of movement that can be performed in and around a jointBody composition:
● The proportions of various body tissues and their influence on body massSkill-related components of physical fitness
● Related to the performance aspect of an activityPower:
● The product of strength and speed; the ability to move the human body or an object quicklySpeed:
● The rate of change in positionAgility:
● The ability to change the direction or position of body segments or the whole body rapidly and efficiently
Coordination:
● A smooth flow of movement when performing a physical task, evidenced when the nervous and muscular systems work together smoothly
Balance:
● A state during which the body is in a stable position or state of equilibriumReaction time:
● The time that it takes to respond to a stimulusAerobic and anaerobic training
● Aerobic - needs oxygen
● walking , jogging
● Anaerobic - without oxygen
● Long jump, shot putFITT principle:
● Program in order to improve aerobic capacityFITT
● F- frequency; how often?
● I - Intensity; how hard?
● T- Time; how long?
● T - type; what sort of activity
Immediate physiological responses to training● Need for more oxygen in working muscles to an increase in body temperature
Heart rate:
● As exercise intensity increases, so too does the rate at which heart beatsVentilation rate:
● Beginning of exercise there is an immediate increase in ventilation- both inspiration and expiration - followed by a continuing gradual rise in the rate of breathing
Stroke volume:
● The amount of blood ejected with each contraction of the heart also increases Cardiac output:
● The volume of blood that is pumped out of the heart per minute also increases during exercise, forcing more blood out of the heart
Lactate levels:
● Lactic acid consists of a solution of lactate ions and hydrogen ions in water;when aerobic exercise increases there is an increase in the level of hydrogen and lactate ions in the blood
How do biomechanical principles influence movement?MotionLinear motion:
● Occurs when the human body, limb or an object propelled by a human moves in the same direction at the same speed over the same distance
● Two types of linear motion
● Rectilinear motion; straight line
● Curvilinear motion; moved in a curved path
Velocity:
● The displacement of the body and is divided by the time taken
● Describes both magnitude and direction Speed:
● Describes only the magnitude of the speed of the body
● Distance covered by the time takenAcceleration:
● The rate at which an object's velocity changes over time
● Ability to increase and decrease velocityMomentum:
● Certain mass and velocity
● The quantity of motion the body possessesBalance and stability
● If the body is at rest it has static balance
● If the body is moving it has dynamic balance Centre of gravity:
● The greater the mass the stronger the attraction
● Centre of gravity; the whole force that is concentrated at a single point
● The centre of gravity is the balance point of the system Line of gravity:
● A straight line drawn from the centre of gravity to the ground
● An object is most stable when the line of gravity falls through the centre of the base Base of support:
● The region bounded by the body parts in contact with a surface that is applying a reactive force against the applied force of the body
● The greater the mass of an object, the greater its stability
● It takes greater force to move a heavier objectFluid mechanics
● Forces that operate in water and air environments
● These forces affect how well we can move through these environmentsFlotation:
● Two forces operate on a body in a fluid environment to determine its buoyancy; pushes the body up and the weight force that pulls the body down
● If the buoyant force is greater than the weight force, the body will float
● If the buoyant is less than the weight force, the body will skinCentre of buoyancy:
● The centre of buoyancy is at the centre of gravity of the water
● The centre of buoyancy of the swimmer will fall directly above the swimmers centre of gravityFluid resistance:
● Forces include a drag and lift force:
● Drag: drag force is referred to as resistance, resistance acts against a body as it moves through a fluid environment
● Lift: lift force is referred to as hydrodynamic force when created in the water. It is much greater than that lift created in air, as water is denser.
● The magnus effect: occurs when a spinning object creates a whirlpool of rotating sir or liquid around it
Force ● A force causes or has the potential to cause, divert or slow the movement of an object upon
which it acts
● Forces can be a push, pull, blow or an impact (friction) or gravityHow the body applies force:
● Three laws of motion
● No force equals no movement
● Body will experience a change in motion due to force applied
● Every force that is exerted there is an equal and opposite reaction
● Contact forces
● Ground reaction force
● Joint reaction force
● Friction
● Fluid resistance
● Inertial force
● Elastic force
● Summation of forces
● Number of body parts used in the movement
● Order and timing of their involvement
● Force and velocity generated
● Centripetal and centrifugal forces:
● Centripetal force: A centre-seeking force acts towards the centre of rotation
● Centrifugal force: Equal and opposite centre-fleeing forceHow the body absorbs force:
● It is needed to prevent injury, the momentum of the speeding body must be gradually decreased by joint actions
● Propulsive and resistive forces:
● Propulsive: the external force that acts to cause motion in a body
● Resistive; force that acts to resist the movement created by a propulsive force
● Safety when colliding:
● Use a large surface area for landing or catching
● Keep a distance between impacting objects
● Use as much mass as possible when landing or catching
● Regulate centre of gravity
● Use material other than body partsApplying force to an object:
● Using a range of techniques to increase the force it exerts to make the play harder to return or intercept
PDHPE: First Aid - Option 1
What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patientsSetting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualtySituational analysis:
● Evaluate the situation
● Establish what has happened
● Approach the emergency scene and observe what has happened
● Prepare a plan of attack
● How can you help
● Put your plan into practise
● Control the situation
● Decide the priority order in which you will treat casualties
● Identify available resources
● Bystanders Priority assessment procedures:
● Primary survey - first guideline
● DRSABCD
● Secondary survey
● Applies to a casualty who is breathing and showing signs of life
● Addresses injuries/illnesses of the casualty
● Bleeding, burns, fracturesDRSABCD:DRSABCD
● D - Danger
● R - Response
● S - Send for help
● A - Airway
● B - Breathing
● C - Compressions
● D - Defibrillation
● Danger:
● Check whether the area around the casualty is safe
● Check for potential dangers, then eliminate or reduce the risks involved to you, others and the casualties
● Response:
● Squeeze and shout at the casualty to check whether he or she is unconscious
● COWS - can you hear me? Open your eyes. What is your name? Squeeze my hand.
● No response = continue with DRSABCD primary survey
● Response = secondary survey
● airway:
● Check whether the casualty's airway is clear of vomit, water ect.
● Most common obstruction is the tongue
● If there is an obvious obstruction, turn casualty onto one side to remove
● breathing:
● Check whether the casualty is breathing, if the casualty is not breathing, give two rescue breaths and check for signs of life again
● Look listen and feel if the casualty is breathing
● Compressions:
● If no signs of life are present, begin a continuous cycle of 30 compressions and two rescue breaths
● CPR
● Defibrillation
● Attempt to have bystanders obtain a defibrillation unit and attach it to the casualty as soon as its available
● Electric shockSTOP:
● Injury management for less severe injuries that are not life threatening STOP
● S - stop
● T - talk
● O - observe
● P - prevent further injury
● stop:
● Stopping any movement from casualty
● Seated or laid in a comfortable position
● talk:
● What happened? Where it hurts. How it feels
● observe:
● Observe casualties physical state
● Establish whether the casualty can stand or walk
● Prevent further injury:
● Treat the injury as required
● Direct the casualty to medical assistance
● Do not move casualty if it will cause further injuryCrisis management Cardiopulmonary resuscitation:
● CPR
● If the casualty is unconscious, not responsive and not moving or breathing then you would perform CPR
● This provides a rhythmic artificial blood flow around the body Bleeding:
● If an artery is cut, blood will spurt out and be bright red
● If a vein is cut, the venal blood will ooze from the wound and be dull red in colour
● Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that will slowly ooze from minor wounds
● Blood pressure drops in response to bleeding
● If the body loses a lot of blood from a wound, there will be blood loss in the body
● External bleeding & internal bleedingShock:
● Shock is a circulatory system response
● Failure to deliver blood supply to muscles, tissues and organs in the body
● Signs and symptoms:
● Cold, pale, sweaty skin, rapid and weak pulse,
● Use primary survey
● Do not give them anything to eat or drinkNeck and spinal injury:
● Can result in severe consequences
● Severe pain
● Spinal and neck injuries need to be managed with care
● Tingling in hands or feetMoving the casualty:
● Drag method
● After an explosion, or rising floodwaters
● Human crutch method:
● Used to support a conscious casualty who is able to walk and has no upper-limb injuries
● Four handed seat method
● Assist a conscious casualty to safety
● Chair lift
● Moving a casualty particularly downstairs
● Recovery positionMedial referral:
● Medical support to be obtained while first aider is helping
● Ask by stander to contact medical supportCare of the unconscious casualty:
● When a casualty is unconscious it means that there has been a level of brain interference
● Fully conscience - is able to respond to a stimulus in an alert manner
● Semi-conscience - may appear vague or disorientated in his or hers reponses
● Unconscious - will not respond to any stimulus
● Unconscious casualty to be monitored closely; check airway, breathing, and pulse
● Place casualty in the recovery position; maintain open airway
How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed in first aid? Management of injuriesCuts and lacerations:
● Types of cuts:
● Laceration: result of barbed wire or animal claws
● Abrasion: result of a fall on a hard surface
● Incision: result of a razor or knife blade
● Penetration: result of a bullet, nail or garden tool
● A cut is a break in the skin
● Usually caused by another object coming in contact with the skin
● Cuts can be managed by controlling bleeding and elevationFractures:
● A fracture is essentially a broken bone
● Often results from direct impact to the body
● Signs and symptoms include pain, deformity, swelling and restricted movement
● Fractures can be managed by DRSABCD, control bleeding and rest the casualty
● Types of fractures:
● Open: bone breaks through the skin, severe blood loss
● Closed; skin is not broken, loss of blood from surrounding tissue
● Complicated; vital organs may be injured (lungs)Dislocation:
● Usually results from a direct force such as a heavy fall to the body
● Dislocations commonly found in shoulders, fingers and thumbs
● Symptoms include: swelling, deformity, bruising, pain and restricted movement
● Dislocations can be managed by using a sling and bandage, using ice to reduce swelling and seeking medical support
● Do not try to relocate the bone, as this causes further damage Head injuries and concussion:
● Usually result from falls or blows to the head; may happen during a motor vehicle accident, driving accident or contact in sports
● Symptoms may include; nausea, headache. Emory loss, dizziness, slurred speech, pupil size
● Can be managed by using DRSABCD, controlling external bleeding, support the head and neck, checking the casualty's airway, breathing and pulse rates
Eye injuries:
● Result from contact with irritating agents (chemicals, pillem, dust, smoke) or a direct force (punch)
● Is the eye is red or excessively watery, it may indicate that the eyeball is injured
● Can be managed by:
● Irritant- use saline solution and cover with sterile dressing
● Force- cover eye with sterile dressing and seek medical assistance
● Do not take objects out from the eye, as can cause further damageNasal injuries:
● Result from a direct force (being punched or hit by a ball)
● Difficulty in breathing through nose, swelling, bleeding
● Nose injuries also include fractures and nose bleeds
● Can be managed; breathe through mouth, lean casualty forward and apply pressure to the soft part of the nose by squeezing with the fingers
Burn injuries:
● There are; dry burns (caused by flames and hot objects), wet burns (caused by steam and hot liquids), and burns from electricity, radiation and cold
● Burns are classified according to their depth of damage to skin
● Superficial burns; outer layer of skin are damaged, skin is red and painful
● Partial thickness burns; red, blistered or weeping
● Deep burns - all layers of skin have been damaged. Skin appears pale, waxy and charred
● Management for burns is, check danger (fire), stop drop and roll. Apply cool running water for 20 minutes, removed any burned clothing (do not move clothes that are stuck onto casualty), remove jewellery, cover casualty with a lint-free sheet
Teeth injuries:
● Result from blows to the face and jaw
● Indication of injury is bleeding from the socket of the tooth or cuts around the tooth; tooth may be dislodged from mouth
● Management of injury; learn forward so blood drains out, bite on gauze to keep tooth in place, seek medical support
Electrocution:
● Result of high-voltage electrical currents passing through the body
● Fault appliances (kettles, irons, power tools) or lightning strikes may cause electrocution
● Signs of an electrocution; damaged electrical appliance, unconsciousness and burns to the body
● Managing the situation; turn off power source and unplug appliances, DRSABCD, if casualty had burns apply cool running water and then seek medical assistance
Chest injuries:
● May result from motor vehicle accidents, gunshot accidents, falls or collisions
● Open wounds can cause damage to internal organs such as the lungs or heart
● When open wounds occur, air can penetrate the chest cavity, causing lungs to collapse
● Manage situation; assist casualty in comfortable position,cover wound with sterile dressing, check for further injuries, monitor casualty's airway and breathing and seek medical support
Abdominal injuries:
● Often caused by motor vehicle accidents, falls onto hard surfaces, crushing by machinery or gunshot wound
● Experience pain at the site, nausea and vomiting, shock, dizziness, difficulty breathing
● It is possible that internal organs may be exposed
● Managing injury; DRSABCD, lay on back with knees bent and seek medical assistanceManagement of medical conditionsHeart attack:
● Occurs when an area of the heart muscle is damaged or dies
● Restricting blood supply to the heart
● Main indicators of a heart attack are a “crushing” pain in the middle of the chest, fatigue, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, fever and collapse
● Seek medical support immediately
● Primary survey and monitor the casualty continuouslyStroke:
● Is a sudden interruption to the blood supply to the brain
● Risk factors include; age, cigarette smoking, contraceptive use
● Signs include; weakness, numbness in the face, slurred speech, dizziness, confusion, coma
● Seek medical support and conduct primary survey Diabetes:
● Process in which the body cannot process carbohydrates (sugar and starch)
● Diabetics need to control their sugar levels through diet and using artificial insulin
● Two types of conditions; hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia
● Hypoglycaemia: eating insufficient food/ lack of exercise - blood sugar level are reduced resulting in nausea/ dizziness- sugar needs to be given to the casualty if conscious ( jelly babies , fruit juice)- if unconscious seek medical advice
● Hyperglycaemia: result of not taking insulin- warning signs include drowsiness, thirst- Essential that insulin is administered to the casualty and medical support is contacted if the casualty is unconscious
Epilepsy:
● A disorder characterised by sudden surges of disorganised electrical brain activity
● Vary in degree; brief loss of consciousness (petit mal) - convulsions (grand mal)
● Petit mal:
● May often go unnoticed
● Signs include staring, memory loss and odd movements
● Reassure casualty and ensure the casualty is safe. Clear objects out of the way
● Grand mal:
● Severe symptoms; loss of consciousness, change in skin colour, shortness of breath, muscular spasms, frothing at the mouth
● Be aware of casualties safety; ensure area is free of obstacles - seek medical support
● Allow the seizure to occur and don't try to restrain the casualty
● Monitor airway and ensure there are signs of life Asthma:
● Asthma is a respiratory disease resulting in unpredictable periods of breathlessness
● Bronchioles are swollen and filled with mucus
● Occurs from; pollen, dust, animal hair, weather conditions, exercise, stress, foods
● Symptoms include; tightness in chest, difficulty breathing, pale skin, coughing
● Place casualty in an upright position
● Use medication such as a spacer device Anaphylaxis:
● A severe allergic reaction that an individual may have when exposed to a particular substance
● Certain foods may have an anaphylactic reaction; bee stings
● Symptoms; swelling on face and lips, welts, pain, vomiting
● Medication should be administered in an anaphylactic reaction; seek medical assistancePoisoning:
● Any substance that can enter the body and alter its normal functioning
● Poisoning may occur through:
● Absorption; through surface of skin; ( burns, reddened skin )
● Inhalation; by breathing in substance ( headache, vomiting, rapid pulse)
● Ingestion; by swallowing the substance ( headache, nausea, blurred vision )
● Injection; through needles or from bites and stings ( redness or pain at the site, headaches, nausea )
Bites and stings:
● Common first aid emergency
● Bites include; tick, snake and funnel web spider, red back spider
● Pain at site, swelling, nausea, headache, weakness
● Stings; stonefish, stingray, box jellyfish, bluebottle, blue ringed octopus
● Severe pain, swelling at site, headache, vomiting, weakness Exposure to heat and cold:
● Hypothermia
● exposure to extreme low temperatures
● Condition occurs; cold water, wind and icy climates
● Shivering, slow responses, slurred speech, slow pulse, skin cold to touch
● Assist casualty to shelter, warm environment
● Remove wet clothes, put casualty in sleeping bag, warm drinks
● Do not try to warm body temperature up too quickly
● hyperthermia
● Relates to the body being exposed to extreme heat
● Results in; exercising in hot conditions, failed hydration
● Overheating, heat cramps, exhaustion, heat stroke
● Excessive sweating, dizziness, raised body temperature
● Place casualty in a cool area, remove clothing, cover casualty with wet sheet
What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid? ● Important to assess the situation and consider; physical environment, infection control and
protection, legal and moral dilemmas, and the safety of the first aiderPhysical environmentTraffic accidents:
● Consider safety of yourself, bystanders and casualties
● Prepare a plan of action:
● 1. Check for dangers; other vehicles, fuel explosions, glass, electrical wiring
● 2. Take charge and control danger; ask bystanders to help. Give specific instructions; Redirect traffic
● Approach vehicle involved in accident with extreme caution
● Note the number of vehicles and casualties and the conditions the casualties are in; seek medical support
Water environment:
● Includes; pools, beaches, oceans, rivers, lakes, dams and water tanks
● Observe the situation; note how many casualties, distance from shore, physical and psychological state
● Consider your own safety, if you are a weak swimmer and the casualties are far from shore do not attempt a swimming rescue
● Flotation aids; plastic bucket, beakball, foam from esky
● Adopt a suitable towing position and transport to safety
● Decide on priority order of rescue; unconscious, non-swimmers, weak/injured swimmers should be rescued first
Electricity:
● Can pose life threatening emergencies
● Lightning strikes, faulty wiring, power tools and lightning can cause electrocution
● Locate source of power and turn off the power and remove plug from powerpoint if possible
● Contact medical support; if the electrical source has been eliminated, it is safe to perform first aid, you will not be electrocuted
Infection control and protectionHIV/AIDS:
● Bodily fluids (blood, semen, faeces, mucus, vomit, sputum) can pose threats to personal health
● Recognise the potential risk of infection from fluids when doing first aid
● Use protective latex gloves or plastic bags
● Wash exposed surfaces with warm soapy water
● Surfaces and objects need to be bleached
● Use a mask when performing CPR Legal and moral dilemmas
Legal implications:
● Preserving life, protecting casualty, preventing further illness/injury, promoting recovery and seeking medical assistance
● Even if you are a first aider you are not legally required to stop and help in an emergency unless you are involved in a motor vehicle accident
● Remember you are only expected to assist to the best of your ability
● If you have tried to help; you are unlikely to face any legal liability
● OHS ( occupational, health and safety legislation )Moral obligations:
● If you are trained in first aid; driving past an emergency situation may be a moral dilemma
● Obligation to help in a situation
● Duty of care
● Good samaritan; responsible citizenship Commonsense versus heroics:
● Assess the danger of the situation and evaluate your level of skill in relation to the situation
● Trying to be a hero can result in unnecessary loss of life Support following first aid situations
● Debriefing and counselling sessions
● A first aider experiences shocking scenes of human agony and loss
● Bystanders may also need to discuss their reactions
● Ptsd
PDHPE: Fitness choices - Option 3
What does exercise mean to different people?Meanings of exercise
● An activity that involves repetitive bodily movements
● Can be planned, unplanned, structured, incidentalExercise as a form of physical activity:
● Physical activity; all movements in everyday life including work, recreation, exercise and sporting activities
● Can be planned, structured and repetitive bodily movements to improve fitness
● Physical activities:
● Occupational; landscape, gardening, sport at school
● Household; vacuuming, mowing the lawn and gardening
● Leisure; competitive sports, recreational; bushwalking, dancing, surfing, jogging, gym
● Transportational; walking, cycling to work, skateboardingExercise and its relationship to fitness:
● Fitness; general state of good health, resulting from regular physical activity and a healthy diet
● Ability to undertake daily tasks with ease and still have enough energy to pursue leisure activities
● Fitness relates to; Health related and skill related componentsThe value that people place on exercise
● Certain people must maintain a high level of fitness for their career
● Many people value physical activity and recognise the benefits of exerciseChanging attitudes to fitness:
● Technology has had a major influence on our level of daily physical activity
● Our leisure time has increased, and so has our physical inactivity
● More people understanding the benefits of exercise; improving general health by improving endurance capabilities
Fitness as a commodity:
● People have shown an interest in fitness leading to a gradual growth in the fitness business
● Recognising benefits of fitness led to people wanting a quick fix to their individual problems; desire to lose weight,build muscle, work on abs, feel healthier and build on their social life
● A range of products and services are available to fitness consumers; fitness videos, activities and services, personal training
What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness?Individual activities
● Lifestyle and personal circumstances will have a strong influence on physical activity; eg time, work, commitments, prefer to be in a group
● Exercising alone influences the choice of activity
● Choose to exercise at a time that fits in with their lifestyle; class at home
● Some people prefer to work at their own level
● Outcomes can still be achieved individually
● Some forms of exercise promotes mental and emotional wellbeing
● power walking/running, Swimming, Cycling, Weight training programs, Tai chi, pilates/yoga, Emerging individual fitness activities
Group fitness activities ● Team sports
● Commits the participant to an activity that is scheduled to take place at a particular time on a particular day
● Groups/ instructors motivate people to keep coming to exercise
● Many people enjoy the social benefits of exercise with others
● An instructor can provide support and advice on an activity
● Groups cater for ages, abilities, children, elderly, pregnant
● Boot camps are now highly popular
● aerobics/aquarobics, pump/step/spin classes, Circuit training, Team games, Exercise for specific groups, Emerging group fitness activities
What influences people’s choice of fitness activities Settings for exercise
● Settings of exercise is highly influenced by an individual's lifestyle and personal circumstances and preferred type of exercise
● Exercise outdoors, with a club, at a community or work facility, personal trainer, home or fitness centre
Exercise at home:
● Exercise at home is convenient and cost effective; swim in own pool
● running , walking or cycling are common home based exercises
● Fitness equipment available at home; machines, weights
● Dvd, youtube, apps
● Home gyms allows people to exercise at home whenever they wantCommunity facilities:
● Local councils provide facilities that can used by the community for exercise
● Cycle ways are common in communities
● Public pools can be used for people who swim for fitness
● Skatepark facilities
● Council owned halls and ovals can be used for a range of exercise options; dance classes, yoga, team sports
Fitness centres and personal trainers:
● Fitness centres for group fitness classes
● Individuals of all fitness levels and ages can use fitness centers
● With changing attitudes to fitness, more people are aware of the importance of regular fitness
● Classes include; power walking, a range of exercise equipment, resistance training, circuit classes, advice on nutrition and weight loss
● Personal trainers help clients to achieve their fitness or lifestyle goals
● Thye complete a lifestyle analysis and plan, guide and monitor each program for client
● Motivate client to achieve goals
● Work; in a clients home, recreational setting, or fitness centers
● Personal trainers need qualifications/ degrees Exercise clubs:
● Give individuals a specific exercises to work with in groups
● Many clubs will give members advice on correct technique, and training programs
● Clubs include; jogging, swimming, triathlons, lifesaving, rock climbing
● Organise formal and informal training sessions
● Advertise and encourage entry into to exercise related eventsCultural groups:
● Important that the needs of different cultures in australia have exercise available to them
● Cultural and religious beliefs have a strong influence on the types of activities that some individuals can do
● People need to be recognised and catered to in order to encourage members to participate in physical activity
● Cultural groups in community enable individuals to meet other members of their culture
● Participate in activities that are traditional or popular to their culture; cultural dance
● Cultural groups allow individuals to individuals to feel comfortable exercising with other who wear similar cultural dress
Advertising and promotion ● Fitness is now recognised as a commodity
● Fitness industry are committed to providing clients with quality service
● Improving health and wellbeing How do you know who to believe?
● Government initiatives aim to educate the public on the benefits of exercise and encourage individuals to become physically active
● Educate community and provide an understanding of the appropriate strategies for achieving health and fitness outcomes
● If consumers are unsure about the legitimacy of a product they should seek further information before making a purchase
● An individual offering advice or services in any aspect of health and fitness should have appropriate qualifications and training
Promotional techniques:
● Can be found in magazines, newspapers, television (commercials), internet, telemarketing and direct marketing.
● Advertisements could be for fitness centers, personal trainers and fitness consultants for products, fitness equipment, fitness videos, weight-reduction products
● Target specific groups; age; people wanting to lose weight, improve body image
● Limited offer memberships are often used to attract new members
● Offering something for free, using testimonials, quoting scientific evidence, catching slogansAccuracy of information:
● Always analyse information that is received and determine how true it is
● Some advertisements may make particular claims or offer certain conditions that cannot be substantiated
● Ensure that you are given clear and accurate information about your rights
● Compare the fitness centers in your local area
● Seek advice from other people who have attended the fitness center
● Attend as a casula member before taking out a membership Ethics of advertising:
● Registered with fitness NSW and satisfy the code of practise; will not use misleading or unfair advertising
● Consumers are to receive high-quality service as a result of improving standards in the industry
● Appropriate and accurate advertising
● Promote the need for clients to adopt regular exercise and appropriate dietary habits to improve their health and wellbeing
Motivators and barriers to participation ● Lack of time, commitments to household duties, lack of money, lack of access to transport,
restrictions due to disability, injury or illness, work commitments
● Physical consequences: perceiving that you look better or are healthier after exercise
● External rewards: receiving praise and encouragement from others
● Internal rewards: achieving a feeling of accomplishment or gratification
● Motivation can be found by joining a club, fitness centre, exercise with a friend, personal trainer
Access to facilities:
● Transport is a major barrier for adolescents; rely on parents or public transport
● Local councils roles in physical activity; decentralising facilities, network of cycleways close to sporting facilities, and having conveniently located facilities
● Facilities need to be accessible for people with injuries or disabilitiesConvenience of use:
● Having facilities close by will motivate people to go
● Exercise at home; due to gym not open at time available for person
● Choose to exercise at work, corporate fitness centre or to run, swim or walk on lunch breaksCost:
● Purchasing memberships, equipment, clothes, footwear
● If people can't afford membership or footwear, they wont workout
● Free tracks to walk, run and cycle on Feelings about fitness and exercise:
● Feelings about exercise can determine whether they are motivated to participate
● Some people prefer to train alone with personal trainer, some like group activity
● Many individuals have negative feelings on exercise; feelings; unpleasant, boring, embarrassing
● Negative attitudes can come from experiences, self image and self-esteem
● Many people overweight don't workout because they feel embarrassed or they're scared about what someone will say about them in public
● Exercise programs need to reflect these feelings and the needs of an individual to provide motivation
● Need to change negative feelings on exercise in order to establish positive lifestyle habits Exercise as a priority:
● People prioritise exercise differently due to changes in personal circumstances
● Exercise can become a priority when an individual has a specific goal; losing weight to do a marathon run
● Some peoples lifestyle means that they can/can’t prioritize exercise
● Family and work are commonly higher priorities for a person's life
● People “don't have time” to exercise but have time for leisure Influence of other responsibilities:
● Work and family commitments and other responsibilities are major barriers to exercise
● Work occupies most of an adults daily life
● Parents will place children's needs over their own
● Individuals who see exercise as a priority will often attempt to find opportunities to overcome barriers posed by responsibilities
● Exercise program that fits in with commitments
● Child-care facilities in fitness centres for adults to exercise b
● Exercise at work encourages people to add it in their day to day life
PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES● Group experiencing health inequalities
Defined in terms of the lack of ability to perform everyday functions or activities
P- Physical, eg. paralysisI- Intellectual, eg. autismP- Psychological eg. mental illnessS- sensory eg. hearing
● Nature and extent of the health inequalities
● People with disabilities use health services regularly to meet their needs, having higher rates of consultation with their GP, specialists and other health professionals.
● With the high use of all services, it leads towards a high prevalence of the individual's health condition and comorbidity of physical conditions and mental disorders.
● Nearly half of these people, aged 15-64 years old with a disability report as ‘fair’ or ‘worse’ health compared to 5% of other australians.
● In this age group (15-64), people with severe disability had higher rates of: young onset arthritis, osteoporosis before the age of 45, and young onset of diabetes. -
● People with disability have also smoked more, were more overweight, and had more suicidal thoughts.
● Disability can be known as a severe or profound core activity limitation- unable to do, or always or even sometimes needs help with these activities, self-care, mobility and communication.
● Can be seen as having mild or moderate core activity limitation, or has a restriction in schooling or employment.
● Sociocultural determinants- Includes family peers, religion, media and culture- ATSI have a higher prevalence of disability compared to other Australians - Elderly is the highest group that suffer disabilities - Disabilities are genetic, making family and culture important
● Socioeconomic determinants
● Education, employment, income
● Limited to access to schools
● Schools need to be specially designed for them to attend
● Eg. wheelchair access
● Lower level of education, leading to limited choice of employment
● Environmental determinants
● Majority of disabled people live in households rather than accommodation establishments.
● They can be disadvantaged by living in poor quality housing or be affected by living in accommodation that is inappropriate for their disability.
● Disabled people often have reduced access to health services and some require technology in order to be mobile, which comes at a cost.
● The government has been ensuring every health centre, medical centre and hospital have disabled access.
● Disabled people are more likely to smoke and have insufficient physical activity
● People with a severe or profound disability are more likely to be overweight or obese
● The roles of individuals in address the health inequalities - people with disabilities ended up there because of lifestyle choices - some individuals have no choice over food or activities they are involved in- individuals should seek education utilising the services provided for them
● The roles of communities in addressing the health inequalities
● Half the people with disabilities accessed community support services
● 20% used community access services
● eg . The aging disability and home care community services
● Early intervention programs
● Supported accommodation
● Living skills programs
● Social groups
● Helping find employment
● Advocacy
● Awareness promotion
● Eg. Disabled job support
● Nova employment
● The roles of governments in addressing the health inequalities
● National disability strategy that seeks to address the inequities among people with disabilities
● Governments have disabilitycare australia to improve service standards and developing the disability workforce
● Funds community programs, develop disability support services and home and community care program
● NDIS- NATIONAL DISABILITY INSURANCE SCHEME
