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7/24/2019 Advanced Written English
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7/24/2019 Advanced Written English
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ADVANCED
WRITTEN
ENGLISHRobin Macpherson
&WYDAWN ICTWO NAUKOWE PWN
WARSZAWA 2004
ADVANCED
WRITTEN
ENGLISH
Robin Macpherson
WyDAWNICTWO
NAUKOWE PWN
WARSZAWA
2004
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Gerunds......................................................................................... 64
M os t............................................................................................... 66
O f -.Many of..., Most of..., Some of...etc..................................... 67
Problems with Negative Sentences ............................................ 69
Relative Clauses and the Comma............................................... 73
There.............................................................................................. 77
What, Whichetc............................................................................ 83
tylistic De vices..................................................................................... 89
Cleft Sentences with the PronounI t........................................... 89
Emphatic Word Order: Fronting....... ......... ......... ........ ........ ..... 92
I: Hardly, Only, Rarely, Scarcely etc.................................. 92II: WithAs and Though...................................................... 95
Relative Clauses in Apposition.................................................. 98
larity and Syntax ............................................................................... 103
Abrupt Sentence Endings............................................................ 103
Coordination................................................................................. 106
I: Unjustified Change of Subject... ......... ........ ......... ........ .. 106
II: Concord and Gender Bias... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... .. 108
III: Absence of Parallel Structure...... ......... ......... ........ ........ 112IV: Unjustified Change of Person........................................ 117
V: Dangling Participles..................................................... 118
Sp lic es ........................................................................................... 119
Unclear Antecedents I ................................................................. 121
Unclear Antecedents II - The PronounI t.................................. 123
Un-English Syntax....................................................................... 126
I: Verb and Ob ject ............................................................. 126
II: Main and Subordinate Clauses..... ........ ........ ......... ........ 127
III: Composite Attributive Expressions...... ......... ........ ....... 129
IV: Parallel Expressions....................................................... 132
V: Active vs. Passive........................................................... 134
Rhetorical Enhancers: Conjunctions and Discourse Markers ..... 136
Concession and Contrast............................................................. 136
Similarity and Contrast.......... ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ...... 141
Thereforeand Related Expressions............................................. 145
In My Opinion... ............................................. ......................... 148
Articles: A Few Tip s................................................. .......................... 152
Punctuation........................................................................................... 161
(The Comma seeRelative Clauses and the Comma.............. 73)
The Colon.................................................... ................................. 161
The Das h....................................................................................... 165
Inverted Commas......................................................................... 168
The Semicolon.............................................................................. 172
Key to the Ex erc ises............................................................................. 177
In dex ....................................................................................................... 203
Gerunds
64
M ost
66
Of
:
Many of...,
Most
of..., Some
of...
etc 67
Problems
with
Negative Sentences
69
Relative Clauses and
the
Comma
73
There
77
What,
Which etc
83
tylistic
Devices
89
Cleft Sentences
with
the
Pronoun
I t 89
Emphatic Word
Order:
ronting
92
I:
Hardly,Only,
Rarely,
Scarcely
etc . 92
II:
With
A s
and
Though 95
Relative
Clauses
in
Apposition
98
Iarity and
Syntax . 103
Abrupt Sentence
Endings
103
Coordination
106
I: Unjustified
Change of Subject
106
II:
Concord and
Gender
Bias
108
III:
Absence of Parallel Structure
112
IV:
Unjustified Change
of
Person
117
V:
Dangling
Participles
118
Splices
119
Unclear
Antecedents
I
121
Unclear
Antecedents
II
The Pronoun I t
123
Un-English
Syntax
126
I:
Verb
and
Object
126
II: Main
and
Subordinate
Clauses
127
III: Composite Attributive
Expressions
129
IV:
Parallel
Expressions
132
V: Active vs. Passive
134
thetorica]
Enhancers:
Conjunctions
and
Discourse Markers
36
Concession
and
Contrast
136
Similarity
and
Contrast
141
Therefore
and Related
Expressions
145
n
M y
Opinion...
.
148
Articles:
A
Few
Tips
152
Punctuation
161
(The
Comma
-
see
Relative
Clauses
and
the
Comma
73)
The
Colon
161
The
Dash
165
Inverted
Commas
168
The
Semicolon
172
Key
to
the
Exercises
.
.
177
Index
203
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>redicative
Vpredicative adjective is one that is placed after the verb to be, to look,
o seemetc., as in the following examples:
This road is dangerous.
You look tired.
If. attributive.
prepositional postmodifier
fhis is when a word or phrase is modified by a prepositional phrase that
:omes after it, e.g.:
the man on the moonthe house across the road
Here the prepositional phrases on the moon and across the wad modify
he man and the houserespectively. (Cf. also postmodifier and partici
pial postmodifier.)
proper adjectiv e
European andAmericanare examples of proper adjectives. A proper ad
jective is formed from a proper noun (e.g.Europe, America).
proper nou n
This is a type of noun that designates a particular person, place or thing, e.g.
Charles, Europe, Buckingham Palace.Typically it begins with a capital let
ter. (Cf. proper adjective.)
register
Register denotes a variety of language employed in a particular situation.
For example, in private a politician or chairman of the board might talk
about tackling specific problems, but in front of the television cameras he
will express the intention of addressing those problems. Addressingis ofa more formal or higher register than tackling.
sentence adverbial (cf. adverbial)
16
splice
By splice is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation
ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is unintentionally obscure, as in the following example:
*Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poo r and dving.
Lady Diana also made caring fo r them her principal work.
subordinate clause
Cf. also main clause and coordinate clause
transitive
This is a category of verb that is able to take a direct object, e.g. eat (a biscuit),give(a present), throw(a stone).
>redicative
V predicative adjective
is one that is
placed after
the verb to
be,
to
look,
o
seem
etc.,
as in
the
following
examples:
This
road is
dangerous.
You
look
tired.
If.
attributive.
prepositional
postmodifier
fhis
is
when
a
word
or
phrase is
modified
by a
prepositional
phrase
that
:omes
after
it,
e.g.:
the man
on
the moon
the house across
the
road
Here the
prepositional
phrases
on th e
moon
and
across th e wad
modify
he ma n
and th e house
respectively.
(
Cf .
also
postmodifier
and
partici
pial postmodifier.
proper
adjective
European and
American
are
examples of proper
adjectives.
A
proper
ad
jective
is formed from
a
proper
noun
(e.g.
Euwpe,
America).
proper
noun
This
is
a type
of
noun
that
designates
a particular
person, placeor thing, e.g.
Charles,
Euwpe,
Buckingham
Palace.Typically it begins
with a
capital
let
ter.
(Cf.
proper
adjective.
register
Register
denotes a
variety of language employed in
a
particular
situation.
For
example,
in
private
a politician
or
chairman of
the board might
talk
about
tackling specific
problems, but in front
of
the television
cameras
he
will
express
the intention
of
addressing those problems.
Addressing
is
of
a
more
formal
or
higher
register
than
tack l ing.
sentence
adverbial
cf .
adverbial
16
splice
By
splice
is
meant
an
element
in
the
middle
of a
sentence
whose
relation
ship
whether
to
the
preceding
or
subsequent
part
of
the
sentence
is
uninten
tionally
obscure,
as
in
the
following
example:
Like
Mother
Teresa,
devoting
herself
to
the
poor
and
dying.
Lady
Diana
also
made
caring
for
them
her
principal
work.
subordinate
clause
Cf.
also
main clause
and
coordinate
clause
transitive
This
is
a
category
of
verb
that
is
ableto
take
a
directobject,
e.g.
eat
a
biscuit),
give
a
present),
throw
a
stone).
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Vocabulary
Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Speech
Nominalisations
English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi
nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated
by means of the following alternatives:
la. *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those w ho wishto live a long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care
about longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.lb. We humans do no t have any influence on how and when w e die....
Of the two formulationsour death(la) andhow and when we die(lb) only
the latter is in keeping with English idiom.
Let us now consider the following four sentences:
2a. All our efforts are aimed at the improvement of quality.2b. All our efforts are aimed at the improving of quality.2c. All our efforts are aimed at improving quality.
2d. All our efforts aim to improve quality.
In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one
that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English
people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms
of register it might be found in an annual report, or in a statement delivered
by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.
19
Vocabulary
Lexical Choice
Involving
Parts
of Speech
Nominalisations
English
often
displays a
strong
tendency to
prefer
verbal
rather
than nomi
nal
constructions
in
order to express
its meaning.
This
may be
illustrated
by means
of the
following
alternatives:
la.
*We
humans do not have
any
influence on our death. Those who
wish
to live a
long
time often
die
in
their
30s, while
those
who do
not care
about
longevity tend
to live to
a
ripe old
age.
lb. We humans
do
not have any
influence
on how
and when we die....
Of
the two
formulations
our
death
la
and
how
and when
wedie
lb only
the
latter
is
in
keeping
with English idiom.
Let
us
now consider
the
following four sentences:
2a.
All
our efforts
are
aimed at the improvement of quality.
2b.
All
our efforts
are
aimed at
the
improving
of
quality.
2c.
All
our
efforts
are
aimed at
improving quality.
2d. All our
efforts aim to improve quality.
In
the
first
sentence
improvement
is a
noun
pure
and
simple,
albeit one
that is
derived etymologically from the verb
improve.
To
many
English
people the sentence would sound
highly
formal,
even unnatural. In terms
of
register
it
might be
found
in
an
annual
report,
or
in
a statement delivered
by
a
president or chairperson
on
a highly
formal
occasion.
19
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The second sentence (2b) contains the gerund improvingpreceded by5 articletheand modified by the prepositionof.It is less formal than the
st sentence.
The third sentence (2c) again contains the gerund improving, which is
llowed by the direct object quality.It is even less formal than the second
ntence.
The fourth sentence (2d) uses a very different structure, namely the
finitive to improve,governed by the verbaim.Of all the sentences it is
e least formal of all.The four sentences represent a gradation: from the formal to the infor-
al, and from nominal to verbal structures. Sentence 2a represents a style
' writing that is frequently felt to be alien to English idiom.
uggested Exercises (1):
ewrite the sentences below using verbal structures to replace or modify
i e ita licised words. Avoid using gerunds wherever possible. Example:
a. The existence ofthis tendency is beyond all doubt.b. Itis beyond all doubt thatthis tendency exists.
1. An answerto this question is not simple.
2. Our foundation invites you topar tici pat ion in a correspondence course.
3. TV is not only an ideal source of information but the easiest way of manipu
lation as well.
4. It is enough to get on a bus to be a witness o fmany discussions about p olitics.
5. The purpose of the course is the preparation ofx he studentsfo r a cons cious and critical use ofthe language.
6 . The Royal Family was opposed to the Kin gs marriage toa divorcee.
7. Such a man is an unsuitable representative of acountry and its people.
8 . Another mistake often made by parents is lack o f trust inchildren.
9. The attaining o f Enlightenm ent is the wish o f every Buddhist.
0. A good teacher must be patient, as the necessity o f repeatingthe same
information several times over is quite commonin this job.
1. P oles may be criticsof priests and question some of the C hurchs teachings,
bu t they love the Pope .
2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage ofadoles
cence.
>0
13. For those people who do no t happen to be the lucky owners of acar, trains arethe easiest and quicke st means of travelling.
14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation o fthe railways would havethe effect of a significant decrease intraffic congestion.
15. The failure o fthe engineper sis ted ,and we thought we would be stuck there.
The importance of paraphrasing will be familiar to any experienced trans
lator. Let us look at the following sentence, which is an extreme but not
infrequent example o f translationese:3a. *The knowledge of the principles of correct usage
of a language is very important.
Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all too
typical of a text that has been translated into English mechanically and
without any attempt to make the end product truly readable. Of course
there are various ways in which the above sentence may be improved and,
by implication, the mistake which it exemplifies avoided. Here are just twopossibilities:
3b. In any language it is very important to knowthe principles that determine correctness o f usage.
3c. Knowing the principles determining correct usage is very important inany language.
Suggested Exercises (2):
Rewri te the fol low ing sentences using verbal structures to replace ormodify the italicised words:
1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger of domination ofsmallcountries by multinational concerns.
2. A teacher must be capable offa ir ju dg em en t o fstudents as individuals.
3. Such problems are a consequence of unawareness o fthe full significance of
the situation.
4. The factors determining life expectancy can easily be identified by means ofa comparison o fthe present century with fo rmer epochs.
5. The theme of this essay is the computers invasion o f every sphere of ourpri vat e doma in.
6 . With the decline of established values people seem to have lost the feeling ofthe necessity o f doinggood deeds.
21
The
second sentence
2b
contains the gerund improving
preceded
by
5
article
the and
modified by the
preposition of . It is
less formal than the
st
sentence.
The
third sentence
2c
again
contains the
gerund
improving, which
is
Uowed
by
the
direct
object quality.
It
is
even less formal than the second
ntence.
The fourth
sentence
2d
uses
a very
different structure, namely the
finitive
to
improve, governed
by the verb
aim.
Of
all
the
sentences
it
is
e
least formal
of
all.
The four sentences represent
a gradation:
from
the formal to
the infor-
al,
and from nominal
to
verbal structures.
Sentence 2a represents a
style
writing that
is
frequently
felt
to
be alien
to
English
idiom.
uggested Exercises
1 :
ewrite the sentences
below
using
verbal structures
to
replace
or modify
le
italicised
words. Avoid
using
gerunds wherever possible
.
Example:
a.
The existence
of
this
tendency is
beyond
all
doubt.
b. It
is beyond
all
doubt
that this
tendency
exists.
1. An answer
to this question is
not
simple.
2. Our foundation invites
you
to
participation
in
a
correspondence
course.
3. TV
is
not
only an
ideal
source of information but the
easiest way of
manipu
lation as well.
4.
It
is enough
to
get
on a bus
to
be
a witness
of many
discussions about
politics.
5.
The purpose
of
the
course is the
preparation
of the
students
for
a conscious
and critical use of the
language.
6.
The Royal Family was opposed to
the
Kings marriage
to
a divorcee.
7. Such
a
man
is
an unsuitable
representative
of
a country
and its
people.
8. Another
mistake
often
made
by parents is lack of
trust
in
children.
9.
The attaining
of
Enlightenment
is
the wish of every
Buddhist.
0.
A
good
teacher
must be patient,
as the necessity
of repeating
the
same
information several times
over is
quite
common in this job.
1. Poles
may
be
critics
of
priests and question some of the
Churchs teachings,
but
they
love the
Pope.
2.
Unfortunately
some
teenagers stop
their
development at
the
stage
of adoles
cence.
>0
13.
For
those
people
who
do
not
happen
to
be
the lucky
owners
of
a car,
trains
are
the
easiest
and
quickest
means
of
travelling.
14.
The
improvement
and
more
intensive
utilisation
of
the
railways
would
have
the
effect
of
a
significant
decrease
in
traffic
congestion.
15.
The
failure
of
the
engine
persisted,
and
we
thought
we
would
be
stuck
there.
The
importance
of
paraphrasing
will
be
familiar
to
any
experienced
trans
lator.
Let
us
look
at the
following
sentence,
which
is
an
extreme
but
not
infrequent
example
of
t anslationese:
3a .
*The
knowledge
of
the
principles
of
correct
usage
of
a
language
is very
important.
Characterised
by
three
o/-phrases
one
after
the
other,
the
sentence
is
all
too
typical
of
a
text
that
has
been
translated
into
English
mechanically
and
without
any
attempt
to
make
the
end
product
truly
readable.
Of
course
there
are
various ways
in
which
the
above
sentence
may
be
improved
and,
by
implication,
the
mistake
which
it
exemplifies
avoided.
Here
are just
two
possibilities:
3b.
In any
language
it is
very
important
to
know
the
principles
that
determine
correctness
of
usage.3c.
Knowing
the
principles
determining
correct
usage
is
very
important
in
any
language.
Suggested
Exercises
2 :
Rewrite
the
following
sentences
using
verbal
structures
to
replace
or
modify
the
italicised
words:
1.
One
shortcoming
of
globalisation
is
the
danger
of
domination
of
small
countries
by
multinational
concerns.
2.
A
teacher
must
be
capable
of fair
judgement
of
students
as
individuals.
3.
Such
problems
are a
consequence
of
unawareness
of
the
full
significance
of
the
situation.
4.
The
factors
determining
life
expectancy
can
easily
be
identified
by
means of
a
comparison
of
the
present
century
with
former
epochs.
5.
The
theme
of
this
essay
is
the
computers
invasion of
every
sphere
of
our
private
domain.
6.
With
the
decline
of
established
values
people
seem
to
have
lost
the
feeling
of
the
necessity
of
doing
good
deeds.
21
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. The incredible sharpness of the senses o f catsm akes them react to paranor
mal phenomena.
. We run a serious risk of a loss ofour traditional, rather conservative values.
The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration o f thepossi bil ity o f coex iste nce o f groups o fpe op le as reflected through numerous
ancient cultures.
Yet notwithstanding all the above remarks, nominalisation remains an
mportant stylistic option for any serious writer of English. Let us compare
he following two alternative sentences:
4a. TV can lead to family life becoming impoverished.
4b. TV can lead to the impoverishment of family life.
5a. If there is an emergency , call 999.5b. In the event of an emergency call 999.
vVhich of the two we prefer will be largely determined by our sense of
egister, the second of each being more formal than the first. This diffe-
ence o f register is especially obvious in 5a-b: if, as is likely, the context is
m official notice in a telephone booth, then only 5b will be appropriate.
And if w e compare the following two sentences:
6a. Pharaoh was chastised because he refused to release the Israelites.6b. Pha raoh was chas tised for his refusal to re lease the Isra elites.
we see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather
simplistic and more appropriate for a childrens tale, while the latter might
3e considered typical of any adult context.
Adverbs vs. Verbs
In the previous section it was pointed out that English often displays a striking
tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to ex
press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be
found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial
expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following alternatives:
22
la . Although the artists works apparentlyenter the surrealist
convention, they are closer to the poetry of childrens dreams.lb . Although the artists works appear toenter....
2a. This castle was supposedlybuilt by U lrich von Falkenbergaround 1440.
2b. This castle is supposed to have been built by....
In each of the above alternatives, the second ( lb , 2b) would be widely
considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.
It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often pre
fers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial
expression. Compare the following alternatives:
3a. Possiblyhe will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain.3b. It is poss ible thathe will be there tomorrow....
4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awarenessof the environment.Ev ide ntlythe environment has becomea key concern.
4b. There can be no doubt thatthere have been huge changes in
pub lic awareness of the e nvironm ent. It is evide nt/ obvious thatthe environment has become a key concern.
5a. To begin with,the writer discusses new developments ine-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentationof the current situation. Nex the examines how advances
in information technology will affect our lives.5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...
He goe s onto examine....
In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely considered to be more typical o f English idiom.
Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial express ionare equally possible. Compare the following:
6a. Each lesson was crammed with theory. As a result
students attended classes reluctantly.6b. ...As a re sult studen ts were reluctant toattend classes.
7a. The new proprietors have decided to specialise in conferencesand training courses. Obviouslythey have not forgotten
about individual clients, who will be as welcome as always.
7b. ..J t go es w itho ut sayi ng tha t they have not forgotten aboutindividual clients....
23
.
The incredible
sharpness
of
the
senses
of
cats
makes
them react
to
paranor
mal
phenomena.
We run
a
serious
risk
of
a
loss
of
our
traditional, rather conservative
values.
'.
The new
developments in
archaeology
resulted in
the
consideration
of
the
possibility
of coexistence
of groups
of
people
as reflected
through
numerous
ancient
cultures.
Ye t
notwithstanding
all
the
above
remarks,
nominalisation
remains an
mportant
stylistic
option
for
any
seriouswriter
of
English.
Let us
compare
he
following
two
alternative
sentences:
4a.
TV can
lead
to
family life
becoming
impoverished.
4b.
TV can
lead
to
the
impoverishment
of family
life.
5a. If
there
is an
emergency,
call
999.
5b.
In
the
event
of
an
emergency
call
999.
iVhich
of
the
two
we prefer
will
be largely
determined
by
our
sense
of
egister,
the second
of
each
being
more formal
than
the
first.
This
diffe-
ence
of
register
is
especially
obvious in
5a-b:
if,
as
is likely,
the
context
is
tn
official notice
in
a
telephone
booth,
then
only
5b
will
be
appropriate.
And
if
we
compare
the
following
two
sentences:
6a. Pharaoh
was
chastised
because he
refused
to
release
the
Israelites.
6b.
Pharaoh
wa s
chastised
for his
refusal
to release
the
Israelites.
iVe
see
that
the
first
sentence
uses
a verbal
construction
which
is rather
simplistic
and more
appropriate
for
a
childrens
tale,
while
the
latter
might
oe considered
typical of
any
adult
context.
Adverbs
vs.
Verbs
In
the previous
section
it
was
pointed
out that
English
often
displays
a
striking
tendency
to
favour
verbal
rather than
nominal
constructions
in
order to
ex
press
its
meaning. The
same
predilection,
albeit
less
marked, is also
to
be
found
when there
is a
choice
between
a
verbal
construction
and
an adverbial
expression.This
may be
illustrated
by
means
of
the
following alternatives:
22
la.
Although
the artists
works
apparently
enter
the
surrealist
convention,
they
are
closer
to the
poetry of
childrens
dreams.
lb.
Although
the
artists
works
appear
to
enter....
2a.
This castle
was
supposedly
built
by
Ulrich
von
Falkenberg
around 1440.
2b.
This
castle
is
supposed
to have
been
built
by....
In each
of
the
above alternatives,
the
second
lb,
2b
would
be
widely
considered
to
be more
in
keeping
with
English
idiom.
It
is especially
at the beginning
of
the
sentence
that English
often
pre
fers
a
verbal
construction
where
other
languages
might
use an
adverbial
expression.
Compare
the
following
alternatives:
3a .
Possibly
he
will
be there
tomorrow,
bu t
i t is
far from
certain.
3b .
It
is
possible
that
he
will
be
there
tomorrow....
4a.
Undoubtedly
there
have
been huge
changes
in
public
awareness
of the
environment.
Evidently
the
environment
has
become
a
key
concern.
4b.
There
can
be no
doubt
that
there have
been
huge
changes
in
public
awareness
of
the
environment.
It
is
evident /
obvious
that
the
environment
has become
a key
concern.
5a.
To begin
with,
the
writer
discusses new
developments
in
e-commerce
and
the Internet,
giving
a
detailed
presentation
of the
current
situation. Next
he
examines
how
advances
in
information
technology
will
affect ou r
lives.
5b.
The writer
begins
by
discussing
new
developments...
He
goes
on
to
examine....
In
each
of
the
above
alternatives,
the
latter
3b,
4b,
5b
would be
widely
considered
to
be
more
typical
of English
idiom.
Sometimes,
however,
a
verbal
construction
and
an
adverbial
expression
are
equally
possible.
Compare
the
following:
6a.
Each
lesson
wa s
crammed
with
theory.
As a
result
students
attended
classes reluctantly.
6b.
...As a
result
students
were
reluctant to
attend
classes.
7a.
The
new
proprietors
have
decided
to
specialise
in
conferences
and
training
courses.
Obviously
they
have
not forgotten
about
individual clients,
who will be as
welcome
as
always.
7b.
..Jt goes
without
saying
that
they
have
not forgotten
about
individual
clients....
23
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"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say literary figure
>ut man of letters. By contrast figure of letters is not English, while
literary man is highly informal at best.The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altema-
ive sentences:
4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.
4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism.
n the above alternatives there is no obvious difference of meaning: they
vould appear to reflect differing stylistic preferences and are equally
:orrect. The important thing to remember is that what in other languages
s expressed adjectivally may need to be rendered quite differently in
inglish.1
Suggested Exercise (4):
'n the fol low ing sentences choose the most appropriate alternative:
I. Such a child will never listen to any critical words / words of criticism.
>. That was the mom ent Eastern Europe embarked upon its democratic path /
path to dem ocra cy.
1 One aspect of the above phenomenon relates to the use of proper nouns and adjectives
(European versus of Europe etc), discussed above, p. 24f.
Frequent Problems with Specific Lexical Items
Belong
The verbto belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express
membership o f a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fo l
lowing examples:
Tigers belong to the cat family.
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.
The composer belonged to a secret organisation.
Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com
poser)belongs to something that is grammatically singular ( the cat fam
ily, the Germanic group of languages, a secret organisation). The verbto
belong cannot be used as a synonym of to be one o f . Consider the fol
lowing alternatives:
i. *The Habsburgs belong to Europe s most ancient dynasties.ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europ es most ancient dynasties.
iii. The Habsburgs are among Europ es most ancient dynasties.iv. The Habsburgs rank (are to be ranked) among etc.
v. The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) among etc.
Sentence i is simply un-English.
Suggested Exerc ises (5):
Correct the following sentences, rephrasing them in any suitable manner:
1. Dunes belong to the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral.
2. These monuments belong to those most often visited by lovers of art.
3. Frankly, the Joneses do not belong to those people who have fastidious tastes.
4. According to the latest computer-based analyses theB M Jbelongs to the topthree most prestigious journals in the world.
5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to hermany duties.
27
heabove sentences
exemplify
set
phrases.
Thus
we
say
literary
figure
>u t
man
of
letters.
By
contrast
figure of
letters
is not
English,
while
literary man
is
highly
informal
at
best.
The
point
can
be
further
illustrated
by means
of the
following
altema-
ive sentences:
4a.
Many
Cubans
dream
of
escaping
communist
reality.
4b. Many
Cubans
dream
of
escaping
the reality
of communism.
n the
above alternatives
there
is no obvious
difference
of
meaning:
they
vould appear
to
reflect
differing
stylistic
preferences
and
are equally
:orrect.The
important
thing to
remember
is
that
what
in
other
languages
s
expressed
adjectivally
may
need to
be rendered
quite
differently
in
inglish.1
Suggested
Exercise
4 :
n
the following
sentences
choose
the most
appropriate
alternative:
I
.
Such
a child
will never listen
to
any
critical
words
/
words of
criticism.
>
That
wa s the moment
Eastern
Europe
embarked
upon
its democratic
path
/
path to democracy.
1
One aspect
of the
above
phenomenon
relates to
the
use
of proper
nouns
and adjectives
(European versus
of Europe
etc),
discussed
above, p.
24f.
26
Frequent
Problems with
Specific
Lexical
Items
Belong
The
verb to
belong is frequently
a cause
of problems.
It
is
used to express
membership
of
a
clearly
defined family,
class
or community,
as
in
the
fol
lowing
examples:
Tigers
belong
to
the
cat
family.
English
belongs to the
Germanic group
of
languages.
The
composer
belonged
to a secret
organisation.
Note
how
in
each of these
examples
the
subject
(
tigers
, English,
the
com
poser) belongs
to
something
that
is
grammatically
singular {the
cat
fam
ily,
the
Germanic
group
of
languages,
a
secret organisation).
The verb
to
belong
cannot be used as a
synonym
of to
be
one
of.
Consider
the
fol
lowing
alternatives:
i.
*The
Habsburgs
belong
to
Europes
most
ancient dynasties.
ii.
The
Habsburgs
are
on e of
Europes
most ancient
dynasties.
iii.
The
Habsburgs are
among
Europes
most
ancient
dynasties.
iv.
The
Habsburgs
rank
fare
to
be
ranked
among
etc.
v.
The
Habsburgs
are
to he
numbered
counted among
etc.
Sentence i
is
simply
un-English.
Suggested
Exercises
5 :
Correct the following
sentences, rephrasing them
in
any
suitable manner:
1. Dunes
belong
to the
characteristic
features
of
the Baltic
littoral.
2 . These
monuments belong to those most
often visited by lovers
of
art.
3.
Frankly,
the Joneses
do not belong to
those people
who
have fastidious
tastes.
4.
According to the
latest
computer-based
analyses
the
BMJ
belongs
to
the top
three
most prestigious
journals
in
the world.
5.
Visiting the
poor
and chairing
various charity
organisations
belonged
to
her
many
duties.
27
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5. A n Englishman in Amsterdam will have little difficulty in communicating
with the local citizens.
7. These old tradition s strike us as being increasingly exotic, just as they do
western citizens.
8 . Politicians should be role models for ordinary citizens.
9. Many o f the citizens of Rome live elsewhere during the summer months.
0. Hundreds of years ago the Latin language was widely known and spoken
among educated citizenso f our country.
Selected Structural Peculiarities
Apposit ions (I)
An apposition (literally placing at) occurs, for example, in the following sentence:
Maijorie, my ne phews wife, runs a boutique.
The noun phrase my nephews wife is in apposition to Marjorie. In
other words, an apposition is when a descriptive word or phrase is connected to the word or phrase that it describes without the use of conjunc
tions or prepositions. Appositions do, unfortunately, tend to be a thorn in
the flesh for many non-native writers of English, since meaning, punctua
tion, and the use of the article all come into play. Let us consider the following sentence:
la . When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals.Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
In sentence la the phrase Celtic and Rangers is obviously in apposition
to the phrasetwo arch-rivals.The sentences structure could be made much clearer by inserting the wordnamely.
When the c up final was held between two arch-rivals,
namely Celtic and Rangers, m any people expected trouble.
The follow ing ( lb ) is an alternative formulation:
lb. When the cup final was held betw een the two arch-rivalsCeltic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
39
5. An
Englishman
in
Amsterdam
will have
little
difficulty
in
communicating
with
the
local
citizens.
7.
These
old
traditions
strike
us as
being
increasingly
exotic,
just
as
they
do
western
citizens.
8.
Politicians
should
be
role
models
for
ordinary
citizens.
9.
Many
of
the
citizens
of Rome
live
elsewhere
during the
summer
months.
0.
Hundreds
of
years
ago
the
Latin
language
wa s
widely known
and
spoken
among
educated
citizens
of
our
country.
Selected
Structural
Peculiarities
Appositions
(I)
An
apposition
(literally
placing at
occurs,
for
example,
in
the
following
sentence:
Maijorie,
my
nephews
wife,
runs
a
boutique.
The
noun phrase
my nephews
wife
is in
apposition
to
Marjorie.
In
other words, an apposition is when
a
descriptive word
or
phrase is
con
nected
to the
word or
phrase
that
it
describes
without the
use
of conjunc
tions or
prepositions.
Appositions do,
unfortunately,
tend
to
be
a
thorn
in
the
flesh for
many
non-native
writers of
English,
since
meaning,
punctua
tion,
and
the
use of the
article
all come
into
play. Let us
consider the
fol
lowing
sentence:
la. When
the cup
final
was held
between two
arch-rivals.
Celtic
and
Rangers,
many
people
expected
trouble.
In sentence
la
the phrase
Celtic
and
Rangers
is
obviously in
apposition
to
the
phrase
two
arch-rivals.
The
sentencesstructure
could be
mademuch
clearer
by
inserting
the
word
namely.
When
the
cup final
was
held
between two
arch-rivals,
namely
Celtic
and Rangers,
many
people
expected
trouble.
The
following lb
is
an
alternative
formulation:
lb.
When
the
cup
final
wa s
held
between
the
two
arch-rivals
Celtic
and
Rangers,
many
people
expected
trouble.
39
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Suggested Exercises (12):
Rew rite the fo llo wi ng sentences in their optimalform, making all necessary
changes (punctuation, word order, articles etc):
1. Our company owns a/the Dutch publishing house Polkadot.
2. Benjamin D israeli a/the British PM played a crucial role in the crisis.
3. The book describes the relationship between Humbert Humber a/the writer
and a precocious teenager.
4. Mikhail Gorbatchev a/the Soviet politician also describes these events.
5. From m y window I have a spectacular view of an/the extinct volcano
Shavnabada, which forms part of the central mountain range.
6 . The above journals are complemented by a/the monthly bulletin Forthcoming
Publications.
7. Vikin g comes from an/the old Nordic word vikingrmeaning pirate.
8 . The Peasa nts Revolt was led by a/the man of humble origins Wat Tyler.
9. Using e-mail I can communicate with Richard, my Australian friend, within
a few seconds.
10. A poll conducted byNe wswe ekan/the American m agazine also gave the
same results.
11. Juvenal a/the R oman poet once said that the supreme good is a healthy
mind in a healthy body.
12. Taking a/the double nam e John Paul II, he soon established a reputation for
himself as a defender of freedom, offering great moral support for a/the trade
union Solidarity.
13. Not only does the President face a charge of sexual harassment by Paula
Jones a/the former Arkansas State employee, but he has also had an
extramarital affair with Monica Lewinsky a/the 21-year-old White House
intern.
14. A/The name Iron Curtain was given to the Elbe frontier.
15. Orphee, conceived and directed by Jean Cocteau a/the great Frenchpla yw right, is a case in po int.
16. Today dem onstrations will be taking place across Serbia in the framework of
Alliance for Change a/the mass movement.
17. Spiritual regeneration is a recurrent theme in nineteenth-century literature.Thus the protagonist (Raskolnikov) of a/the novel by Dostoyevsky Crime
and Punishmentundergoes something of a spiritual rebirth.
18. I would like to quote the words of a song by Iron Maiden, a/the British
heavy-metal band.
42
19. The Pope John Paul II has tried to continue the work of John XXIII a/the
great reformer and an/the enlightened conservative Paul VI.
Appos it ions (II):
Appositions vs. Preposi tional Structu res
A special type of de facto apposition is used for towns, cities, districts,
landmarks, islands etc. It is typically expressed by the pattern the ...of .
Compare the following alternatives:
a. The Cotswolds area has many picturesque towns. One charming spa,
Cheltenham, is especially worth visiting.b. ...The charming spa of Cheltenham is especially worth visiting.
Both a and b have the same meaning. In the first alternative, Cheltenham
is technically in apposition to One charming spa.The second alternative
is especially typical of English idiom, conforming to a well-established
pattern that is found with various categories of proper nouns:
I. Towns and Villages:
1. The city of Rome is situated on the Tiber.
2. The town of Monmouth is the gateway to Wales.
3. The village of Tintagel is associated with King Arthur.
4. Today the Pope is visiting the Baltic port of Szczecin.
All the above sentences contain nominal phrases characterised by the pat
ternthe...of...In each instance two nouns are linked byofto form a whole:
thus in 1 the phrase the city would be incomplete without of Rome
(the sentence refers to all of Rome, not just to one part);1 similarly in
4 the Baltic port and Szczecin are identical the phrase does not imply
any distinction between, say, a port of Szczecin and the rest of that city.
1 Phrases like the city o f Romeare not to be confused with the phrase the City of Lon
don, which means one particular part of London - the ancient heart of the city where the
Bank of England, the Tower, and St Pauls Cathedral are to be found.
43
Suggested
Exercises
12 :
Rewrite the
following
sentences
in
their
optimal
form,
making all
necessary
changes
(punctuation,
word
order, articles
etc):
1
.
Our company
owns
a/the
Dutch
publishing
house
Polkadot.
2.
Benjamin
Disraeli
a/the
British
PM played
a crucial role in
the
crisis.
3.
The book
describes
the relationship
between
Humbert Humber
a/the
writer
and a precocious
teenager.
4.
Mikhail Gorbatchev
a/the
Soviet
politician
also
describes
these
events.
5.
From my
window
I have
a
spectacular
view of
an/the
extinct volcano
Shavnabada, which forms
part
of
the
central
mountain
range.
6.
The
above
journals
are
complemented by
a/the
monthly bulletin
Forthcoming
Publications.
7. Viking
comes
from
an/the
old Nordic word vikingr
meaning
pirate.
8.
The
Peasants Revolt was led by
a/the
ma n
of humble
origins
Wat Tyler.
9.
Using
e-mail I
can
communicate
with
Richard,
my Australian
friend,
within
a few
seconds.
10.
A
poll
conducted
by Newsweek
an/the
American magazine
also
gave
the
same results.
11
.
Juvenal
a/the
Roman poet
once
said that
the supreme
good is
a
healthy
mind in a healthy body.
12.
Taking
a/the
double
name John
Paul II,
he
soon established
a
reputation
for
himself as a defender
of
freedom,
offering great
moral
support
for
a/the
trade
union
Solidarity.
13.
Not only does the President
face
a charge
of
sexual harassment
by
Paula
Jones
a/the
former Arkansas
State
employee,
but
he has also had
an
extramarital affair
with
Monica
Lewinsky
a/the
21
-year-old
White
House
intern
.
14.
A/The
name
Iron Curtain
was given
to
the
Elbe
frontier.
15.
Orphee, conceived
and directed
by Jean Cocteau
a/the
great
French
playwright, is
a
case in
point.
16.
Today
demonstrations will
be
taking
place
across
Serbia
in the
framework
of
Alliance for
Change
a/the
mass
movement.
17.
Spiritual regeneration
is
a recurrent theme in
nineteenth-century literature.
Thus
the
protagonist
(Raskolnikov)
of
a/the
novel
by
Dostoyevsky Crime
and Punishment
undergoes
something of
a
spiritual rebirth.
18. I would like
to
quote
the
words
of
a song
by
Iron Maiden,
a/the
British
heavy-metal
band.
42
19. The
Pope John
Paul II
has
tried
to continue
the
work of
John
XXIII
a/the
great
reformer
and
an/the
enlightened
conservative
Paul VI.
Appositions II :
Appositions vs.
Prepositional
Structures
A
special
type
of
de facto
apposition
is
used
for
towns,
cities,
districts,
landmarks,
islands etc. It is typically
expressed
by
the
pattern
the...of.
Compare the following alternatives:
a.
The
Cotswolds
area
has many
picturesque
towns.
One
charming
spa,
Cheltenham,
is especially worth
visiting.
b.
...The
charming
spa of
Cheltenham is
especially
worth
visiting.
Both a
and b
have
the same
meaning. In
the f irst
alternative,
Cheltenham
is
technically
in
apposition
to
One
charming
spa. The second alternative
is especially
typical
of
English
idiom,
conforming
to
a
well-established
pattern
that is
found with
various
categories
of
proper
nouns:
I.
Towns and
Villages:
1.
The
city
of
Rome
is
situated
on the
Tiber.
2.
The
town
of
Monmouth
is
the
gateway to
Wales.
3.
The
village
of
Tintagel
is associated
with
King
Arthur.
4.
Today
the Pope is visiting
the Baltic
port
of
Szczecin.
Al l the above sentences contain
nominal
phrases characterised
by
the
pat
tern
the...of... In each instance
two nouns
are linked
by
of
to
form a
whole:
thus in
1
the
phrase
th e
city
would
be
incomplete
without
of
Rome
the
sentence refers to
all
of
Rome, not
just
to one
part);1
similarly in
4
th e
Baltic
port and
Szczecin
are
identical
the
phrase
does
not
imply
any
distinction
between,
say,
a
port
of Szczecin and
the rest
of
that city.
1
Phrases like the
city
of
Rome are
not
to be
confused with
the
phrase
the City of
Lon
don,
which
means one particular part of London
the ancient
heart of
the
city
where
the
Bank
of
England,
the
Tower, and
St Pauls
Cathedral are to be
found.
43
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t i s imposs ib le to leave the ofo u t a n d t o w r i t e **the city Rome, **the
own Monmouth etc.Let us look at the following alternatives:
a. The next conference will take place in Aberdeen, Scotland.
b. The n ext conf erence w ill take pla ce in the Scot tish city of A berdeen.
The difference between a and b is one of register: a is typical of the lan
guage of offic ial circulars and application forms, whileb is typical o f jour-
lalism and more general contexts.Sentence b implies that Aberdeen is not a capital city. WereEdi nb ur gh
o be substituted forAb er de en ,a different construction would be necessary :
c. The next conference will take place in the Scottish capital Edinburgh.d. The next conference will take place in Scotlands capital Edinburgh.1
n other words, the Scottish capital o f Edinburgh is impossible.This
iistinction, exemplified by sentences b -d , is generally applicable to the
;ities and capitals of other countries.
II. a. Counties, Kingdoms, Duchies:
1. The County of Gwent was formed from several smaller counties.2
2. The kingdom o f Wessex was the focus of resistance to the Vikings.3. Long ago the Duchy of Burgundy was very powerful.
tn 1 the C o u n t y o f G w e n t forms a whole: the county would be incom-
Dlete without of Gwent; the same goes for the k ingdom o f Wessex and
' he Duchy o f Burgundyetc.
b. Provinces and Federal States:
Here usage tends to vary from case to case:
1. The American state of Texas is especially prosperous.
(not: **The American state Texas)
2a. The province of Kosovo has a Moslem majority.(not: **the province Kosovo)
Also: 2b. Elections have been held in Yugos lavias troubled Kosovo province.
1 Note how commas have been left out between capital andEdinburgh. (Many native
writers of En glish would consider them clumsy and unnatural.)
2 But:Marlborough County, Orange County - American usage.
44
Confer also the following sentence:
3. The conferen ce will take place Under the patronage
of the Tourist Board of the Province of Pomerania.(not: **the Pomeranian Province)
III. Landmarks, Monuments etc.:
Here again it is a question of established usage:
1. The Dungeness headland can be seen for miles.(not: **The headland D ungeness....)
2. The Gower peninsula lies SW of Swansea.
3. The Dartmoor National Park continues to attract many tourists.
Islands:
Here usage is divided:
The island o f Iona; the island of Elba etc.
The Isle of Lewis, the Isle o f Wight, the Isle of Man etc.but: Bardsey Island, Long Island, Lundy Island.
Roads:
Again usage tends to vary from case to case:
1. London is connected to Birmingham by the Ml motorway.(preferable to:the motorway M l)
2. The Berlin-Hanover autobahn is one of the busiest in Europe.(preferable to:The autobahn Berlin-Hanover)
3. He was the designer and constructor of the Callao-La Oroyarailway line.
(not: **the railway line Callao-La Oroya)
Contrast:
The city is served by the international highways E75 and E71.
Hotels:
In BritainHo telgenerally comes at the end of the name:
The Savoy Hotel is in London .1
1 Hotel Savoy sounds Continental.
t
is
impossible
to
leave
the
of
out
and to write ** the
city
Rome,
* * t he
ow n
Monmouth
etc.
Let us look
at
the
following
alternatives:
a.
The next conference
will
take
place in
Aberdeen,
Scotland.
b.
The
next conference
will take
place
in
the Scottish city
of
Aberdeen.
The
difference between
a and
b
is one of register: a is typical
of the
lan
guage
of
official circulars
and
application
forms,
while
b
is
typical
of
jour-
tal ism and more
general
contexts.
Sentence
b
implies
that
Aberdeen
is
not
a capital
city. Were
Edinburgh
o
be
substituted
for
Aberdeen,
a different
construction
would
be necessary
:
c.
The next
conference
will
take
place in the Scottish
capital
Edinburgh.
d.
The
next
conference
will
take
place
in
Scotlands
capital
Edinburgh.1
n
other
words,
the
Scottish
capital of
Edinburgh
is
impossible.
This
listinction,
exemplified
by
sentences
b-d,
is generally applicable
to
the
;ities
and capitals
of
other
countries.
II.
a. Counties,
Kingdoms, Duchies:
1.
The
County
of
Gwent
was
formed from
several
smaller
counties.2
2. The kingdom
of
Wessex was the focus
of
resistance to the
Vikings.
3.
Long
ago
the
Duchy
of Burgundy
was
very
powerful.
In
1
the
County
of Gwent
forms
a
whole: the
county would
be
incom-
alete
without of
Gwent;
the same
goes for th e
k ingdom of Wessex
and
fh e
Duchy
of Burgundy etc.
b. Provinces
an d
Federal
States:
Here
usage
tends
to vary from
case to
case:
1.
The American
state
of
Texas
is
especially
prosperous.
(not:
**The
American state
Texas)
2a.
The
province
of
Kosovo
has
a Moslem
majority.
(not:**the
province
Kosovo)
Also:
2b.
Elections
have
been
held
in
Yugoslavias troubled
Kosovo province.
1
Note
how commas
have been left
out between
capital
and Edinburgh. Many
native
writers
of
English
would
consider
them
clumsy and
unnatural.
2
But: Marlborough
County,
Orange
County
-
American
usage.
44
Confer
also
the
following
sentence:
3.
The
conference
will
take
place
Under
the
patronage
of the
Tourist
o rd
of
the
Province
of
Pomerania.
(not:
**the
Pomeranian
Province)
III.
Landmarks,
Monuments
etc.:
Here
again
it
is a
question
of
established
usage:
1.
The Dungeness
headland
can
be
seen
for
miles.
(not:
**The headland
Dungeness....)
2.
The
Gower peninsula
lies SW
of
Swansea.
3.
The Dartmoor
National
Park
continues
to
attract many
tourists.
I slands:
Here
usage
is
divided:
The
island
of
Iona;
the
island
of
Elba etc.
The
Isle of
Lewis,
theIsle of
Wight,
the Isle
of
Man
etc.
but:
Bardsey Island,
Long Island,
Lundy
Island.
Roads:
Again usage
tends
to
vary
from
case
to
case:
1.
London
is
connected
to
Birmingham
by
theMl
motorway.
(preferable
to:
the
motorwayMl
2.
The
Berlin-Hanover
autobahn is one of
the
busiest in
Europe.
(preferable
to:
The
autobahn
Berlin-Hanover)
3.
He was
the
designer
and
constructor
of
the
Callao-La Oroya
railway
line.
(not:
**the railway line
Callao-La Oroya)
Contrast:
The
city
is
served
by the
international
highways
E75
and
E71.
Hotels:
In
Britain Hotel
generally comes
at
the
end
of the
name:
The
Savoy
Hotel is
in
London.1
1
Hotel
Savoy
sounds
Continental.
45
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Type I:
la . I did not invite Mr Fortune because he is a bank manager.
(I invited him because I genuinely like him.)
In this first type the speaker denies an imputed motive for his action, while
giving what he claims to be the real reason. In such cases it is often possi
ble to rewrite the sentence as follows (although the word order would then
be unusual):
lb . I invited Mr Fortune not because he is a bank manager....
In other words, the &ecawse-clause is dependent uponnot, instead of upon
the previous clause.
Type II:
2. A: Why didnt you invite Mr Fortune?B: I didnt invite him because he was going away for the weekend.
This second type ofbecause-clause explains the whole preceding clause,
and is not really dependent upon any one word. Here is another way of
writing the sentence:
The reason I didnt invite him was that he was going away for the weekend.
In sentences la-b Mr Fortune was invited, while in 2 he was not.
Now let us look at the following example:
3a. *Some children are, of course, especially difficult. The teachershould not be strict w ith such pupils because their personalities
are slow to mature.
Any experienced teacher of English would immediately recognise such
writing, for the simple reason that the second sentence is ambiguous. Is the
sentence an example of type I or type II?
Let us interpret the sentence in question as being type I:3b. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils iust because
their personalities are slow to mature.... (i.e. the teacher should
be strict with them for some o the r reas on.)
Note how the insertion ofju st makes the meaning of the sentence much
clearer.
48
If, however, the sentence is type II, then its clarity would be much en
hanced by changingbecause intosince:
3c. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils,
since their personalities are slow to mature ....1
Another option is a reformulation which dispenses with the because-clause and turns it into an independent sentence:
3d. ...The teach er should not be strict with such pupils.
After all, their personalities are slow to mature....
This, however, does not exhaust the possible options for cases of type
II. Let us look at a modification of an earlier example:
4. A: Why didnt you invite Mr Fortune?
B: I didnt invite him for the simple reason that he wasgoing away for the weekend.
In fact, the phrasefo r the s imple reason thatand its more formal variant
the reason being that are useful especially in such contexts, where it isnecessary to avoid ambiguity.
In sentences o f type II one other useful construction is also possible insome cases. Compare the following alternatives:
5a. *The EU does not promote conformity because it appreciatesthe unique features of each nation.
5b. The EU does not promote conformity, appreciating as it doesthe unique features of each nation.
Unlike 5a, sentence 5b is unambiguous; in addition it is much more in
keeping with English idiom and more elegant than 5a.
Additional Note:
A typical source of the infelicity or ambiguity described above is when
both thebecause-clause and the preceding clause are negative. Compare
the following alternatives:
6a. *People do not socialise any more because they do not have the time.6b. People do not socialise any m ore for the s imple reaso n th at
they do not have the time.
1 Note also the addition of a comma.
49
Type
I:
la.
I
didnot
invite
Mr
Fortune
because
he
is
a
bank
manager.
I
invited
him
because
I
genuinely like
him.
In
this first
type
the
speaker
denies
an
imputed
motive for
his
action,while
giving
what
he
claims
to
be
the
real
reason.
In such cases
it
is often possi
ble
to
rewrite
the
sentence
as
follows
(although the
word order
would then
be
unusual):
lb.
I
invited
Mr Fortune
not
because
he
is
a
bank
manager....
In
other
words, the
ecawse-clause
is
dependent
upon
not, instead
of upon
the
previous
clause.
Type
II:
2.
A:
hy
didnt you
invite Mr
Fortune?
B:
I
didnt
invite
him
because
he was
going
away
for
the
weekend.
This second
type
of
because-c
lause
explains
the whole
preceding
clause,
and
is not
really
dependent
upon
any
one
word.
Here
is
another
way of
writing the
sentence:
The
reason
I
didnt
invite him was
that he
was
going
away for the
weekend.
In
sentences
la-b
Mr
Fortune
was
invited, while
in
2 he
was not.
Now
let us look
at
the
following
example:
3a.
*Some
children
are, of
course,
especially
difficult.
The teacher
should
not
be strict
with
such
pupils
because
their
personalities
are
slow to
mature.
Any
experienced
teacher
of
English would
immediately recognise
such
writing,
for
the
simple
reason
that
the
second sentence
is
ambiguous.
Is the
sentence
an
example
of type
I
or
type
II?
Let us interpret
the sentence
in
question as
being type
I:
3b.
...The
teacher
should
not
be
strict
with
such pupils
just
because
their
personalities
are
slow
to
mature....
i.e.
the
teacher
should
be
strict
with
them
for
some
other
reason.
Note
how
the
insertion
of
just
makes
the
meaning of the
sentence
much
clearer.
48
If,
however,
the sentence
is
type II,
then
its clarity
would be
much
en
hanced
by
changing because
into
since:
3c.
...The
teacher
should
not
be strict
with such
pupils,
since
their
personalities
are
slow to
mature....1
Another
option is
a
reformulation
which dispenses
with
the
because-
clause
and
turns
it
into an
independent
sentence:
3d.
...The
teacher
should
not be
strict with
such
pupils.
After
all,
their
personalities
are
slow
to
mature....
This,
however,
does
not
exhaust
the possible
options
for
cases
of
type
II. Let
us look
at
a
modification of
an
earlier
example:
4.
A:
hydidnt you
invite
Mr
Fortune?
B:
I
didnt
invite
him
for
the
simple
reason
that
he was
going
away for the
weekend.
In
fact,
the phrase for
the simple
reason
that and
its more
formal
variant
the
reason being
that are
useful
especially
in such contexts,
where
it is
necessary
to
avoid ambiguity.
In
sentences of
type
II
one
other
useful
construction
is
also
possible in
some
cases.
Compare
the
following
alternatives:
5a.
*The EU
does not
promote
conformity
because
it
appreciates
the
unique features
of
each
nation.
5b.
Th e
EU
does
not promote
conformity,
appreciating
as it does
the
unique features of
each
nation.
Unlike 5a,
sentence
5b is unambiguous;
in addition it
is
much
more in
keeping
with
English idiom
and
more elegant
than
5a.
Additional
Note:
A
typical
source of
the
infelicity
or
ambiguity
described
above is
when
both the
because-
clause and
the
preceding
clause
are negative.
Compare
the
following
alternatives:
6a.
*People
do not
socialise
any
more because
they
do
not have
the t ime.
6b. People
do
not
socialise
any
more
for
the
simple
reason
that
they
do
not
have the time.
Note
also the
addition of
a
comma.
49
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26/103
7a. *We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh airbeca use there is no f resh air in the citie s.
7b. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath o f fresh air
simply because there is no fresh air in the cities.7c. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh air,
for there is no fresh air in the cities.
Sentence 6b is preferable to 6a, while 7b-c are preferable to 7a.1
Suggested Exercises (14):
Find a better alternative to because in the following sentences:
1. Dolphins do not have a langua ge in the real sense of the word, becausea language is more than just a collection of sounds.
2. The media do not create culture as such, because their only goal is to make
maximum profits.
3. Films are easier to watch than books to read. They do not require our imagination because everything is show n us.
4. In the twenty-first century there is no place for schools that teach only
academic knowledge, because it is not enough. Schools must have other
objectives as well.
Being and Having
When they are present participles, the words being and having nearly
always express a causal relationship. Look at the following sentences:
la. Being old and tired, Arthur decided it was time to resign.
2a. Having these unique advantages, Oxford and Cam bridge will surely
appeal to many tourists.In sentence la Be inghas the meaning of Since he was, Seeing that he
was, As he was etc, while in 2aHav inghas the meaning Since they
have, Seeing that they have, As they have etc.
1 If sentences 7b-c were spoken, heavy stress would be placed on the word is.
50
The point at issue becomes clearer if one compares the following sen
tences:
3a. *Cumbria, being a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3b. Cumbria, which is a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3c. Cumbria, a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
4a. *Shivering and having a temperature I went to the party.4b. Although I was shivering and had a temperature, I went to the party.
The participles beingand havingshould express a causal relationship, yet
it is obvious that this is the case neither in 3a (being')nor in 4a (having)',it is not possible to rewrite the sentences so:
*Cumbria, since it is a region of m ountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.
Seeing that I was shivering and had a temperature, I w ent to the party.
Thus, only 3b-c and 4b render the presumed meaning. By contrast, 3a and
4a, are not even English.
The same pattern emerges if we compare the following alternatives, o f
which only options 5b-d are correct:
5a. *School is a formative time for most of us. Being at school,
we meet m any interesting people.5b. ... While being at school we meet m any interesting people.5c. ...While at school we meet many interesting people.
5d. ...While we are at school we meet many interesting people.
In other words the being of 5a needs to be converted into clauses with
while(5b-d).
And finally compare the following alternatives, of which only option
6b is correct:
6a. *At Ascot you will see men having lots o f money accompanied
by b eaut iful and glam orou s e scort s.6b. At Ascot you will see men with lots of money accompanied
by beau tifu l and g lamorous escor ts.
Thus havinghas been replaced by the preposition with.
Suggested Exercises (15):
Rep lace the particip les being and having in the fol low ing sentences , rear
ranging them where necessary:
51
7a.
*We city-dwellers
cannot take a breath of
fresh
air
because
there
is
nofresh air in
the
cities.
7b.
We city-dwellers
cannot take a
breath
of
fresh
air
simply
because there is no fresh
air in
the
cities.
7c. We
city-dwellers
cannot
take a
breath
of
fresh
air,
for there
is no
fresh
air in
the
cities.
Sentence 6b is
preferable to
6a,
while 7b-c are preferable
to 7a.1
Suggested Exerc ises
14 :
Find
a
better alternative
to
because
in th e
fo l lowing
sentences:
1.
Dolphins do
not
have
a
language
in the real
sense of the
word,
because
a
language is more
than
just
a collection of
sounds.
2.
The media do not
create culture
as
such,
because
their only
goal is
to make
maximum
profits.
3.
Films
are
easier
to watch than books
to
read.
They do
not
require
our
imagina
tion because everything is shown us.
4.
In
the twenty-first
century
there is no
place
for
schools that
teach only
academic knowledge,
because
it is not
enough. Schools must have
other
objectives as well.
Being
and Having
When they
are
present
participles, t he words being and having nearly
always
express a causal relationship. Look
at
the
following sentences:
la.
Being
old and
tired,
Arthur
decided
it
was time to resign.
2a.
Having
these unique advantages,
Oxford
and
Cambridge
will
surely
appeal
to
many
tourists.
In
sentence la Being
has
the
meaning of Since
he
was
See ng
that he
was
Ashe
was
etc, while
in 2a Having
has the
meaning
Since
they
have
See ng
that
they
have
Asthey
have
etc.
1
If
sentences
7b-c
were
spoken,
heavy
stress would be
placed
on the word
i s.
50
The
point at
issue becomes clearer
if
one compares the
following
sen
tences:
3a. *Cumbria,
being
a
region
of mountains
and
lakes,
lies south
of
Carlisle.
3b.
Cumbria, which
is
a
region
of
mountains
and
lakes,
lies south of
Carlisle.
3c.
Cumbria,
a
region
of
mountains
and
lakes,
lies south
of Carlisle.
4a.
*Shivering and having a
temperature
I
went to
the party.
4b. Although I
wa s
shivering and had
a
temperature,
I
went
to
the party.
The
participles
being and
having
should express a causal
relationship, yet
it
is
obvious
that
this
is
the
case
neither
in
3a {being)
nor
in
4a
having
;
it is not possible to
rewrite the
sentences so:
*Cumbria,
since
it
is a region
of
mountains
and lakes,
lies south
of Carlisle.
Seeing
that I
was
shivering and
had a temperature,
I
went
to the party.
Thus, only
3b-c
and
4b
render the
presumed meaning.
By contrast,
3a
and
4a,
are
not even
English.
The
same
pattern
emerges if
we compare
the following
alternatives,
of
which
only
options
5b-d
are
correct:
5a .
*School is
a
formative
time for most of us.
Being
at
school,
we meet many interesting people.
5b. ...While
being
at school
we
meet
many interesting people.
5c. ...While at
school
we
meet
many interesting
people.
5d. ..
.While
we are
at
school
we meet
many interesting people.
In other
words the
being
of
5a
needs to
be converted
into
clauses
with
while 5