ADB—Education How We Work at a Glance · Malaysia Maldives Marshall Islands Micronesia, Federated States of Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore

ADB—Education at a Glance

Broad Education Sector Development

13%

TechnicalEducation and

Vocational SkillsTraining

21%

Preprimary and Basic Education

37%

NonformalEducation

4% Tertiary and

Higher Education

12%

Upper Secondary Education

13%

Education is a Core Operation Area of ADB.

ADB. 2008. Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic Framework of the Asian Development Bank 2008–2020. Manila.

How We WorkADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels.

ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field.

ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.

ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery.

ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013*

Country

Afghanistan

BangladeshBhutanCambodiaChina, People’s Republic ofCook IslandsFiji IndiaIndonesiaKazakhstanKiribatiKorea, Republic of

Kyrgyz Republic

Lao People’s Democratic Republic

MalaysiaMaldivesMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated States ofMongolia

Myanmar

NepalPakistanPapua New Guinea

Philippines

SamoaSingapore

Solomon IslandsSri LankaTajikistanThailandTimor-LesteTuvaluUzbekistanVanuatuViet NamRegional

* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).

Shadow Education

Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia

In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to

private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’

achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities,

diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in

education systems.

Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics

school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does

the shadow.

This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in

different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has

been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the

region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is

to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve

the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it

remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live

on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day.

ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth,

environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the

region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries

are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and

technical assistance.

Asian Development Bank

6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City

1550 Metro Manila, Philippines

www.adb.org

Printed on recycled paper.

Printed in the Philippines

Shad

ow

Edu

cation

Bray and

Lykins

Shadow Education

Private Supplementary Tutoring

and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia

Mark Bray and Chad Lykins

CERC Monograph Series in

Comparative and International

Education and Development

CERC

No. 9




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8

Publication Stock No. RPS114214



HIGHER EDUCATION ACROSS ASIA

An Overview of Issues and Strategies

HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA





www.adb.org



Administration and Governance of

Higher Education in Asia

Patterns and Implications

ISBN 9

78-92-

9092-7

62-4

The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka

The National Vocational Qualifications Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in

conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the

participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy

and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified

system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle

technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity

and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes

the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious

scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.

About the Asian Development BankADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its

developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life

of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the

world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling

on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive

economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main

instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity

investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-221-6Publication Stock No. TIM112959


The National QualificationsFramework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.orgISBN 978-92-9092-518-7

Publication Stock No. RPS124228 Printed on recycled paper.


IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY

Focus on Faculty Development





www.adb.org



ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY?

Finding a Better Balance

in Higher Education in Asia


ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8

Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border

Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia

Ensuring that Everyone Wins


ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8




COUNTING THE COST

Financing Asian Higher Education

for Inclusive Growth


Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org



Private Higher Education Across Asia Expanding Access, Searching for Quality


ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8


Improving Transitions

From School to University to Workplace

ISBN 9

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9092-8

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13%



21%


37%

NonformalEducation

4% Tertiary and

Higher Education

12%


13%

Education plays an increasingly critical role in ensuring sustainable human resource development in Asia and the Pacific. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) provides financing and technical assistance to its developing member countries (DMCs) in the region to help improve education systems to become equitable and inclusive, cost-efficient, of high quality, and responsive to labor market needs. In the past 4 decades, ADB has provided support worth $9.5 billion to its DMCs for the development of education. ADB assistance covers all education subsectors and also supports broad education sector development.

* In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars.






Country

Afghanistan


Kyrgyz Republic



Myanmar


Philippines

SamoaSingapore



ADB Support to Education, 1970–2013($9.5 billion)*

Shadow Education






education systems.



the shadow.




















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The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs of individual DMCs.

ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in the economic ladder.

ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all.ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education service delivery.

ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank.

Increasing Focus on Higher Education and Workforce Skills Development

Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions (about 33% of total higher education enrollment).

To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement.

Examples of ADB Support Expanding Equitable Access and Improving Quality of Education

The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, to secondary education.

ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the higher education system as a whole.

Strengthening Skills Development and Advancing Innovation

Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ employment prospects.

The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development.

Moving Forward“ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad

challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.”

ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila.DMCs have made good progress overall in increasing enrollments in basic education. Further development is warranted, especially in improving quality and completion rates. Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek to expand education opportunities beyond basic education and to improve quality and relevance of secondary and higher education, as well as skills development.

ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and polytechnic systems in Indonesia.

BasicEducation

TVET andSkills Development

HigherEducation

SecondaryEducation

Broad EducationSector Development

NonformalEducation

1970–1979(Total $197)

1980–1989(Total$1,102)

1990–1999(Total $3,476)

2000–2009(Total $3,033)

2010–2013 (Total $1,716)

Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

Strong Track Record in Education Development

ADB Loans and Grants in the Education Sector ($ million)


















BasicEducation


HigherEducation

SecondaryEducation


NonformalEducation

1970–1979(Total $197)

1980–1989(Total$1,102)

1990–1999(Total $3,476)

2000–2009(Total $3,033)

2010–2013 (Total $1,716)

Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500




















BasicEducation


HigherEducation

SecondaryEducation


NonformalEducation

1970–1979(Total $197)

1980–1989(Total$1,102)

1990–1999(Total $3,476)

2000–2009(Total $3,033)

2010–2013 (Total $1,716)

Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500




















BasicEducation


HigherEducation

SecondaryEducation


NonformalEducation

1970–1979(Total $197)

1980–1989(Total$1,102)

1990–1999(Total $3,476)

2000–2009(Total $3,033)

2010–2013 (Total $1,716)

Total 1970–2013 (Total $9,524)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500





13%



21%


37%

NonformalEducation

4% Tertiary and

Higher Education

12%


13%






Country

Subsectors



Tertiary and Higher Education

Nonformal Education

Technical Education and

Vocational Skills

Broad Education Sector

DevelopmentAfghanistan X X X XBangladesh X X X X X XBhutan X X XCambodia X X X X X XChina, People’s Republic of X X X X

Cook Islands X X XFiji XIndia XIndonesia X X X X X XKazakhstan X XKiribati XKorea, Republic of X XKyrgyz Republic X X XLao People’s Democratic Republic

X X X X

Malaysia XMaldives X X XMarshall Islands X X XMicronesia, Federated States of X

Mongolia X X X X XMyanmar X XNepal X X X X X XPakistan X X X X X XPapua New Guinea X X X X XPhilippines X X X X X XSamoa X X XSingapore X XSolomon Islands X XSri Lanka X X X X X XTajikistan X XThailand X X X X XTimor-Leste X XTuvalu X XUzbekistan X X X XVanuatu X XViet Nam X X X X XRegional X X X X X X


Shadow Education






education systems.



the shadow.




















www.adb.org



Shad

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Edu

cation

Bray and

Lykins

Shadow Education







CERC

No. 9




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8











www.adb.org






ISBN 9

78-92-

9092-7

62-4
































www.adb.org







ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8





ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8




COUNTING THE COST









ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8




ISBN 9

78-92-

9092-8

24-9



13%



21%


37%

NonformalEducation

4% Tertiary and

Higher Education

12%


13%






Country

Afghanistan


Kyrgyz Republic



Myanmar


Philippines

SamoaSingapore



Printed on recycled paper

Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org/educationPublication Stock No. ARM136142

December 2013


Shadow Education






education systems.



the shadow.




















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Lykins

Shadow Education







No. 9




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8








An Overview of Issues and

An Overview of Issues and





www.adb.org






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62-4























Shadow Education

and Its Implications for Policy Makers in AsiaThe National QualificationsFramework for Skills Training

Framework for Skills TrainingReform in Sri Lanka

Framework for Skills Training










www.adb.org







ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8






ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1




www.adb.org

ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8




COUNTING THE COST













ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8

Strategies



Private Higher Education Across Asia





ISBN 9

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9092-8

24-9






Documents

ADB—Education How We Work at a Glance · Malaysia Maldives Marshall Islands Micronesia, Federated States of Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore