Macpherson - Advanced Written English

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ADVANCED

WRITTEN

ENGLISHRobin Macpherson

&WYDAWN ICTWO NAUKOWE PWN

WARSZAWA 2004



ijekt okladki i stron tytulow ych Maryna Wisniewska

laktor Barbara Wewior

daktor techniczny Leonard Zielinski

jpyr igh t © by Ro bin Macp her son

arszawa 2001

BN 83-01-13575-1

ydawnictwo Naukowe PWN SA1-251 Warszawa, ul. Miodowa 10

L: (O-prefiks-22) 695 43 21

ks: (O-prefiks-22) 826 71 63

mail: pwn@pw n.co m.pl

ww.pwn.pl

Table of Contents

Preface...........................................................................................

Glossary of Con cepts .................................................................

Vocabulary.....................................*...........................................

Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Spe ech.........................

Nominalisations..................................................................

Adverbs vs. Verbs ..............................................................

Proper Adjectives...............................................................

Adjectives vs. Prepositional Modifiers.............................

Frequent Problems with Specific Lexical Ite ms............... Bel on g .................................................................................G et.......................................................................................

Emerge, Happen, Occur, Prove, Turn Out ..........................

Namely and Related Expressions.......................................

Easy, Difficult, Possible, Impossib le.................................

Value....................................................................................

Citizen.................................................................................

Selected Structural Peculiarities..............................................

Appositions I .......................................................................

Appositions II: Appositions vs. Prepositional Structures

Because in Negative Sentences......................................... Being and Having...............................................................

Be + fo-infmitive...............................................................

Comment Clauses with A s ................................................ .

Complements and the Verb To B e .....................................

Constructions with As and Than.......................................

8

9

19

19

1922

24

25

2727

28

30

3234

36

37

39

3943

475054

55

57

61

5

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]



Gerunds......................................................................................... 64

M os t ............................................................................................... 66

O f -.Many of..., Most of..., Some of... etc..................................... 67

Problems with Negative Sentences ............................................ 69

Relative Clauses and the Comma............................................... 73

There.............................................................................................. 77

What, Which etc............................................................................ 83

tylistic De vices..................................................................................... 89

Cleft Sentences with the Pronoun I t ........................................... 89

Emphatic Word Order: ‘Fronting’....... ......... ......... ........ ........ ..... 92

I: Hardly, Only, Rarely, Scarcely etc.................................. 92

II: With As and Though...................................................... 95

Relative Clauses in Apposition.................................................. 98

larity and Syntax ............................................................................... 103

Abrupt Sentence Endings............................................................ 103

Coordination................................................................................. 106

I: Unjustified Change of Subject... ......... ........ ......... ........ .. 106

II: Concord and Gender Bias... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... .. 108

III: Absence of Parallel Structure...... ......... ......... ........ ........ 112IV: Unjustified Change of Person........................................ 117

V: ‘Dangling Participles’..................................................... 118

Sp lic es ........................................................................................... 119

Unclear Antecedents I ................................................................. 121

Unclear Antecedents II - The Pronoun I t .................................. 123

Un-English Syntax....................................................................... 126

I: Verb and Ob ject ............................................................. 126

II: Main and Subordinate Clauses..... ........ ........ ......... ........ 127

III: Composite Attributive Expressions...... ......... ........ ....... 129

IV: Parallel Expressions....................................................... 132

V: Active vs. Passive........................................................... 134

Rhetorical Enhancers: Conjunctions and Discourse Markers ..... 136

Concession and Contrast............................................................. 136

Similarity and Contrast.......... ........ ........ ........ ......... ........ ........ ...... 141

Therefore and Related Expressions............................................. 145

“In My Opinion...” ............................................. ......................... 148

Articles: A Few Tip s................................................. .......................... 152

Punctuation........................................................................................... 161

(The Comma —see Relative Clauses and the Comma.............. 73)

The Colon.................................................... ................................. 161

The Das h....................................................................................... 165

Inverted Commas......................................................................... 168

The Semicolon.............................................................................. 172

Key to the Ex erc ises............................................................................. 177

In dex ....................................................................................................... 203



Preface

ie past decade has witnessed an unprecedented increase in the level of lglish among non-native speakers. Having mastered the language to

legree which allows for essentially unimpaired communication in both

eech and writing, more and more learners are aiming to achieve a native-

:e competence. It is precisely these learners whose written English, ad-

nced as it is, may still be marred by syntactical patterns that do not vio-

:e the grammatical rules in any obvious way and yet are alien to English

iom. Advance d Written Engl ish focusses on sophisticated structures charac-

ristic of English at a high idiomatic level, since their complex character

d richness of nuance are a source of recurrent problems. Common as they

5, these problems are still generally overlooked by grammar books and nee by the learner. It was my aim to draw the reader’s attention to these

oblem areas, which I have presented with detailed, step-by-step explana-

>ns, accompanied by exercises and a key.

Like my previous work Engl ish fo r Writers and Translators, this publi-

tion is addressed to advanced users of English, and the two books are to

large extent complementary in character. However, it must be stressed

at my presentation of the issues included in Adv anced Written English

>es not in any way presuppose the reader’s knowledge of material dis-

issed elsewhere. Nor is the reader required to adhere to the order of pres-

itation as has been offered: the respective sections can be used independ-

itly or combined in such a way as to answer individual needs, a feature

hich makes the book ideal both as a teaching aid and as reference material r self-study. It is particularly recommended to teachers, translators, writ-

s and journalists, as well as students of philology, teacher-training col-

ges and those preparing for the CAE and Proficiency exams.

Gdansk, 2001

Glossary of Concepts

In this book a number of terms appear that might be unfamiliar to the reader:

adverbial ( also - expression, - link, sentence -)

An adverbial is a word or phrase which functions as an adverb (e.g. by

contrast, fortunately, in fact, moreover, possibly, quite recently, therefore,

undoubtedly), giving us extra information about an action, happening or

state. An adverbial may introduce a sentence, but is not to be confused with a conjunction (e.g. although, because, while etc.).

antecedent

This is the word to which a pronoun {he, she, it, who, which etc.) refers, e.g.:

1. 1’hejiart y was a great success - the guests really enjoyed it.

2. Anyone can join our club who is interested in poetry.

In 1 the expression The party is the antecedent of it; in 2 Anyone is the antecedent of who.

apposition

Generally an apposition denotes a noun or noun phrase placed beside an

other in order to describe it, while being unconnected to it by any preposition or conjunction, e.g.:

1. Joan, my wife’s cousin, has just returned from America.

2. Jack is visiting Brighton, his hometown.

In 1 Joan is the grammatical subject of the sentence, while the phrase my

wife’s cousin is an apposition; the phrase is in apposition to Joan . In 2

Brighton is the object o f the verb phrase is visiting, while his hometown is in apposition to Brighton.

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ributiveattributive adjective occurs before the noun to which it refers. Compare

:following alternatives:

a. This is a dangerous road.b. This road is dangerous.

a dangerous is in attributive position, while in b it is in predicative

sition. Most adjectives can be both attributive and predicative.

ixiliary verb1 auxiliary verb is one like be, do, have orwill which is used in combina-

n with another verb to make verb phrases, and especially to form tenses,

T *

5* *

Do you want another biscuit?

Mary is visiting he r friends.

John has gone to London.

Peter will m iss the train.

eft sentence

cleft sentence is when special emphasis is given to one particular part of £ sentence by means of it or what, e.g.:

1. “Who took the money?” “It was Peter that took the money.”

2. What you need is a long holiday .

1 and 2 special emphasis is given to Peter and a long holiday respectively.

m me nt clauseie following sentences contain comment clauses (underlined):

1. John wa s a pilot, so he claims, in the Battle of Britain.

2. She was, as she admits, too lazy to take the job seriously.

he types of comment clause discussed in this book are virtual parenthe-

•<s - in the above examples the commas could almost be replaced with

rackets:

la . John was a pilot (so he claims) in the B attle of Britain.

2a. She was (as she admits) too lazy to take the job seriously.

3

complement

Complement in the broad sense means something that is necessary to com

plete a grammatical construction. Here, however, it is used in a restricted

meaning to denote a noun or noun phrase that completes a predicate con

taining the verb to be:

1. Margaret is a librarian.

2. Peter was such a kindly man.

In 1 and 2 a librarian and such a kindly man are complements o f Margaret and Peter respectively.

concord

Concord is the way a verb form changes according to whether the subject is

singular or plural (“concord of number”), or first, second or third person

(“concord of person”). Thus we say the boy is (singular) but the boys are

(plural); we say I am (first person) but he is (third person) etc.

conjunction

A conjunction is a word like and, but, although, because, if, whereas etc.

It can be used to link clauses together:

a. I arrived early, but John appeared much later.

b. I ar rived ear ly whereas John appeared much later.

(Cf. also adverbial and coordinate clause.)

coordinate clause

Compare the following sentences:

a. I arrived at the party early, hut John appeared much later.

b. I arr ived at the p arty early , whereas John appeared much later.

In a the two clauses are grammatically equal (i.e. coordinate). In b, how

ever, the second clause is subordinate to the first: the second clause (whereas

John appeared much later ) cannot function as a grammatically self-contained sentence, while the first clause (/ arrived at the party early) can.

coordination

Unlike coordinate clause, the term coordination in this book does not have

any specialised grammatical significance. The sections which are listed un-

11



r the heading coordination bring together problems involving formal con-

;tency and logicality in the construction of a given sentence.

iangling participle’‘dangling participle’ is a participle that, when referred to its grammati-

1 subject, gives nonsense, e.g.:

*Not knowing the British mentality, many things might seem

rathe r strange at first.

ere the participle not knowing has the grammatical subject many things,

hich makes the sentence nonsensical.

efining relative clause {also: restrictive relative clause)his is a relative clause which defines or identifies the noun it refers to, e.g.:

Here’s the lady who owns that black tenier.

'Tot every lady owns a black terrier. Contrast non-defining relative clause.)

iscourse marker, discourse marker denotes a large group of words and phrases which indicate

te relationship between what is being said and its context, and which often

:veal the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying (e.g. as a matter of fact , fortu-

ately, frankly, obviously, possibly, on the other hand, strangely enough etc.).

llipsis-llipsis is the leaving out of words when their meaning can be understood

:om the context. Compare the following alternatives:

a. On one side the passengers could see the bay,and on the other they could see spectacular hills.

b. On one side the pas sen ger s could see the bay,

and on the other spectacular hills.

n b it is not necessary to insert the words they could see in the second part

if the sentence.

Jote:'hroughout the book asterisks (*) have been used to indicate usage which is unacceptable,

ixtreme examples of incorrectness have been marked with double asterisks (**).

.2

fronting

Fronting is when a part of the clause is brought to the front in order to give it special emphasis, e.g.:

John loves Renaissance music. Baroque he absolutely hates,

gender bias

This expression denotes a tendency in grammar (not only English) to be

have as if all human beings were of the male sex. Compare the following alternatives:

a. All people can become members of our Society who wish

to deepen their understanding of Britain’s heritage.

b. Anyone can become a member of our Society who wishes

to deepen his understanding of Britain’s heritage.

Sentence b means essentially the same as a, but the subject Anyone is singu

lar. The possessive adjective his refers to Anyone, even though both sexes are clearly intended.

inversion

Inversion is when the verb comes before the subject, e.g.:

She is a smoker, as are most of her friends.

{instead of: just as mo st of her friends are.)

In the underlined words the phrase most o f her friends is the grammatical subject of the as-clause and governs the verb are.

main clause

Sentences often consist of a main c lause and a subordinate clause, e.g.:

1. I’ll do the job when I get there.

2. Although the driver was drunk, the police let him go.

In 1 the main clause is I' ll do the job , and in 2 it is the police let him go\ in both 1 and 2 these clauses could form self-contained sentences, being gramma

tically complete. By contrast the clauses when I g et there and Although the driver

was drunk could never on their own form grammatically complete sentences.

modifier

Cf. postmodifier

13



ominal phrase {cf. noun phrase)

ominalisationominalisation means preferring nominal to verbal language in order to

onvey the message; more simply, it means using a noun to express some-

ling which could also be expressed by means of a verb. For example:

a. Mr Jones is an employee of the Town Council.

b. Mr Jones is employed by the Town Council.

entence a uses the noun phrase (or nominal phrase) an employee, while

uses language which is more verbal.

on-defining relative clause {also: non-restrictive relative clause)

his is a relative clause which does not define or identify the noun or noun

hrase that it refers to (because we already know which person or thing is

leant), e.g.:

Here is Pam ela Jones, who owns that black terrier.

Contrast defining relative clause.)

ion-finite verbs. non-finite verb is one that cannot on its own serve as a predicate in a

entence, e.g. smoking, been etc. The term refers especially to infinitives,

tarticiples and gerunds. (A finite verb is one that can serve as a predicate

n a sentence, e.g. smokes, is smoking, is expected, has been etc.)

loun phrase {also nominal phrase)"his is a group of words which together behave as a noun, e.g. the previous

•ditions, my n ephew’s wife, the city o f Rome etc.

)arallel expressionJarallel expressions are words, phrases and clauses in a parallel rela-

ionship to each other, unlinked by any conjunction, but separated by

i comma:

*TV influences our feelings, emotions.

*We must face these problems, try to understand them .

14

part of speech

A part of speech is a grammatical category of word, e.g. a verb, noun, adverb, adjective or conjunction.

participial postmodifier

This is when a word or phrase is modified by a participle or participial clause that comes after it, e.g.:

1. Some of the people accused were clearly innocent.

2. Various theories explaining this phenomenon have been advanced.

In 1 the participle accused modifies Some o f the people. In 2 the participial

clause explaining this phenomenon modifies Various theories. {Cf. also postmodifier and prepositional postmodifier.)

possessive adjective {also: possessive)

My, your, her, our, their etc. are possessive adjectives.

postmodifier

This is a word, phrase or clause that comes after the word or phrase which it

modifies, e.g.:

a. The house across the road is said to be haunted.b. Last night there was a nightingale singing in the garden.

c. There are many reasons why foxhunting should be banned.

In a the prepositional phrase across the road modifies The house-, hence it is

also called a prepositional postmodifier. In b the participial phrase singing

in the garden modifies a nightingale-, hence it is also called a participial

postmodifier. In c the clause why foxhunting should be banned modifies

many reasons. (Cf. also participial postmodifier and prepositional postmodifier.)

predicate

The predicate is the part of a sentence which tel ls us about the subject. For

example, in the sentence Marjory has ju st arrived, everything except Marjory

is the predicate. (Cf. also complement, non-fini te verb.)

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>redicative

Vpredicative adjective is one that is placed after the verb to be, to look,

o seem etc., as in the following examples:

This road is dangerous.

You look tired.

If. attributive.

prepositional postmodifier

fhis is when a word or phrase is modified by a prepositional phrase that

:omes after it, e.g.:

the man on the moonthe house across the road

Here the prepositional phrases on the moon and across the wad modify

‘he man and the house respectively. (Cf. also postmodifier and partici

pial postmodifier.)

proper adjectiv e

European and American are examples of proper adjectives. A proper ad

jective is formed from a proper noun (e.g. Europe, America).

proper nou n

This is a type of noun that designates a particular person, place or thing, e.g.

Charles, Europe, Buckingham Palace. Typically it begins with a capital let

ter. (Cf. proper adjective.)

register

Register denotes a variety of language employed in a particular situation.

For example, in private a politician or chairman of the board might talk

about “tackling” specific problems, but in front of the television cameras he

will express the intention of “addressing” those problems. Addressing is of a more formal or ‘higher’ register than tackling.

sentence adverbial (cf. adverbial)

16

splice

By ‘splice’ is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation

ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is unintentionally obscure, as in the following example:

*Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poo r and dving.

Lady Diana also made caring fo r them her principal work.

subordinate clause

Cf. also main clause and coordinate clause

transitive

This is a category of verb that is able to take a direct object, e.g. eat (a biscuit), give (a present), throw (a stone).



Vocabulary

Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Speech

Nominalisations

English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi

nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated

by means of the following alternatives:

la. *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those w ho wishto live a long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care

about longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.lb. We humans do no t have any influence on how and when w e die....

Of the two formulations our death (la) and how and when we die (lb) only

the latter is in keeping with English idiom.

Let us now consider the following four sentences:

2a. All our efforts are aimed at the improvement of quality.2b. All our efforts are aimed at the improving of quality.2c. All our efforts are aimed at improving quality.

2d. All our efforts aim to improve quality.

In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one

that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English

people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms

of register it might be found in an annual report, or in a statement delivered

by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.

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The second sentence (2b) contains the gerund improving preceded by

5 article the and modified by the preposition of. It is less formal than the

st sentence.

The third sentence (2c) again contains the gerund improving, which is

llowed by the direct object quality. It is even less formal than the second

ntence.

The fourth sentence (2d) uses a very different structure, namely the

finitive to improve, governed by the verb aim. Of all the sentences it is

e least formal of all. The four sentences represent a gradation: from the formal to the infor-

al, and from nominal to verbal structures. Sentence 2a represents a style

' writing that is frequently felt to be alien to English idiom.

uggested Exercises (1):

ewrite the sentences below using verbal structures to replace or modify

i e ita licised words. Avoid using gerunds wherever possible. Example:

a. The existence of this tendency is beyond all doubt.b. It is beyond all doubt that this tendency exists.

1. An answer to this question is not simple.

2. Our foundation invites you to par tici pat ion in a correspondence course.

3. TV is not only an ideal source of information but the easiest way of manipu

lation as well.

4. It is enough to get on a bus to be a witness o f many discussions about p olitics.

5. The purpose of the course is the preparation ofx he students fo r a cons cious and critical use of the language.

6 . The Royal Family was opposed to the Kin g’s marriage to a divorcee.

7. Such a man is an unsuitable representative of a country and its people.

8 . Another mistake often made by parents is lack o f trust in children.

9. The attaining o f Enlightenm ent is the wish o f every Buddhist.

0. A good teacher must be patient, as the necessity o f repeating the same

information several times over is quite common in this job.

1. P oles may be critics of priests and question some of the C hurch’s teachings,

bu t they love the Pope .

2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage of adoles

cence.

>0

13. For those people who do no t happen to be the lucky owners of a car, trains arethe easiest and quicke st means of travelling.

14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation o f the railways would havethe effect of a significant decrease in traffic congestion.

15. The failure o f the engine per sis ted , and we thought we would be stuck there.

The importance of paraphrasing will be familiar to any experienced trans

lator. Let us look at the following sentence, which is an extreme but not

infrequent example o f ‘translationese’:3a. *The knowledge of the principles of correct usage

of a language is very important.

Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all too

typical of a text that has been translated into English mechanically and

without any attempt to make the ‘end product’ truly readable. Of course

there are various ways in which the above sentence may be improved and,

by implication, the mistake which it exemplifies avoided. Here are just two possibilities:

3b. In any language it is very important to know

the principles that determine correctness o f usage.

3c. Knowing the principles determining correct usage is very important inany language.

Suggested Exercises (2):

Rewri te the fol low ing senten ces using verbal structures to replace or modify the italicised words:

1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger of domination of smallcountries by multinational concerns.

2. A teacher must be capable of fa ir ju dg em en t o f students as individuals.

3. Such problems are a consequence of unawareness o f the full significance of

the situation.4. The factors determining life expectancy can easily be identified by means of

a comparison o f the present century with fo rmer epochs.

5. The theme of this essay is the computer’s invasion o f every sphere of our pri vat e doma in.

6 . With the decline of established values people seem to have lost the feeling of the necessity o f doing good deeds.

21



. The incredible sharpness of the senses o f cats m akes them react to paranor

mal phenomena.

. We run a serious risk of a loss of our traditional, rather conservative values.

The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration o f the possi bil ity o f coex iste nce o f groups o f pe op le as reflected through numerous

ancient cultures.

Yet notwithstanding all the above remarks, nominalisation remains an

mportant stylistic option for any serious writer of English. Let us compare

he following two alternative sentences:

4a. TV can lead to family life becoming impoverished.

4b. TV can lead to the impoverishment of family life.

5a. If there is an emergency , call 999.5b. In the event of an emergency call 999.

vVhich of the two we prefer will be largely determined by our sense of

egister, the second of each being more formal than the first. This diffe-

ence o f register is especially obvious in 5a-b: if, as is likely, the context is

m official notice in a telephone booth, then only 5b will be appropriate.

And if w e compare the following two sentences:

6a. Pharaoh was chastised because he refused to release the Israelites.6 b. Pha raoh was chas tised for his refusal to re lease the Isra elites.

we see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather

simplistic and more appropriate for a children’s tale, while the latter might

3e considered typical of any “adult” context.

Adverbs vs. Verbs

In the previous section it was pointed out that English often displays a striking

tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to ex

press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be

found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial

expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following alternatives:

22

la . Although the artist’s works apparently enter the surrealist

convention, they are closer to the poetry of children’s dreams.lb . Although the artist’s works appear to enter....

2a. This castle was supposedly built by U lrich von Falkenbergaround 1440.

2b. This castle is supposed to have been built by....

In each of the above alternatives, the second ( lb , 2b) would be widely

considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.

It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often prefers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial

expression. Compare the following alternatives:

3a. Possibly he will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain.3b. It is poss ible that he will be there tomorrow....

4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awarenessof the environment. Ev ide ntly the environment has becomea key concern.

4b. There can be no doubt that there have been huge changes in

pub lic awareness of the e nvironm ent. It is evide nt / obvious thatthe environment has become a key concern.

5a.To begin with,

the writer discusses new developments ine-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentationof the current situation. Nex t he examines how advances

in information technology will affect our lives.5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...

He goe s on to examine....

In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely considered to be more typical o f English idiom.

Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial express ion are equally possible. Compare the following:

6a. Each lesson was crammed with theory. As a resultstudents attended classes reluctantly.

6 b. ...As a re sult studen ts were reluctant to attend classes.

7a. The new proprietors have decided to specialise in conferencesand training courses. Obviously they have not forgotten

about individual clients, who will be as welcome as always.

7b. .. J t go es w itho ut sayi ng tha t they have not forgotten aboutindividual clients....

23



8a. Our physical surroundings exert a considerable influence on

our attitudes. Apparen tly city life is much more attractive

for those who are tired of life in the country.8 b. ...It would appear that city life is much m ore attractive for those

who are tired of life in the country.

;n in cases where both verbal and adverbial options exist, i t is important

emember that the former may well be more appropriate to the particular

itext.

cording to, In accordance with

elated problem involves the exces sive use or misuse of the expressions

wording to and in accordance with. Compare the following alternatives,

which the second is preferable by far:

la . According to Catho lic dogma the Pope is infallible.

lb . Catholic dogma holds that the Pope is infallible.

2a. In accordance with my personal experiences I believ e that

life in the country can o ffer many attractions.2b. My perso nal experi ences have taugh t m e that....

3a. In accordance with an o ld b el ief fresh air, forests and fields

have a positive influence.3b. It is an o ld bel ie f tha t fresh air....

4a. Freud came up with a theory according to which dreams mirror

the passions which are concealed in the subconscious.4b. Freud came up with a theory which holds that dreams mirror....

roper Adjectives

frequent error of non-native writers of English is to use proper adjec-

es where English would prefer nouns (European vs Europe, British vs itain etc). Contrast the following sentences:

a. ^Blackpool has one of the most magnificent British beaches.

b. Blackp ool has one of B ritain ’s most magnificent beaches.c. Blackpool has one of the most magnificent beaches in Britain.

ily b and c are really in accordance with English idiom.


Improve or correct the following sentences:

1. Philadelphia is one of the biggest American cities.

2. The various European cultures have been intermingling for thousands ofyears.

3. Such an observation is certainly true of the Polish young generation.

4. The Spencers are one of the most aristocratic British families.

Of course, there is a place in the English language for proper adjectives, as in the following examples:

The Chinese economy grew by one percent last month.The British attitude to tradition is unlike any other.

The strikers have brought the French transportation system to a standstill.

But above all, it simply cannot be taken for granted that a proper adjective

in the native language is to be rendered by the corresponding grammatical

form in English. Since the rules governing use are elusive, the only advice is to proceed carefully.

Adject ives vs. Preposi tional Modif iers

English sometimes uses a prepositional postmodifier where other languages

may prefer an adjectival expression. Compare the following alternatives, of which only the second (l b ) is standard English:

la . Mary has a golden heart,lb . Mary has a heart of gold.

This observation does not, however, imply that the use of an adjective instead of a prepositional postmodifier is generally less typical of English;

the choice is simply dictated by idiom, on a case-by-case basis. The following instances merit attention:

2. The cafe was a meeting place for many literary figures.3. The Poet Laureate is a renowned man of letters.

25



"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say “literary figure”

>ut “man of letters”. By contrast “figure of letters” is not English, while

literary man” is highly informal at best.The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altema-

ive sentences:

4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.

4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism.

n the above alternatives there is no obvious difference of meaning: they

vould appear to reflect differing stylistic preferences and are equally

:orrect. The important thing to remember is that what in other languages

s expressed adjectivally may need to be rendered quite differently in

inglish.1

Suggested Exercise (4):

'n the fol low ing sentences choose the most appropriate alternative:

I. Such a child will never listen to any critical words / words of criticism.

>. That was the mom ent Eastern Europe embarked upon its democratic path /

path to dem ocra cy.

1 One aspect of the above phenomenon relates to the use of proper nouns and adjectives

(“European” versus “of Europe” etc), discussed above, p. 24f.

Frequent Problems with Specific Lexical Items

Belong

The verb to belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express

membership o f a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fo llowing examples:

Tigers belong to the cat family.

English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.

The composer belonged to a secret organisation.

Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com

poser) “belongs” to something that is grammatically singular ( the cat fam

ily, the Germanic group of languages, a secret organisation). The verb to

belong cannot be used as a synonym of “to be one o f ’. Consider the fol

lowing alternatives:

i. *The Habsburgs belong to Europe ’s most ancient dynasties.ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europ e’s most ancient dynasties.

iii. The Habsburgs are among Europ e’s most ancient dynasties.iv. The Habsburgs rank (are to be ranked) among etc.

v. The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) among etc.

Sentence i is simply un-English.

Suggested Exerc ises (5):

Correct the following sentences, rephrasing them in any suitable manner:

1. Dunes belong to the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral.

2. These monuments belong to those most often visited by lovers of art.3. Frankly, the Joneses do not belong to those people who have fastidious tastes.

4. According to the latest computer-based analyses the B M J belongs to the topthree most prestigious journals in the world.

5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to hermany duties.

27



Sensitivity, intelligence and tolerance also belong to the qualities o f a good

teacher.

Health and happin ess belong to the most precious things in life.

The murder mysteries of Agatha Christie belong to the most popular books

ever written.

Diet belongs to the m ost crucial factors in human longevity.

*et

et is the most overused verb in the English language, often being used

here other verbs are more suitable. In all except informal contexts its

/erase generally creates an impression of slovenliness, and its misuse leaves

1 impression of illiteracy. Look at the following sentence pairs, in each

f which the word ge t is replaced by an alternative:

. acquire

a. Many politicians have got a reputation for corruption. b. Ma ny poli tici ans have acquired a rep uta tion fo r cor ruption.

. become

a. Getting acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind.

b. Bec oming acquainted w ith oth er cul ture s broadens the mind.

. derive

a. It is from there that he gets most of his income. b. It i s fr om there that he der ives most o f his incom e.

. grow

a. When one considers all these contradictions, one simply gets confused.

b. Wh en one cons iders all thes e contradic tion s, one s imply grow s

confused.

. have

a. My grandmother has got a special way of dealing with unwelcome

guests. b. My grandm other has a special way of de aling with unw elcome guests.

6. obtain

a. There is no better way than TV of getting information on recent events.

b. There is no bette r way tha n TV of ob tain ing info rma tion on re cen tevents.

7. possess

a. Few of the village doctors have got adequate medical equipment.

b. Few of th e v illage doc tors possess adeq uate med ical equi pment.

In the above examples each of the first sentences (a) is informal or con

versational, while each of the second (b) is characteristic o f more serious writing.


Rep lace ge t in the followin g sentences (in some o f them a verb o ther than those listed above may be possible):

1. Pol itician s often try to get access to television- studios.

2. A good psychologist has got intuition.

3. All too easily people get lazy and prefer sitting in their armchairs.

4. One gets the impression that the world is moving ever faster.

5. Many people desire to get truly educated.

6 . A mature person never tries to get out of facing the consequences o f hisactions.

7. The paparazzi will chase anybody to get some interesting and sensationalmaterial.

8 . People may get anxious because of these economic problems.

9. One can easily get something interesting for oneself out of the programme

offered.

10. Ethical stan dards have got a historic al aspect to them.

11. The older one gets the wiser one becomes.

12. It is possible to get a great deal of satisfaction from reading books.

13. When trains are delayed for so long people often get furious.

29



zmerge, Happen, Occur, Prove, Turn Out

Tiese verbs are very often confused, since their meanings largely overlap.

. happenhis verb emphasises the element of chance and fortune. The following

entences exemplify various constructions with this verb:

la. He happens to have the same birthday as myself.(= It is an interesting coincidence that he ha s..)

lb. It so happens that he has the same b irthday as myself.

2. This equipment will be of use to you wherever you happen to be.

(= wherever you may be)

3. He is, as it happens, a member of our club.

(= It is a remarkable coin cide nce that ...)

4. Tt quite often happens that the sch ool ’s heatin g system breaks down.

!. occur"his verb has two principal meanings that are very different from each

tther.

1. When did this event occur? (= take place)

2. It just did not occur to him that his best friend had

let him down. (= He did not realise...)

sf.B. In neither of these two meanings is occur interchangeable with the

'erbs prove and turn ou t, being quite distinct from them. The phrase *“It

)ccurs that...” does not exist.

f. prove, turn outrhese two verbs differ especially in terms of register. Prove is more for-

nal. In the following sentences prove and turn out are interchangeable, lepending on the degree of formality:

a. The new secretary proved (to be) incompetent.b. That battle proved (to be) decisive. (= Later on it became c lear that

that battle...)c. The supplies that they had prepared proved (to be) inadequate.

50

d. Sadly the dog proved (to be) vicious and had to be put down.e. That argument proved to be the last straw: John left home.

(= La ter on it becam e c lear tha t th at argument had been the last s traw.)

N.B.

After prove the verb to be can often be left out (especially when follow ed

by an adjective, as in examples a-d.). This omission is not generally possible with turn out:

a. The new secretary turned out to be incompetent.(Not: *“tumed out incompetent”)

b. The film turned out to be awful and we left halfway through.

(“prove d awful ” is more formal and much less likely.)c. He turned out to he a gifted artist.

(“proved to be” is much more formal.)

4. It turns out that..., It e merges that..., I t transpires that...

These phrases generally mean “It becomes apparent that....” The first of the three is much more common than the other two:

a- It often turns out that our dreams have little to do with reality.

Transpire and emerge are used especially when a secret, above all a scandalous secret, comes to light. Transpire is of a higher register than emerge.

b. From my talks with the new chairperson it emerges that the firm ison the verge of bankruptcy.

c- It now transpires that the director has been embezzling moneyfor many years.


Fill the gaps in the following sentences:

1. Such mistakes can som etim es--------- fatal.

2. Yesterday I ----------to meet Mr Jones at the post office. He had someamazing news about our comm on friend.

3. His attitu de ----------to be incompatible with his daughter’s.

4. From evidence that has newly come to ligh t----------the Rosenbergs wereindeed Soviet spies.

5. Generally such child ren----------to be completely maladjusted.

31



6 . --------- the number o f accidents at that nuclear plant is out of all proportion

to its size.

7. Malaria----------especially in warmer climates.

8 . Before TV was discovered family members had more time for each other.

No wa day s,----------we a re more interested in the lives o f our favouri te TV

characters.

9. We all know those evenings wh en ----------we have nothing to do but sit in

an armchair and read a book.

10. The su bjec t----------more complicated than I thought.

11. When she finally did contact her parents it ----------that her father had died

a few months earlier.

Namely and Related Expressions

The adverb nam ely is generally used to introduce short phrases, as in the

following examples:1. Let me focus on a key issue facing Europe nowadays,

namely expansion of the EU.

2. Let us turn to a problem that so fascinated Freud,

namel y the way dreams reflect our subconscious.

In addition namely may be used to introduce a clause involving a non-

finite verb:

3. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform

—namely to educate a rising generation.

In this last example, but not in 1-2, which is is also possible instead of

namely.

3a. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform,

which is to educate a rising generation.

A recurrent error is to write sentences of the following types:

4. *This paper will be examining one of the greatest

modem health hazards, which is air pollution.

32

5. *Kurt claimed that in life there is something that goes beyond

money and fame —it is freedom and independence.

In both of the above sentences the word namely should be substituted:

4a. ...namely air pollution.

5a. ...namely freedom and independence.

Namely is seldom used to introduce a sentence, the following passage exemplifying a recurrent error:

6. *Our language has recently been deluged with English borrowings.

Nam ely a m an selli ng drugs is a ‘dealer ’, som eone who co nst ruct snew buildings is a ‘developer’, while McDonalds and KentuckyChicken are examples of ‘fast foods’.

In the above example Namely is impossible and needs to be replaced by Thus.

Other related phrases, include in other words, to be more specif ic, and

tha t is to say (often shortened to i.e.). It is important to remember that

namely is not used very frequently in contemporary English, other options being preferred.

Namely and i.e.

These two expressions differ in one other important respect. While both

aim to clarify, only namely makes the meaning more specific. Compare the following:

a. This summer we visited Stonehenge and Avebury, i.e. two prehistoricsites.

b. This summer we visited two prehistoric sites, namely Stonehenge andAvebury.


How can the fol low ing sentences be best completed?

1. In any family business the board of directors has only one primary goal,the wellbeing of the w hole clan.

2. There is one city in Central Europ e,----------Berlin, where Europe’s postwar

divisions have been most clearly highlighted.

33

r



Although Mr Jones knows what his daughter ’s interests are, he does not treatthem s eriou sly.----------he does not help Amy to develop her interests, but

rather tries to project his own ambitions onto her.

The healthiest way to eat fruit is the opposite of the conventional way, ------

one should have it before the m ain meal, rather than after.

Man has another feature that animals lack,----------the possibility of rising

above the instincts.

Natura l a pti tud e is ind ispensable fo r bei ng a good teac he r.----------it is not

enough to possess a knowledge of a particular subject.

Let us focus on the most important benefit o f living in the country, — ------- th<

abundance o f fresh air.

The Princess also mentions some of the g oss ip.----------she notes that a book

by an ers twhile frie nd of he rs is to a great ext ent fantasy.

The Government has always pursued the same judicious foreign policy,

--------- to promote good neighbourly relations.

asy, Difficult, Possible, Impossible

iese words may govern infinitival constructions, but these must be in the

tive, not the passive voice:

orrect:

With the Internet the world has become easier to comprehend,

tcorrect:

With the Internet the world has become easier to be comprehended.

asy and difficult, possib le and impossible share one particular construc-

on involving the infinitive. Compare the following sentences.

1. It is easy / difficult / possible / impossible to decipher our secret code.

2a. Our secret code is easy to decipher.2b. Our secret code is difficult to decipher.

4

2c. *Our secret code is possible to decipher.2d. Our secret code is impossible to decipher.

Most English people would reject 2c as being ungrammatical, whatever

the context; in addition, some would also avoid using 2d in written contexts.

The following variant of this construction is also used,involving

a subject of the infinit ival clause being introduced by fo r (sentences 3aand 3b):

3a. It is easy (difficult / possible / impossible) for the Enemyto decipher our secret code.

3b. It is not possible for anyone to achieve this goal.

A typical mistake, if we turn to 3b, is to write a sentence such as the following:

3c. *This goal is not possible to achieve by anybody.


Construct sentences from the followi ng elements, modifying them where necessary, e.g.:

a. Such information + BE + impossible + to obtain from any book.

b. It is im poss ible to ob tain such infor mation from any book.

1. Such prosperity + BE + impossible + to achieve within a few years.

2. If hope + BE + possible + to market, it would have a value high er thandiamonds.

3. The area is wet and therefore + difficult + to plough.

4. These things are priceless but + possible + to obtain for free.

5. These things + BE + not possible + to experienc e until recently.

6 . Skiing + BE + almost impossible + anyone + to learn at such an age.

7. Such books BE + not easy + to read.

8 . Such bad memories + BE + impossible + to erase within a short time.

9. Ethnic conflicts are inherently intractable and + impossible + to solve only by bomb ing.

35



ralue

his word is also often misused, as in the following examples (l a and 2a):

la. *Human life is the greatest value, and doctors should stop at nothing

to preserve it.

lb. Nothing is more valu able than hum an life, and docto rs should

stop at nothing to preserve it.

2a. *We underestimate many values in our lives. The most importantones, like health and peace of mind, cannot be purchased at any

price .

2b. We underestimate the importance of many things in ou r lives.Those like health and peace of mind cannot be purchased at any price.

i l b and 2b the word value has been replaced by a paraphrase, while in

b the paraphrasing has even necessitated rewriting the following sen-

jnce.Often, thus, the use of value is either unnecessary or inappropriate.

)ther expressions (e.g. thing, elem ent, aspect, quality , blessing, benefit

tc.) or even paraphrases should also be considered.

iuggested Exercises (10):

7ind better alternatives to the word value in the following sentences, para

phrasing wherever appropriate:

. Are we really able to find any positive values among all those shown on TV?

Literature still has a number o f values that cannot be replaced.

i. Our ancestors were able to preserve the most important values of culture,

despite all the wars and calamities.

L People often have fight for such priceless values as freedom and peace.

i. Euro pe’s traditional music, legends, literature and art are eternal values which

are respected by all cultured people.

3. For man y a clear conscience is the most importan t value in life.

36

Citizen

This word generally has a very restricted technical meaning, occurring primarily in legal contexts:

1. All Britis h citizens aged 18 or over have the right to vote.

Citizen also has the meaning of “city dweller”, as in the following sentence:

2. Citizens of Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural eventsto choose from.

This second example would, however, strike many, if not most English people as very stiff and formal, and needs rewriting:

People in Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural eventsto choose from.

Thus, citizens can very often be circumvented by such expressions as “lo

cal people”, “people who live in that place”, “inhabitants”, “townsfolk”, “the general public”, “ordinary people” etc.


Paraphrasing where necessary, fin d be tter alternatives to citizen in the fo llowing sentences, in which the word is typically misused:

1. Count ry life is often despis ed by citizens who feel superior to villagers.

2. This question is of interest both to specialists and to average citizens.

3. For long JFK’s memory was revered and Am eric an citi zens did not subjecthis lifestyle to c lose scrutiny.

4. The Internet could change the lives o f citizens as much as the telephone,the radio and the TV have done.

5. An hour’s walk in the open will guarantee a satisfactory level of fitness forthe average adult citizen.

37



5. A n Englishman in Amsterdam will have little difficulty in communicating

with the local citizens.

7. These old tradition s strike us as being increasingly exotic, just as they do

western citizens.

8 . Politicians should be role models for ordinary citizens.

9. Many o f the citizens of Rome live elsewhere during the summer months.

0. Hundreds of years ago the Latin language was widely known and spoken

among educated citizens o f our country.

Selected Structural Peculiarities

Apposit ions (I)

An apposition (literally “placing at”) occurs, for example, in the following sentence:

Maijorie, my ne phew’s wife, runs a boutique.

The noun phrase “my nephew’s wife” is in apposition to “Marjorie”. In

other words, an apposition is when a descriptive word or phrase is connected to the word or phrase that it describes without the use of conjunc

tions or prepositions. Appositions do, unfortunately, tend to be a thorn in

the flesh for many non-native writers of English, since meaning, punctua

tion, and the use of the article all come into play. Let us consider the following sentence:

la . When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals.Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

In sentence la the phrase Celtic and Rangers is obviously in apposition

to the phrase two arch-rivals. The sentence’s structure could be made much clearer by inserting the word namely.

When the c up final was held between two arch-rivals,

namely Celtic and Rangers, m any people expected trouble.

The follow ing ( lb ) is an alternative formulation:

lb. When the cup final was held betw een the two arch-rivalsCeltic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

39



le crucial thing is that an article (the) has been added and the punctuation

is been reduced (one comma has disappeared).While both l a and lb are primarily about people’s fears, there is a sig-

ficant difference in nuance: la informs us about the existence of Celtic

id Rangers, and that they were arch-rivals at that time (thus implying that

e might not necessarily have known).lb , by contrast, makes no such implication about the reader’s knowl-

Ige. Although the article is used (the two arch-rivals), lb does not imply

iat arch-rivals on the one hand ox Celtic and Rangers on the other have reviously been mentioned.

Note that in sentence la the phrase two arch-rivals can hardly be fol-

>wed by any punctuation other than two commas. Here are two typical

~rors of punctuation:

i. with dashes:

lc . *When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals- Celtic and Rangers - many people expected trouble.

/h ile not absolutely wrong, the punctuation of lc is acceptable only in

ighly informal contexts.

ii. with colon:

Id. *When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals:

Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

Tie mistake exemplified by Id is far worse because the apposition Celtic

nd Rangers is in the middle of a sentence and separates the subordinate

lause (When...) from the main clause (many people...). Thus the colon

ffectively chops the sentence up into 1) a subordinate clause, and 2) an

pposition + main clause.

The next example conforms to the same pattern as la-b:

2a. A Danish thinker, S0ren Kierkegaard, is sometimes regarded

as a forerunner of existentialism.2b. The Danish thinker S0ren Kierkegaard is sometimes regarded

as a forerunner of existentialism.

n these two sentences a difference of nuance may again be discerned: 2a

uggests that the reader is perhaps not so likely to have heard of

Cierkegaard, and hence the tone is strongly didactic or expository; 2b is

K)

altogether more neutral, making no assumptions about the reader’s level of education.

A further example is essentially the same:

3a. England is bounded on the west by three Welsh counties: Gwent,Powys, and Clywd.

3b. England is bounded on the west by the three Welsh counties (of)Gwent, Powys, and Clywd.

Again 3a assumes that the reader may not have known that Gwent,

Powys, and Clywd were Welsh counties, and hence the tone is markedly didactic. By contrast, 3b is not didactic: it makes no assumptions about the

person’s knowledge.13a is slightly different from la and 2a: a colon has

been substituted for the comma. The reason for this is that the apposition is

not sandwiched between two clauses, but instead concludes the sentence.

Finally there is one tendency, typical of journalism, to favour structures

exemplified by lb , 2b and 3b, but without the initial article the:

4. NATO spokesman Jaimie Shea was in no doubt

where the real blame for the incident was to be placed.

The above examples point to patterns of usage, rather than any gram

matical rules as such. Of course, usage varies widely depending on subjec

tive considerations of what “feels” right, and in practice both types (a and b) may often be used interchangeably, without any obvious difference of

nuance. The pattern illustrated in the type b sentences does, however, have

one important advantage: it involves little or no punctuation, and hence might be considered more elegant.

Additional Note:

Consider the following alternative sentences, involving a one-word apposition to a pronoun:

a. This is an event that we, Britons, will always remember.b. This is an event that we - Britons - will always remember.

c. This is an event that we Britons will always remember.

Only the final sentence is typical of English punctuation. (Cf. also below, pp. 165f).

Nor does the use of the articl e (the three...) imply that “Welsh counties” have already been mentioned.

41




Rew rite the fo llo wi ng sentences in their optimal form, making all necessary

changes (punctuation, word order, articles etc):

1. Our company owns a/the Dutch publishing house Polkadot.

2. Benjamin D israeli a/the British PM played a crucial role in the crisis.

3. The book describes the relationship between Humbert Humber a/the writer

and a precocious teenager.

4. Mikhail Gorbatchev a/the Soviet politician also describes these events.

5. From m y window I have a spectacular view of an/the extinct volcano

Shavnabada, which forms part of the central mountain range.

6 . The above journals are complemented by a/the monthly bulletin Forthcoming

Publications.

7. “Vikin g” comes from an/the old Nordic word vikingr meaning “pirate”.

8 . The Peasa nts’ Revolt was led by a/the man of humble origins Wat Tyler.

9. Using e-mail I can communicate with Richard, my Australian friend, within

a few seconds.

10. A poll conducted by Ne wswe ek an/the American m agazine also gave the

same results.

11. Juvenal a/the R oman poet once said that the supreme good is a healthy

mind in a healthy body.12. Taking a/the double nam e John Paul II, he soon established a reputation for

himself as a defender of freedom, offering great moral support for a/the trade

union Solidarity.

13. Not only does the President face a charge of sexual harassment by Paula

Jones a/the former Arkansas State employee, but he has also had an

extramarital affair with Monica Lewinsky a/the 21-year-old White House

intern.

14. A/The name Iron Curtain was given to the Elbe frontier.

15. Orphee, conceived and directed by Jean Cocteau a/the great French pla yw right, is a case in po int.

16. Today dem onstrations will be taking place across Serbia in the framework of

Alliance for Change a/the mass movement.17. Spiritual regeneration is a recurrent theme in nineteenth-century literature.

Thus the protagonist (Raskolnikov) of a/the novel by Dostoyevsky Crime

and Punishment undergoes something of a spiritual rebirth.

18. I would like to quote the words of a song by Iron Maiden, a/the British

heavy-metal band.

42

19. The Pope John Paul II has tried to continue the work of John XXIII a/the

great reformer and an/the enlightened conservative Paul VI.

Appos it ions (II):

Appositions vs. Preposi tional Structu res

A special type of ‘de facto apposition’ is used for towns, cities, districts,

landmarks, islands etc. It is typically expressed by the pattern the ...of .

Compare the following alternatives:

a. The Cotswolds area has many picturesque towns. One charming spa,

Cheltenham, is especially worth visiting.b. ...The charming spa of Cheltenham is especially worth visiting.

Both a and b have the same meaning. In the first alternative, Cheltenham

is technically in apposition to One charming spa. The second alternative

is especially typical of English idiom, conforming to a well-established

pattern that is found with various categories of proper nouns:

I. Towns and Villages:

1. The city of Rome is situated on the Tiber.

2. The town of Monmouth is the gateway to Wales.

3. The village of Tintagel is associated with King Arthur.

4. Today the Pope is visiting the Baltic port of Szczecin.

All the above sentences contain nominal phrases characterised by the pat

tern the...of... In each instance two nouns are linked by of to form a whole:

thus in 1 the phrase “the city” would be incomplete without “of Rome”

(the sentence refers to all of Rome, not just to one part);1 similarly in

4 “the Baltic port” and “Szczecin” are identical —the phrase does not imply any distinction between, say, a port of Szczecin and the rest of that city.

1 Phrases like the city o f Rome are not to be confused with the phrase the City of Lon

don, which means one particular part of London - the ancient heart of the city where the

Bank of England, the Tower, and St Paul’s Cathedral are to be found.

43



t i s imposs ib le to leave the of o u t a n d t o w r i t e **the city Rome, **the

own Monmouth etc.

Let us look at the following alternatives:

a. The next conference will take place in Aberdeen, Scotland.

b. The n ext conf erence w ill take pla ce in the Scot tish city of A berdeen.

The difference between a and b is one of register: a is typical of the lan

guage of offic ial circulars and application forms, while b is typical o f jour-

lalism and more general contexts.

Sentence b implies that Aberdeen is not a capital city. Were Edi nb ur gh

o be substituted for Ab er de en , a different construction would be necessary :

c. The next conference will take place in the Scottish capital Edinburgh.d. The next conference will take place in Scotland’s capital Edinburgh.1

n other words, “the Scottish capital o f Edinburgh” is impossible.This

iistinction, exemplified by sentences b -d , is generally applicable to the

;ities and capitals of other countries.

II. a. Counties, Kingdoms, Duchies:

1. The County of Gwent was formed from several smaller counties.2

2. The kingdom o f Wessex was the focus of resistance to the Vikings.3. Long ago the Duchy of Burgundy was very powerful.

tn 1 the C o u n t y o f G w e n t forms a whole: “the county” would be incom-

Dlete without “of Gwent”; the same goes for the k ingdom o f Wessex and

' he Duchy o f Burgundy etc.

b. Provinces and Federal States:

Here usage tends to vary from case to case:

1. The American state of Texas is especially prosperous.

(not: **The American state Texas)

2a. The province of Kosovo has a Moslem majority.

(not: **the province Kosovo)

Also: 2b. Elections have been held in Yugos lavia’s troubled Kosovo province.

1 Note how commas have been left out between capital and Edinburgh. (Many native

writers of En glish would consider them clumsy and unnatural.)

2 But: Marlborough County, Orange County - American usage.

44

Confer also the following sentence:

3. The conferen ce will take place Under the patronage

of the Tourist Board of the Province of Pomerania.(not: **the Pomeranian Province)

III. Landmarks, Monuments etc.:

Here again it is a question of established usage:

1. The Dungeness headland can be seen for miles.

(not: **The headland D ungeness....)

2. The Gower peninsula lies SW of Swansea.

3. The Dartmoor National Park continues to attract many tourists.

Islands:

Here usage is divided:

The island o f Iona; the island of Elba etc.

The Isle of Lewis, the Isle o f Wight, the Isle of Man etc.but: Bardsey Island, Long Island, Lundy Island.

Roads:

Again usage tends to vary from case to case:

1. London is connected to Birmingham by the Ml motorway.(preferable to: the motorway M l)

2. The Berlin-Hanover autobahn is one of the busiest in Europe.(preferable to: The autobahn Berlin-Hanover)

3. He was the designer and constructor of the Callao-La Oroyarailway line.

(not: **the railway line Callao-La Oroya)

Contrast:

The city is served by the international highways E75 and E71.

Hotels:

In Britain Ho tel generally comes at the end of the name:

The Savoy Hotel is in London .1

1 “Hotel Savoy” sounds Continental.



f. Dates:

ere again usage is divided:

1. The year 1989 saw the fall of the Berlin Wall,

at: 2. Th e month of May is especially beautiful.

. Miscellaneous:

ook at the following list o f items:

1. Th e Wat ergat e Aff air led to Nixo n’s resignation.

2. Th e Dreyfus Ca se had a sensational outcome.

3. The results were deciphered on a Sum al PE2 minirea der.

4. Our department is currently planning a NL/UK stud y tour.

5. LO T Polish Airlines operates regular flights to London.

Tie phrases emphasised in heavy print have one pattern in common: the

lore specific element comes first and the less specific element comes sec-

nd. Thus English idiom does not favour: **the Affair Watergate, **the

■ ase Dreyfus, **a minireader Sumal PE2, **a study tour NL/U K, **Polish

drlines LOT, etc.

Consider too the follow ing sentence:

6 . Our promotional material, presently available on the off-line system,

will soon be available on the on-line system.

(not: **the system off-line etc.)

Despite the above pattern (1- 6), usage is not consistent. In the follow -

ng examples there are two possibilities:

a. The Windows 2000 computer system is a great advance on previous ones.b. The computer system Windows 2000 is a great advance on previous ones.

a. Today an international consortium unveiled the Mar s 200 0 project.

b. Tod ay an inte rnat ional consorti um unve iled the p roje ct Mars 2000.

a. He appeared on BB C’s Panorama programme.b. He appeared on BBC ’s programme Panorama.

a. The signal originates from the M31 Galaxy.b. The signal originates from Galaxy M31.

a. The astronauts plan to link up with the Discovery space shuttle.

b. The astronau ts p lan to l ink u p with the space shut tle Discovery.

16

In each of the above pairs , how ever, the la t ter (b) is more formal.

One special case concerns brothers:

1. The Brothers Karam azov was Dos toyevsky’s last work.

2. The brothers Grimm were philologists and collectors of fairy tales,

but : 3. Did you eve r me et the M arx brothers?

VI. Epithets:

Peter the Great, Ivan the Terrible, Charles the Fat, Ethelred the Unready etc.Zorba the Greek, Vlad the Impaler, Edward the Confessor, Dolly the Sheep

etc.


Select the most appropriate alternatives:

1. Our company operates in accordance with the IRCA Code o f Conduct / theCode of Conduct IRCA.

2. Our firm plans to incorporate the ISO 9000 series / the series ISO 9000.

3. The textbook conforms to the requirements of the EUREKA program me / the programm e EU REK A.

4. The conference will be held at the Holiday Inn hotel / the hotel Holiday Inn.5. Roderick drives an E-type Jaguar / a Jaguar E-type / a Jaguar type E.

6 . The network is fully integrated with the Pas ’Tel system / the system Pas ’Tel.

7. The doctor discovered unusual T-cells / cells T.

8 . The consortium is modernising the Paris-Berlin line / the line Paris-Berlin.

9. The Niagara Falls / The Falls Niagara are the highest in the world.

10. The St Bruno F oundation / The Found ation St Bruno enjoys great prestige.

Because in Negative Sentences

Negative sentences with because are often a source of confusion, the rea

son being that they fall into two totally different categories.

47



Type I:

la . I did not invite Mr Fortune because he is a bank manager.

(I invited him because I genuinely like him.)

In this first type the speaker denies an imputed motive for his action, while

giving what he claims to be the real reason. In such cases it is often possi

ble to rewrite the sentence as follows (although the word order would then

be unusual):

lb . I invited Mr Fortune not because he is a bank manager....In other words, the &ecawse-clause is dependent upon not, instead of upon

the previous clause.

Type II:

2. A: “Why didn’t you invite Mr Fortune?”B: “I didn’t invite him because he was going away for the weekend.”

This second type of because-clause explains the whole preceding clause,

and is not really dependent upon any one word. Here is another way of

writing the sentence:

The reason I didn’t invite him was that he was going away for the weekend. In sentences la-b Mr Fortune was invited, while in 2 he was not.

Now let us look at the following example:

3a. *Some children are, of course, especially difficult. The teachershould not be strict w ith such pupils because their personalities

are slow to mature.

Any experienced teacher of English would immediately recognise such

writing, for the simple reason that the second sentence is ambiguous. Is the

sentence an example of type I or type II?

Let us interpret the sentence in question as being type I:

3b. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils iust becausetheir personalities are slow to mature.... (i.e. the teacher should

be strict with them for some o the r reas on.)

Note how the insertion of ju st makes the meaning of the sentence much

clearer.

48

If, however, the sentence is type II, then its clarity would be much en

hanced by changing because into since:

3c. ...The teacher should not be strict with such pupils,

since their personalities are slow to mature ....1

Another option is a reformulation which dispenses with the because- clause and turns it into an independent sentence:

3d. ...The teach er should not be strict with such pupils.

After all, their personalities are slow to mature....

This, however, does not exhaust the possible options for cases of type

II. Let us look at a modification of an earlier example:

4. A: “Why didn’t you invite Mr Fortune?”

B: “I didn’t invite him for the simple reason that he wasgoing away for the weekend.”

In fact, the phrase fo r the s imple reason that and its more formal variant

the reason being that are useful especially in such contexts, where it is necessary to avoid ambiguity.

In sentences o f type II one other useful construction is also possible in some cases. Compare the following alternatives:

5a. *The EU does not promote conformity because it appreciatesthe unique features of each nation.

5b. The EU does not promote conformity, appreciating as it doesthe unique features of each nation.

Unlike 5a, sentence 5b is unambiguous; in addition it is much more in

keeping with English idiom and more elegant than 5a.

Additional Note:

A typical source of the infelicity or ambiguity described above is when

both the because-clause and the preceding clause are negative. Compare the following alternatives:

6a. *People do not socialise any more because they do not have the time.6 b. People do not socialise any m ore for the s imple reaso n th at

they do not have the time.

1 Note also the addition of a comma.

49



7a. *We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh air beca use there is no f resh air in the citie s.

7b. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath o f fresh air

simply because there is no fresh air in the cities.7c. We city-dwellers cannot take a breath of fresh air,

for there is no fresh air in the cities.

Sentence 6b is preferable to 6a, while 7b-c are preferable to 7a.1

Suggested Exercises (14):Find a better alternative to because in the following sentences:

1. Dolphins do not have a ‘langua ge’ in the real sense of the word, becausea language is more than just a collection of sounds.

2. The media do not create culture as such, because their only goal is to make

maximum profits.

3. Films are easier to watch than books to read. They do not require our imagination because everything is show n us.

4. In the twenty-first century there is no place for schools that teach only

academic knowledge, because it is not enough. Schools must have other

objectives as well.

Being and Having

When they are present participles, the words being and having nearly

always express a causal relationship. Look at the following sentences:

la. Being old and tired, Arthur decided it was time to resign.

2a. Having these unique advantages, Oxford and Cam bridge will surely

appeal to many tourists.

In sentence la Be ing has the meaning of “Since he was”, “Seeing that he

was”, “As he was” etc, while in 2a Hav in g has the meaning “Since they

have”, “Seeing that they have”, “As they have” etc.

1 If sentences 7b-c were spoken, heavy stress would be placed on the word is.

50

The point at issue becomes clearer if one compares the following sen

tences:

3a. *Cumbria, being a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3b. Cumbria, which is a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.3c. Cumbria, a region of mountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.

4a. *Shivering and having a temperature I went to the party.4b. Although I was shivering and had a temperature, I went to the party.

The participles being and having should express a causal relationship, yet

it is obvious that this is the case neither in 3a (being') nor in 4a (having)', it is not possible to rewrite the sentences so:

*Cumbria, since it is a region of m ountains and lakes, lies south of Carlisle.

Seeing that I was shivering and had a temperature, I w ent to the party.

Thus, only 3b-c and 4b render the presumed meaning. By contrast, 3a and

4a, are not even English.

The same pattern emerges if we compare the following alternatives, o f

which only options 5b-d are correct:

5a. *School is a formative time for most of us. Being at school,

we meet m any interesting people.5b. ... While being at school we meet m any interesting people.

5c. ...While at school we meet many interesting people.5d. ...While we are at school we meet many interesting people.

In other words the being of 5a needs to be converted into clauses with

while (5b-d).

And finally compare the following alternatives, of which only option

6b is correct:

6a. *At Ascot you will see men having lots o f money accompanied

by b eaut iful and glam orou s e scort s.6b. At Ascot you will see men with lots of money accompanied

by beau tifu l and g lamorous escor ts.

Thus having has been replaced by the preposition with.


Rep lace the particip les being and having in the fol low ing sentences , rear

ranging them where necessary:

51



1. Nowadays it is difficult to find anybody not having a TV set.

2. Young people being in love have been the subject of many works of literature.

3. Cheltenham has long been known as a spa having a distinctive microclimate.

4. In the course of the years the duchess’s smile, being initially warm and

natural, froze into a studied, official one.

5. A range o f hills being of pivotal importance is the Pennines.

6 . Having enormous wealth Hughes had no one who truly loved him and he was

generally miserable.

7. Being 70 Mann crossed the Pyrenees on foot to escape arrest.

8 . She was frequently told about Charles ’ affair by people having a hostile

attitude towards her.

9. It is simply incredible that the government of a country being a member ofthe EU could be taken o ver by a party of the Far Right.

10. Marilyn Monroe died being a young attractive woman.

11. Having few resources and poor equipment, our farmers are still able to cope.

12. Being intelligent and good-looking, the deceased was not a happy person

owing to family tensions.

13. Mother Teresa visited many people being in need.

14. Having no formal education, Albert possessed a remarkable talent forteaching.

15. Such lack o f self-confidence as the prince’s is not unusual for a person being

so young and having a high social position.

16. Being so fragile and small compared to the great universe, man can yet

achieve so much.

17. On every shift of the airport fire-brigade there is at least one rescue worker

having a specialised medical training.

18. People being under the influence of alcohol do not have the right to use our

facilities.

Additional Note 1:

Compare the following alternatives, which are equally correct:

la . Being old and tired, Arthur decided it was time to resign,

lb . Arthur decided it was time to resign, being old and tired.

The construction is the same whether the being-clause comes before or

after the main clause.

52

Now compare the above with three alternative sentences (all correct), where the participle havin g is used:

2a, Having these unique advantages, Oxford and Cambridgewill surely appeal to many tourists.

2b. Oxford and Cambridge will surely appeal to many tourists,having as they do these unique advantages.

2c. Oxford and Cambridge will surely appeal to many tourists,having these unique advantages as they do.

As can be seen from sentences 2b and 2c, the construction needs to be

modified slightly if the fcaving-clause comes after the main clause. (For more details about this construction, cf. also p. 97.)

Additional Note 2:

The above remarks do not apply to legal English, which is governed by conventions of its own, as in the following examples:

i) being

I, Peter Jones, residing at 35 Upper High Street, Manchester, being of so und mind and memory, do hereb y m ake, publi shand declare this to be my Last Will and Testament....

While “sound mind and memory” is an indispensable precondition for the

making of a valid will, it is not the reason for the will. The being-clause might be paraphrased in non-legal English as:

...who am of sound mind and memory....

Alternatively the participle would be left out altogether:

...of sound mind and memory....

ii) having

The contract was signed on 16* February 1999 between

Abacus International, having its seat in London,represented by Mr John Evans, hereinafter referred toas the “Employer”, and Ms Mary Parsons, hereinafterreferred to as the “Employee”.

53

2 b ill h d b d



\gain in non-legal contexts some other formulation would be expected,

;.g.:

...between Abacus International, which has its seat in London....

)r even:

...between the London-based A bacus International....

fhis last formulation ( Lond on-based) is typical of journalistic contexts.

Be + fo-infinitive

[n the present tense be + fo-infinitive is generally used for the following

functions:

1. As a command:

You are to clean the house and after that prepare things

for ou r arrival, (i.e. These are our instructions / orders.)

2. As an official arrangement:

Later this yea r the Prime Minister is to visit Norway.

(i.e. This is what has been planned and scheduled .)

Generally this construction may not be used as an alternative to is ex

pected to , is inte nded to, is meant to, is sup posed to, is there to, nee ds to

etc.

A number o f especially typical and frequent mistakes can be illustrated

by means of the following alternative sentences:

la . *The police are to protect people, and not to add to the problem,lb. The police are supposed to protect people....

lc . The police are there to protect peo ple....

Id. The police exist to protect people....

2a. *The Israeli and Palestinian negotiators have been making

much progress, but still much is to be done.

2b. ...but still much has to be done.

54

2c. ...but still much needs to be done.2d. ...but still much will have to be done.

3a. *We are all to benefit from globalisation in many different ways.3b. We will all benefit from globalisation in many different ways.

Sentence la is possible only in a context where the police are actually

being commanded or reprimanded by someone in authority over them. As

for 2a and 3a, it is again difficult to imagine any context where they might

be possible, since neither of them appears to involve either a command or

any official arrangement.


Find a better alternative to is or are in the follow ing sentences:

1. In such families money is to compensate for the lack of parental affection.

2. That is why a politician is to respect the same values whether in private or inthe limelight.

3. Some would argue that censorship is to protect society from destructive

influences.

4. Nowadays children at school often prefer to watch a film based on the

par tic ula r boo k that they are t o re ad.

Comment Clauses with As

A frequent source of ambiguity arises from the inappropriate use of com

ment clauses like as he claims, as they remark etc. A typical error is exem

plified by the following passage:

la . The teachers at that school have very unorthodox ideas.Giving complete freedom is the only way, as they insist,to bring up the young.

If we employ phrases like as he says, as she states, as he argues etc, the

usual implication is that our own standpoint is identical to that of the per-

55



on who is speaking or stating or arguing. If that is not our intention, vari-

us alternatives are at hand:

lb . ...Giving complete freedom is the only way,

so they insist, to bring up the young.lc. ...Giving complete freedom is the only way,

they insist, to bring up the young.Id . .-They insist that giving complete freedom

is the only way to bring up the young.

It is especia lly when the comment clause appears at the beginning o f the

entence that it may sow confusion, as in the following passage:

2a. Owing to his numerous journeys the lama is

unable to say where his real home is. As he claims,

his tranquil mind is his most important home.

Vgain, the wording is suggestive o f a lack of critical distance on the part of

he writer, who gives the impression of being a disciple or adherent of “the

ama”.If that is not the case, then here too the sentence can be rephrased in a

variety of ways:

2b. ...His tranquil mind is, so he claim s, his most important home.

2c. ...His tranquil mind is, he claims, his most important home.2d. ...He claims that his tranquil mind is his most importa nt home.

In the follo wing example, by contrast, the context makes it obvious that

i sentence beginning with an as-clause is quite appropriate:

3. The defendant is clearly innocent of the charges.

As he says, he was not even in town on that day.

The sentence implies that the defendant was not in town that day, and that

10 one disputes the fact.

To summarise, if our standpoint is not identical to that of the person that

,ye are referring to, if we do not necessarily endorse his or her opinions,

hen the use of phrases like as he says, as they insist etc. can be highly

confusing, and especially when they begin the sentence. Sometimes they

ire hardly English in any context at all.1

1 T he comm ent c lause as he put(s) it is an exception, in that it tells us nothing about the

standpoint of the writer. It is, however, found generally in mid-sentence, seldom or never at

he beginning.

56


Change the following sentences in the manner exemplified in 1-2 above .One o f them is similar to 3 and cannot be changed:

1. As it is widely assumed, this cataclysm destroyed the entire Minoan civilisation in a single day.

2. The Princess emphasised again and again how lonely she had felt. As she

remarked, the best way to dismantle a personality was to isolate it.

3. As the lama stressed, his mental state was founded on the desire that all people shou ld find enlighten men t.

4. As it seems, dishonesty is sometimes justified.

5. You re not being fair. As she points out in her report, the resources assigned toher were quite inadequate.

6 . As she put it, the relationship between her husband and Camilla had appalledher from the very beginning.

7. As you claim in your article, nuclear energy is the only feasible option. Thenwhy is the disposal of nuclear waste proving so difficult, if what you say is true?

8 . Her deep love of her spiritual mentor inclined her towards, as she called it,

“free and wholehearted dedication to the poorest o f the poor.”

9. I had to stay at home because, as they assumed, I was too young for such along journey.

Complements and the Verb To Be

In English, with very few exceptions, the complement comes after the sub

ject, and not before. Thus, one says Mary is a teacher, not **A teacher is

Mary or **A teacher Mary is. As for the exceptions, they can be divided into two groups:

A Exclamations and Questions

What a glutton he is! (Exclamation)

What kind o f land is Tierra del Fuego? (Question)

B Emphatic Deviation from the Expected Word Order

57

C th f ll i Additional Note 1:



Compare the following:

As I am a dream enthusiast, I find dreams more interesting

than books or films. (Normal word order)

Dream enthusiast as I am, I find dreams more interesting

than books or films. (Emphatic deviation)

Sentences rarely occur where the complement precedes the grammatical

subject, and which are neither exclamations nor questions.1

Just as the complement cannot, except in a very few constructions, come before the subject, so the verb to be agrees only with the subject and almost

never with the complement. Compare the following sentences:

la . *Many people often bring up their children far too strictly.

A good illustration of that are my parents,

lb . ...A good illustration of that is my parents.

Since in English grammar the subject generally has to come first, it follows

that in la and lb the grammatical subject is A good illustration o f that,

while my parents is the complement. And since the verb to be must agree

with the grammatical subject, it follows that the verb required should be

singular, not plural, and hence la is ungrammatical. Sentence lb is gram

matically correct, but it is clumsy since the predicate (is my parents) is shorter than the subject, causing the sentence to read abruptly (see below,

p. 103).2Hence the best thing is a complete reformulation:

lc . ...A good illustration of that is provided bv my parents.

Id . ...Mv parents are a good illustration of that.

Of course, it may be pointed out that in Id the subject is plural while the

complement is singular, and hence the sentence might be considered awk

ward. Even so, Id reads much better than lb , since the predicate (are a

good illustration o f that) is longer. Finally there is one other possibility,

which is unproblematic:

le. ...Mv parents provide a good illustration of that.

1 For more examples, cf. English fo r Writers and Translators, s. “Emphasis”.

2 If, however, the complement were made longer, the sentence would be much less

awkward:

A good illustration of that is my parents, grandparents and more distant relatives.

58

Additional Note 1:

In highly informal contexts there is one construction where the verb to be

is occasionally found agreeing with the complement and not with the sub

ject. Compare the following alternatives:

2a. All they want are more job opportunities.2b. All they w ant is more job opportunities.

3a. What everyone in Jerusalem desires are guarantees of accessto the Holy Sites.

3b. What everyone in Jerusalem desires is guarantees of accessto the Holy Sites.

Sentences 2a and 3a may be found in conversation and informal contexts,

but elsewhere would be considered ungrammatical. By contrast, 2b and

3b, are awkward: they resemble lb in that the grammatical subject is

singular while the complement is plural.1With a little ingenuity, howev

er, the difficulty can be circumvented altogether, perhaps in the follow ing way:

2c. All they want is to be given more job opportunities.

3c. What everyone in Jerusalem desires is guaranteed accessto the Holy Sites.


Correct the following sentences, paraphrasing them when necessary:

1. The first thing that visitors to Australia notice are the birds.

2. What distinguishes doctors from others are their professional ethics.

3. Yet another sign of the country’s poverty are the beggars who throng thestreets and train stations.

4. Our long-term goal are bilateral relations such as exist between Germ any andFrance.

J For the sake of grammatical clarification 2b might be rewritten as:

All that they want is more job opportunities.

3b may be rewritten as:

That which everyone etc.

59

S l k h i f lif i li i d i A h C t ti ith A d Th



Some people seek the meaning of life in religious devoteeism. A nother group

of people whose aim is to possess wisdom are philosophers.

Another proof of the villa’s late occupation are the pavements of mosaic and

marble fragments indiscriminately mixed.

Sometimes when the sentence is reformulated, it is necessary to intro-

jce a completely new verb (e.g. lc , le , 2c). Compare also the following

tree sentences:

4a. *One of the principal sources of information are books.

4b. One of the principal sources of information is books.4c. Books are one of the principal sources of information.

4d. Books constitute one of the principal sources of information.

sntence 4a is ungrammatical, 4b is grammatical but highly awkward, while

c and 4d are grammatical and read naturally. In other words, the verb

institute functions as an alternative to the verb to be. Obviously the verb

not to be overused.

uggested Exercises (19):

eformulate the followin g sentences using a suitable alternative (e.g. con

st of, cons titute etc.) to the verb to be:

One of the c ity’s greatest attractions and for which you should devote at least

a day in order to see its spectacular displays are the Botanical Gardens.

Another interesting instance of bad parents are people who are completely

absorbed in th eir careers.

The whole area is charming, but the greatest attraction are the tall cliffs jutting

straight into the sea.

additional Note 2:

'ompare the following alternatives:

5a. *Another example of such literature can be An imal Farm.5b. Another example of such literature is An imal Farm.

5c. An im al F arm is anothe r example of such literature.5d. An im al Farm may serve as another example o f such literature.

.gain, 5a is unidiomatic, 5b is clumsy (a short predicate after a longer

abject), while 5c-d are optimal.

0

Constructions with As and Than

I. Absence of the pronoun i t

The conjunction as may mean either “just as” or “seeing that”, a distinc

tion which may determine the choice of grammatical construction. A com

mon grammatical problem involves sentences like the following (1-3), in all of which as has the meaning “just as”:

1. As can easily be noticed by any visitor to London, public transportleaves much to be desired. (Not: if can easily be noticed....)

2. As was emphasised above, creating a proper atmosphere at home

is vital for a child ’s wellbeing . (Not: **As it was emphasised above....)

The same pattern is also to be found in subordinate clauses that come

after the main clause, as in the following examples:

3a. Euthanasia implies dying with dignity, as is the right of every human being. (Not: **as it is the right....)

3b. Euthanasia implies dying with dignity, as becomes every human being.(Not: **as it becomes....)

The construction is also sometimes found with as... as....:

4. The Pentagon is not as impregnable as is generally supposed.(Not: **as it is....)

The construction is also sometimes found with than:

5. Nowadays more crimes are being committed than was the casein former times. (Not: **than it was....)

Here are some more phrases (discussed below at p. 84) which use the same construction:

as can be exemplified, illustrated etc. by....

as can be noticed, observed, seen etc. in....

as is (has been, will be etc.) argued, demonstrated, proved, shown, suggested e tc.

as is obvious from....as is/was the case with....1

1 For this phrase see below, p. 142

61



as is the fact that....

as is true of....

.B.

he structure occurs especially with the verb to be. This verb may be either

1 simple form (e.g. as is obvious...) or in passives containing the auxiliary

erb to be. In this latter case the verb to be occurs either on its own (e.g. as

’as emphasised abo ve ) or with modals (<35 can be noticed).

)Tie phrase as often happens tends to be overused:

6 . As often happen s in family life, money w as the cause of their discontent.

(Better: As is often the case....)1

I. As + inversion

s. rather similar structure involv ing as (meaning “just as”) occurs with the

erbs to be and to do. Compare the following alternatives:

7a. She is a smoker, like most of her friends.7b. She is a smoker (as most of her friends are).

7c. She is a smoker - and so are most of her friends.7d. She is a smoker, as are most of her friends.

8a. She smokes, like most of her friends.

8 b. She smokes ( as m ost o f her friends do ).

8c. She smokes - and so do most of her friends.

8d. She smokes, as do most of her friends.

The above sentences (7a-d, 8a-d ) are different ways of saying virtually the

;ame thing. In 7c and 7d the words and so are and as are are interchange-

ible; similarly, in 8c and 8d the words and so do and as do are inter

changeable.

1 The phrase “as it often happens...” is an entirely different construction. Contrast the

neanings of as in the following two sentences:

a. As often happens in times of war, the civilians were suffering the most.

(Not: **As it often happens....') b. Great ingenuity is needed to counteract smuggling, as it often happens under

cover of darkness.

[n sentence b, as is causal, meaning “since” or “seeing that”, while it is just a simple pro

noun, referring to smuggling.

62

The concluding clauses of 7b-c and 8b-c are especially typical of informal

contexts, while 7d and 8d are especially characteristic of sophisticated written English.


Complete the following sentences:

1. The general’s offensive ended in fiasco, as ----------his attempt to withdrawhis forces.

2. A s---------ascertained much later, the poison had been administered to the

prince by one o f his slav es.

3. Ours is a country o f contrasts, a s----------be inferred from the landscapes and the character of the people.

4. They believed, as --------- most people around the year 1000, that the end of the world was coming.

5. Ethel looked rather the worse for drink, as ---------- most of the people there.

6 . This phenom enon is not as widespre ad as ----------------------usually imagined.

7. A s--------- beco me appa ren t fro m thi s s ord id s can dal , soc iety t ends to j ud gea politician by his or her private life.

8 . A s ---------shown by recent events, style is everything and competencenothing.

9. In our country religion and church-going are taken very seriously, a s ----------

seen on Sundays.

10. The judge, as ----------been expected, refused to admit the charge.

11. I thought he wanted to mug m e, ----------all too often happens in mytownship.

12. This strange picture of our country is very widespread in the West, a s ----------

illustrated by the case of an acquaintance of mine from the New W orld

who was amazed to see we had cellular phones.

13. Rick would smok e one cigarette after another, as ----------commo n in suchcircles.

14. A s----------once happen ed ten years before, John was sudden ly called uponto stand in for his boss.

15. T hrougho ut the world computers seem to be dominant, as ----------noticed in

almost every field of human life.

16. Such a policy cam only bring disaster, a s ----------observable in the streets of our cities.

63

17 Th i t l did ff i b t d i Wh th d i d f l E li h ll i th t it



17. The marriage was a most splendid affair, as ---------- been expe cted given

the wealth o f the two families.

18. Goering comported him self with as much dignity a s----------humanly

possib le, given the circ ums tances of the case.

19. The jud ge ’s conviction of the opposition leader is indeed remarkable,a s ---------- the fact that most of the de fence’s witnesses have been murdered.

20. The Portuguese president refused the invitation to the Vienna Carnival Ball,

a s ----------some other statesmen.

21. The patriotic aspect is also very important, as --------------be illustrated by

nineteenth-century Polish literature.22. Next we have the pessimists who - a s --------- typical of pessimists - argue

that everything is going from bad to worse.

23. The case was referred, a s----------proper, to a higher authority.

24. Far from becoming more original a s ----------their intention, such teenagerssimply end up as cheap copies of Madonna, Kate Moss or the Spice Girls.

25. A s ----------widely realised, trains are one of the safest means of travel.

26. Curie discovered that certain of the compounds show higher levels of

radioactivity th an ----------previously been supposed.

Gerunds

The... of...

Gerunds are a frequent source of problems. Consider the following alter

native sentences:

a. Education implies constantly broadening one’s horizons.b. *Education implies constant broadening one ’s horizons.

c. Education implies constant broadening of one’s horizons.

d. *Education implies the constant broadening one’s horizons.e. ^Education implies a constant broadening one’s horizons.f. Education implies the constant broadening of one ’s horizons.g. Education implie s a constant broadening of one’s horizons.

Sentence a is the least formal and sentence g the most formal. Sentences b,

d and e are ungrammatical.

64

When the gerund is used, more formal English generally requires that it

be preceded by the definite or indefinite article (a! an, the)-, if the gerund

is preceded by an article, it has to be separated from its object by the pre

position of, which is why sentences d and e are ungrammatical. Sentence c

is questionable since it is a mixture, or confusion, of a on the one hand and f and g on the other.

The construction exemplified by sentence a (i.e. without article + of) is

most often used in informal contexts. If the gerund has a direct object (in

sentence a, one’s horizons), then the gerund may be qualified by an adverb

(constantly), but not by an adjective (constant), which is why b is ungrammatical.

Some non-native writers of English do, however, have difficulties when

they wish to make clear who or what is performing the action that is ex

pressed by the gerund. Compare the following alternatives:

a. The fact that Slovenia achieved its objective of independence

encouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.

b. Slo ven ia’s achiev ing i ts obje ctive o f independ ence


c. * Achieving bv Slovenia its objective of independence


d. *The achieving bv Slovenia its objective of independenceencouraged other republics in Yugoslavia to break away.

e. The achieving bv Slovenia of its objective of independence


Sentences a and b are correct, while c and d represent a grammatical

mistake that is frequently met with. The construction exemplified by sen

tence e is, at the very least, clumsy in the extreme and best avoided.


Rewrite the follow ing sentences in form al Engl ish, correcting them where necessary:

1. There should be strict controls on manufacturing such articles.

2. The Council cannot tolerate killing unarmed civilians by paramilitaries.

3. A special term exists for this manipulating public opinion: TV diplomacy.

4. The Institute prompted the setting up two research stations.

65

Most Additional Note:



Most

A recurrent error is to write sentences containing a phrase consisting of the

most + adjective. Consider the following alternatives:

a. Comfort and affluence are most important in life. b. *Comfo rt and aff luen ce are the m ost importa nt in life.c. Comfort and affluence are the most important things in life.

Sentence a can have two meanings, depending on the context.

i. Comfort and affluence are extremely important in life.ii. There is nothing more important in life than comfort and affluence.

Sentence c is entirely unambiguous, having the meaning of ii above.

Sentence b, by contrast, is both ungrammatical and incomprehensible, since

it is a confusion of two different structures.


Correct the fo l low ing sentences:

1. Violence is a great problem nowadays. But the most frightening is the fact thatthose who commit the most brutal crimes are often children and teenagers.

2. In such situations we must remember that the most important is not to lose our

heads.

3. What is the most visible for anyone coming to London is the amount of

traffic.

4. In friendship the most crucial is to forget you r own needs.

5. What is the m ost remarkable about these two celebrities is that they live

relatively normal lives.

6 . If one is to remain healthy, fresh air and outdoor sports are the most important,

to say nothing o f a proper diet.

7. Work, though very important, should not be the most important for us.8 . Breaking off diplomatic relations with that country and recalling ambassadors

are the m ost appropriate at this moment.

9. In a few days from now many thousands of young people will be convergingon Taize to talk, sing and make new friends. B ut the most important is that

they all believe in God.

66

Additional Note:

An analogous error involves best, worst etc. Compare the following sentences:

a. People seem to take each other more and more for granted. Worst of allis that they have grown used to this pattern o f behaviour.

b. ...*The worst of all is that they have grown used to this pattern of

behaviour.c. ...The worst thing of all is that they have grown used to this pattern of

behaviour.

Sentence b is ungrammatical, being again a confusion of a and c.

Of (iMany of..., Most of..., Some of... etc.)

A most frequent mistake involves expressions beginning many of, mo st

of, some o f etc. Compare the following alternatives:

la . Most countries have similar problems,

lb. *Most of countries have similar problems,lc. Most o f the countries have similar problems.

Sentence la is grammatical, but lb is not. lc would also sound un-English

except in very specific contexts, such as the following:

Id. Among EU member states France, Germany, Italy and Spain have

par ticula rly high rate s o f un emp loym ent. Bu t most of the coun trie shave similar problems.

In the second sentence of Id what the phrase most of the countries really

means is “most of the countries that belong to the EU” or “most of the coun

tries in the EU”. Thus the structure represented by lc is generally possible

only when modified by a further postmodifier (e.g. most o f the countries in

the EU). or when that postmodifier is understood from the context. Howev

er, it is important to note that even in I d Most countries would also be possi

ble, with the intended meaning “most of the countries in the EU”.1

1 That the countries of the EU rather than other countries are meant, would be clearfrom the context.

67

The above observations also apply to other quantifiers (primarily: any P bl ith N ti S t



The above observations also apply to other quantifiers (primarily: any,

many, no / none, one, sev eral etc.). Of the following alternatives 2b is

ungrammatical, while 2a has the best chances of being correct no matter

what the context:

2a. Several questions were left unanswered.

2b. *Several of questions were left unanswered.

2c. Several of the questions were left unanswered.

To summarise, sentences lb and 2b are ungrammatical. Moreover, un

less you are very sure about how to use the definite article, it is perhaps safest to use the option represented by la and 2a (most countries, several

questions, some people, many possibilities etc.).


For each o f the followin g sentences choose an option that is most likely to

read correctly irrespective of the context:

1. Some o f parts / Some parts / Some of the parts of our brain are much more

complex than others.

2. None of parents / No parent / None of the parents is / are able to avoid such

mistakes.

3. Many years o f totalitarianism left people’s lives much the poorer. Any ofhuman values / Any human values / Any o f the human values was / were

destroyed by an inhuman system.

4. One of such organisations / One such organisation is regularly in trouble with

the authorities.

5. Hardly any of such children / Hardly any such child stands / stand a chance of

developing in a normal way.

6 . Most of Americans / Most Americans / Most of the Americans possesses /

posse ss guns.

7. The story can be found in one o f books / one book / one of the books of the

Bible.8 . She was known to all of people / all people / all of the people as Mother

Teresa.

68

Problems with Negative Sentences

Negative sentences frequently pose a problem for non-native writers of

English. If we turn an affirmative sentence into a negative one, then the following modifications are common:

I: Optional

1:and —> or

Affirmative:

la . Some people are very smart when it comes to making

a good impression and getting what they want from others.

Negative:

lb . Some people are not very smart when it comes to making

a good impression or getting what they want from others.

2:

not to mention —> to say nothing of Affirmative:

2a. Our colleague enjoys high esteem as a teacher and role-model,not to mention her long list of scientific publications.

Negative:

2b. Our colleague does not enjoy high esteem as a teacher or role-model,to say nothing of her failure to publish anything.

3:

just as —> any more thanAffirmative:

3a. Our Chief Accountant is very obliging, just as his colleagues are.

Negative:

3b. Our Chief Accountant is never obliging, any more than his colleaguesare.

69

4: Negative:



4: greatly —> to any great extent / degree

Affirmative:

4a. Mr Jones greatly impressed his listeners.

Negative:

4b. Mr Jones did not impress his listeners to any great degree.

So far we have been talking only about tendencies, and the modifica

tions outlined above ought not to be considered in any way obligatory. Thus as an alternative to 3b the following sentence is also possible, al

though some would consider it clumsy:

3c. Our Chie f Accountant is never obliging, just as his colleagues are not-

And similarly, an obvious alternative to 4b is the following:

4c. Mr Jones did not greatly impress his listeners.

II: Non-Optional

By contrast, the following modifications are generally indispensable

if English idiom is not to be violated:

5: as well / too —> either

Affirmative:

5a. As our tourist will discover, telephones generally function properly.

Public transport is an attractive feature of our daily life as w ell.5b. ...Public transport is an attractive feature of our daily life too.

Negative:

5c. As our tourist will discover, telephones do not generally function prop

erly. Public transport is not an attractive feature of our daily life either.

6 :especially —» let alone / least of all

Affirmative:

6a. Every visitor, especially from Western Europe, will notice

these subtleties.

70

g

6 b. No visi tor, leas t of all fr om Wester n Europe , will n oticethese subtleties.1

7:

as well as —> let aloneAffirmative:

7a. I have seen John and Peter as well as Tom.

Negative:

7b. I have not seen John or Peter, let alone Tom.

8:

entirely / completely not at allAffirmative:

8a. Jack and Jill are entirely compatible.

Negative:

8 b. Jack and J ill are n ot comp atib le at a ll.8c. Jack and Jill are not at all compatible .2

9:

considerably —» to any considerable extent / degreeAffirmative:

9a. He influenced political developments quite considerably.

Negative:

9b. He did not influence political developments to any considerable extent

1 The following option also exists, but some would find it highly informal:

6c. No visitor - and especially not from Western Europe - can fail to noticethese subtleties.

Notice the dashes instead of the commas.

2 The sentence “Jack and Jill are not entirely compatible” has a very different meaning:it implies that they are at least to some extent compatible.

71

Suggested Exercises (24): B. Turn the following sentences into the negative form:



A. Complete the fol lowing sentences:

1. Jack looked worn out, and he was not exactly impeccably d ress ed----------

2. Many cannot afford basics like food or clo thes ,----------going away on

holiday.

3. He saw that the cell-door was open. There were no warders aro und ----------

4. The importance of health cannot be underestimated,----------peace of mind.

5. The Firm became increasingly hostile towards her, and she found she could

no longe r rely on her fr iends----------

6 . Such parents fail to realise that buying expensive toys has nothing to do with

lov e,----------the fact that their children are deprived o f any understanding of

what love really means.

7. She said she never thought she would become fam ous ,----------in her seven

ties.

8 . Let us think of all those great scientists who came from poor homes and had

no money even for books,------------------- tuition.

9. In the film true love wins, for money has no power over it in this fictional

w or ld----------it does in reality.

10. I don ’t see things that way, and many other people wo uldn’t see it that

w ay ----------

11. Money will not buy us health ,---------happiness.

12. Ants never seem to be tire d - bees, wh ich ceaseless ly col lec t necta r

and pollen.

13. Life there cannot exactly be rivetin g,--------- for an ambitious type of man.

14. Arabella loved her fiance dearly, just as her parents did, but was unable to

take his ideas seriously,----------------------------------- her parents-------

15. There is no reason for the West to do business with this dictat or,----------one

who is accused o f such human rights abuses.

16. The Pope was not afraid of waging a war against commu nism,-------------he

hesitates to express his disapproval o f capitalism.

17. Not every family, and -those with several children, can meet the costsof studies.

18. The authorities cannot even afford to heat existing classrooms in winter,

buil d ne w ones.

72

1. Our new secretary is very hard-working, and she proves to be very competentas well.

2. The turmoil on the Japanese markets has considerably affected the economicsituation of neighbouring countries.

3. Joan has a talent for teaching as well as for getting her knowledge across.

Relative Clauses and the Comma

Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Compare these two sentences:

la . The US president, who is in supreme com man d of A me ric a’s armed

forces and nuclear arsenal, is de facto the most powerful man in theworld.

lb. The US pres iden t who made such r ema rks was Linc oln.

The first sentence refers to US presidents in general. This type of rela

tive clause is often referred to as non-defining or non-restrictive. Commas are indispensable with such types of relative clause.

The second by contrast refers only to one US president. The relative

clause tells us which US president is meant. Here commas Eire impossible.

This distinction is scrupulously observed by writers of English, and is

one of the most important rules of English punctuation. For those learners

of English who are uncertain which type of relative clause they are dealing

with two tips may prove especially useful.

Tip Number 1: Inserting an apposition

Let us take the following sentence:

2a. *In the seventh century much of Tibet converted to Buddhismwhich came from India.

Here it is possible to insert an appositional phrase:

2b. In the seventh century much of Tibet converted to B uddhism,a religion which came from India.

73

The fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative clause is

non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 2a:As in “Tip Number 1” the fact that such a rephrasing is possible suggests

that the relative clause in 5a is non-restrictive in character, and hence



non restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 2a:

2c. In the seventh century much of Tibet converted to Buddhism,which came from India.

Now let us take the following sentence:

3a. *Napoleon was exiled to St Helena where he was to spendthe rest of his life.

Here we see that we can make a similar insertion:

3b. Napoleon was exiled to St Helena, a place where he wasto spend the rest of his life.

Again, the fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative

clause is non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 3a:

3c. Napoleon was exiled to St Helena, where he was to spendthe rest o f his life.

One last example:

4a. *Roumania is trying to modernise its economy which isstill recovering from long years of neglect.

Here again an insertion is possible:

4b. Roumania is trying to modernise its economy, one which isstill recovering from long years of neglect.

Again, the fact that such an insertion is possible shows that the relative

clause is non-restrictive, and that a comma is therefore necessary in 4a:

4c. Roumania is trying to modernise its economy, which is

still recovering from long years of neglect.

Tip Number 2: Turning the relative clause into a coordinate clause

Look at the following two sentences:

5a. *My brother has just arrived at Brighton which he finds most agreeable.

5b. My brother has just arrived at a place which he finds most agreeable.

Sentence 5a (but not 5b) can easily be turned into a coordinate clause with and:

5c. My brother has just arrived at Brighton, and he finds it most agreeable.

74

that the relative clause in 5a is non restrictive in character, and hence

requires a comma:

5d. My brother has just arrived at Brighton, which he finds most agreeable.

N.B.

Only in the defining or restrictive type of sentence can that be substitut

ed for who or which:

lc. The president that made such remarks was Lincoln.


Supply commas and correct the word that wherever necessary (som etimes

no changes are required):

1. Tourists may well be charmed by their visit to our country where remarkab le

customs are still to be found.

2. The most important organisation is the EU that now comprises 15 members.

3. This is the question that I am going to examine in this essay.

4. The ties between man and nature that were very close until the nineteenth

century can no longer be restored.

5. The life that our cat leads is one of luxury.

6 . Even in the economically most developed countries where it might seem that

everyone lives in affluence there are people whose standard of living is low.

7. The organisation that they belong to will soon be banned.

8 . Those that take themselves too seriously will have a rude awakening.

9. There are times in life when we are faced with two simple alternatives.

10. Even now England has a number of old traditions an example of which is

Novem ber 5 wh en chi ldre n b um a dumm y.

11. They were ready to counsel anyone that approached them.

12. Europe’s paparazzi some of whom even disturbed her last moments must

take much of the blame for the princess ’s death.

13. China is the country where paper, silk and gunpowder were first manufactured.

14. Becoming poor is not a punishment: it is simply life that is often cruel and

full of injustices.

15. Those that were brought up with such attitudes expect the state to provide

everything.

75

6. There were a number of factors that aggravated the situation.

7. Everything began in the early 50s when the foundations for the EU were

But a more likely explanation for sentences like 6b is that the pattern the...

that... (discussed below, p. 155f.) is becoming increasingly fashionable



y g g y

bein g cons truc ted.

8. The politicians that I have been discussing are all too typical o f our country.

9. The situation that faces us is highly alarming.

0. The European Commission to which member-states send delegates meets in

Strasbourg.

1. Most o f the unemployed are genuine cases, but everyone knows that there are

also many people that prefer just sitting at home instead of looking for work.

2. Napoleon that is remembered today as one of France’s greatest men was

actually a Corsican.

3. Global warming will have especially serious consequences in Central Africawhere malaria already reaps a grim harvest.

4. The cultures that I have attempted to describe above declined for reasons thathave yet to be satisfactorily explained.

5. Their marriage that used to be considered so stable has now come to an end.

6. Those doctors who we nt on strike were bitterly criticised by those otherswho remained at their posts.

7. He was one of the paparazzi that were arrested at the scene of the accident.

8. Paper, silk and gunpowder were first manufactured in China where recordedhistory reaches back 5000 years.

additional Note:

i a small number of cases (much less than 5 percent) involving the defi-

ite article, both types of relative clause may be possible without any real

hange of meaning. Compare the following alternatives:

6a. The Iron Curtain, which once divided Europe, still exists in the minds

of some.6b. The Iron Curtain that once divided Europe still exists in the minds of

some.

loth 6a and 6b are correct. Some would argue that in 6b the phrase The

vn Curtain has ceased to have the status of a proper noun, as in the second f the following alternatives:

7a. Susan, who lives across the road, is getting married next week.7b. The Susan that lives across the road is getting m arried next week.

(i.e. not the Susan that works with me at the office).

6

p g g y

in British English, not least because it does not involve any punctuation.

6b is more typical of contemporary journalism.

There

There is also a regular source of related problems, since it is used for two

distinct words, each of which has its own distinct functions:

a) as a spatial expression:

“Where is our taxi?” “Look, there is our taxi —you see it coming?”

b) as an introductory subject of sentences:

There are too many tourists here.

There might be a bus later.There seems to be no alternative.

There is much to be said for this approach.

The following remarks relate only to the latter.1

I. Without particip les

There occurs with a very limited number of verbs:

1. with the verb to be

There is beautiful weather today. (= The weather is beautiful today.)There are many explanations for this. (= Many explanations exist for this.)

There have been many attempts to climb that mountain.

(= People have made many attempts to clim b that mountain.)

Sometimes, however, the /Aere-construction is not the most appropriate one. Let us look at the following alternative sentences:

1 Many English people pronounce the two words differently: /6e9(r)/ for the spatial

expression and /d9(r)/ for the introductory subject of sentences.

77

la. Sadly, there are two different faces of our country,lb. Sadly, our country has tw o different faces.

**There exist valid reasons.

Valid reasons do exist.



y, y

2a. There are certain advantages to this style of life.2b. This style of life does have certain advantages.

While sentences l a and 2a are grammatical, they are uncharacteristic of

sophisticated written English: the tfiere-construction should not be used if

a more obvious alternative is a simple rephrasing involving the verbs to

have, to possess etc.

2. with modals + the verb to be

There must be a way out of here.There might be num erous reasons for this.

There would have been a disaster if you had done the cooking.

(= A disaster would have happened if...)

3. with to seem or to appear + the verb to be

There appears to be no obvious solution.

There seem to be few restaurants here.

4. with verbs that describe a state (exist, live, remain etc.), especially in

a formal or literary context.i) There exist valid reasons why foxhunting should be banned.

There exist some grounds for optimism that the conflict will soon be

resolved.

ii) In this house there had once lived an eccentric millionaire.

iii) There remain two problems that no one seems able to solve.

Notice how in the above examples the underlined construction serves to

focus the reader’s attention on the actual subject of the sentence (valid

reasons why..., some grounds fo r optimism ..., an eccentric millionaire, two

problems that no one...) . In most of the above examples this subject is

rather lengthy, containing a postmodifier (...why foxhunting should be

banned, ...for optimism that the conflict will soon be resolved, ...that no

one seems able to solve). If these postmodifiers were removed, the there-

construction would be much less likely, indeed hardly possible. Compare

the following alternatives, the second of each being much closer to Eng

lish idiom:

78

**There remain two problems.

Two problems remain.

5. with verbs that describe an arrival ( appear, arise, arrive, come, emerge,

enter, follow etc.), especially in a h ighly formal or literary context.

i) Gradually there appeared some clouds of dark and ominous aspect.

ii) Last week there arose new doubts concerning the veracity of the

document.iii) One day there arrived a huge parcel from abroad.

iv) There may come a time when we will need their help.

v) Out of the mists there emerged a band of men wearing balaclavas.

vi) Suddenly there entered a clown of the most bizarre appearance,

vii) There followed a long, painful silence.

As in section 4 all the examples again involve ‘real’ subjects that consist

of several words, and nearly all contain postmodifiers (... of dark and om

inous aspect, ... concerning the veracity of the document, ...from abroad,

... when we w ill need their help, ... wearing balaclavas, ... of the most bi

zarre appea rance). The tfiere-construction serves to focus the reader’s at

tention on the actual subject of the sentence (some clouds o f dark and om

inous aspect, new doubts concerning the veracity of the document etc.).

Note that this construction generally occurs only in the simple present

or simple past. The following sentences are hardly possible:

** There are arising new doubts....

** There has arrived a huge parcel....

** There has emerged a band of men....


Make the fol lowing sentences more idiomatic, rephrasing them in wh atever

way seems necessary:

1. Most of us wonder whethe r there are more positive or negative aspects ofwatching TV.

79

2. When people of different nations meet, there may develop a discourse

between them4a. At present there are thousands of people emigrating to the States.4b At present thousands of people are emigrating to the States



between them.

3. Owing to this there prevails a maritime climate in our part of the world.

4. There must have been a cause of such a situation.

5. When there appeared this slanderous article, he was absolutely speechless.

6 . There often occur serious problems if proper precautions are not taken.

7. They do not realise that there exists such a problem.

8 . Recently there has emerged a debate on this particular issue.

9. While there are many adherents o f the traditional method of learning, open

and distance learning are becoming more fashionable.

10. If these two problems can be overcome, there will appear possibilities of

real development.

11. In the last few years there have also arisen doubts about the benefits of

genetically modified crops.

12. One should stress that there are num erous pros and cons of this reform.

13. As a result o f the changes we see that there is no longer free education. Ofcourse some w ill argue that there are good aspects of paying for education.

14. Doctors have no right to harm society in this way, for there are already too

many victims of this strike.

15. Obviously, there are sometimes arbitrary or unjust redundancies.

16. These examples show that there are actually positive role models forthousands of young people.

17. As we approach the new millennium, it seems obvious that there haveappeared significant changes and improvem ents in the way we live.

18. Those years were crucial for music. There emerged reggae, heavy metal,

techno and rap.

II. With participles

There + the verb to be + subject + participle

Look at the following alternative sentences:

la. There’s a storm approaching.lb. A storm is approaching.

2a. Last night there was a nightingale singing in the garden.2b. Last night a nightingale was singing in the garden.

3a. There have been many people killed on our roads.

3b. Many people have been killed on our roads.

80

4b. At present thousands of people are emigrating to the States.

In each of the above alternatives the first is much more informal than the

second. Note in sentences 2a, 3a and 4a the lengthy subject, containing

a postmodifier consisting o f a participle + prepositional phrase (... a night

ingale singing in the garden. ... many people killed on our mads. ... thou

sands o f people emigrating to the States' l. It is precisely this lengthy and

composite subject that tends to characterise the construction, l a being

an exception.

III. There + passive verb + subject

Let us look at the following passage, which exemplifies a frequent mistake:

la. *The chapter examines the latest advances in physiotherapy.There are also discussed the various methods of treatment currentlyavailable.

The second sentence is ungrammatical, since it is a confusion of two dif

ferent words: there meaning “in that place” and there as a kind of intro

ductory subject in sentences beginning there is, there are, there seems etc.

The sentence needs to be corrected, one possibility being:

lb. The chapter examines the latest advances in physiotherapy,

as well as the various methods of treatment currently available.

In fact the ‘passive construction’ is generally only found with verbs of

seeing, observing etc., and then only in formal or literary contexts:

2. Strange portents had preceded the disaster. Indeed, there had been seenhosts joining battle in the skies....

The above example may at least convey some idea of how rare the con

struction in question actually is.


Improve or correct the fol low ing sentences, rephrasing them in wha tever

way seems necessary:

1. There have been planned no more staff meetings for the foreseeable future.

81

2 . I am going to consider whether there should be established any limits to such

interference in private affairs.

4. On the western edge of the Nile delta there is the city of Alexandria.

5. At a right angles to the square there is the town ’s most famous monument.



3. There has even been coined a special term for this kind of thing.

4. The conclusion is inescapable: there ought to be formed organisations

devoted to the needs of such social groups.

5. There have been found no written accounts of this event in the records of

other civilisations.

6. Every year there are murdered innocent people, their only crime being an

inappropriate appearance or unacceptable views on life.

7. Fortunately, there are being invented more and more ways of dealing withsuch problems.

IV. Omission of there (with expressions of location)

After a composite adverbial expression of place there is often unneces

sary, even clumsy, as in the following alternatives:

la . Next t o the schoo l t here is a chapel dating f rom Vic tori an t imes.lb . Next t o the school is a chap el dat ing from Vic tor ian times .

The omission of there is especially typical when we are describing a

location, and for which we use not only to be but also other verbs (to lie, to

rise, to stand, to tower, to be fou nd , to be situated etc.). Here is another example:

2a. To the left, only a few m etres away from m e, there stood the National

Gallery, while over to my right there towered Nelso n’s Column.2b. To my left, only a few metres away from me, stood the National

Gallery, while over to my right towered Nelson’s Column.

Again, 2b is preferable to 2a.

Suggeste d Exercises (28):

Try to improve the following sentences in the same way:

1. Beyond the picturesque town of Penzance there is the westernmost point of

Great Britain.

2. Adjace nt to the Grand Hotel there is the Sopot pier, extending 512 metres.

3. Ahead of them, clearly discernible on the horizon, there were the Pillars of

Hercules.

82

5. At a right angles to the square there is the town s most famous monument.

What, Which etc.

These words tend to give rise to a number of recurrent problems among foreign users of English (below, Types A-D):

T ype A:

Incorrect:

a. **Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, what gives rise to a special

microclimate.

Correct:

b. Hay -on-Wye i s surround ed b y hi lls, and this gives rise to a sp ecialmicroclimate.

c. Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, which gives rise to a specialmicroclimate.

d. Hay-on-Wye is surrounded by hills, a circumstance that gives rise to aspecial microclimate.

In sentence d other nouns are, of course, possible instead of circumstance,

e.g. fea ture, peculiarity etc. (This structure is also discussed below, p. 98.)


Rewrite the fo llo wing sentences in a way exem pli fied in d above. Example:

a) She shook the Que en’s hand without waiting to be addressed.

This speaks volumes a bout her manners.

b) She shook the Que en’s hand without waiting to be addressed, behaviour which speaks volumes about her manners.

1. Mr Jones is an avid football-fan, and that is often a cause of arguments.

2. They watch soap operas every day, and that is certainly a waste of time.

83

3. John said he would fight for custody of the children. This he justified by

saying that Jane was unsuited as a mother.

2. People in our country tend to be very hospitable - this is something thatvisitors will easily notice.



4. The Joneses have different social backgrounds. That seems to influence

the relations between Mrs J ones ’s parents and their own son-in-law.

Type B:

Sometimes, however, different structures are needed from the ones pre

sented above. This is especially the case when certain verbs are involved.

These may be classified as:

i) verbs of illustrating, exemplifying etc.

ii) verbs of seeing, noticing, observing etc.

ii) verbs of arguing, establishing, proving, showing etc.:

i. Even when natural ability is absent, hard work can often produce results,

as can be illustrated (exemplified) by the case of M r X, my maths

teacher.

In the above sentence *“what can be illustrated” would hardly be English;

“which can be illustrated”, though not exactly wrong, would be considered

clumsy by many.

ii. Many Americans are enthusiastic churchgoers, as can be seen (observed,

noticed) on Sundays.

In the above sentence *“what can be seen” would hardly be English; “which

can be seen”, though not exactly wrong, is best avoided. For more details

of this as-construction, cf. p. 6 If.

iii. Wales has a g reat tourist potential, as I am going to show in this essay.

In the above sentence *“what I am going to show” would hardly be Eng

lish; “which I am going to show”, though not exactly wrong, is best avoid

ed.


Rewrite the follo wing sentences in the way sugg ested above:

1. Dreams are closely related to reality. This can be illustrated by the fact that we

often dream about people and places we know.

84

3. In extreme cases love may demand the sacrifice of life. This was the case withRomeo and Juliet.

4. The government does not attach much importance to the teaching profession.This is obvious from the teachers’ wages.

5. Life expectancy and life style are closely related. This has been established

bey ond all doub t by an i mm ens e nu mb er of scie nti fic stud ies.

Type C:

This type involves phrases containing evaluative adjectives like impor

tant, significant, worse etc.

Incorrect:

a. *A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability

to empathise, and - what is important - a certain degree of intelligence.

Correct:

b. A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability to

empathise, and - m ore importantly - a certain degree of intelligence.c. A teacher needs three qualities: a positive attitude to others, an ability to

empathise, and above all a certain degree of intelligence.

Incorrect

*what is (more) important

*what is (more) interesting

*what is (more) obvious

*what is significant

*what is more worrying

*what makes matters worse

Correct

more importantly

interestingly (enough)

(more) obviously

significantly

more worryingly

making matters worse

N.B.

The phrase what is worse is often used in an inappropriate manner.

Clumsy:

*There are people who buy such magazines and, what is w orse, believethe things they read there.

85

Better:

There are people who buy such magazines and, worse still, believe

*What is even more depressing,

*What is m ost ironic,*What is remarkable,



the things they read there.

In reality, phrases like worse still, even worse or mak ing matters worse

are much more common.


In the follo wi ng sentences supply the gaps in the way indicated above:

1. Such people live in their own little world, blind to what is happening all

around them and,--------- , unable to express t heir emotions.

2. Pensioners are faced with extreme pover ty. ----------, these people can do

nothing about their predicament.

3. This suggests that she was not a conscientious teacher and,----------, not a

successful one.

4. Education has become a means to an en d; ----------, it is no longer free of

charge.

5. TV often monopolises ou r lives an d,----------, we rarely realise it.

Type D:

This type of mistake is similar to type C, but the structures required for its

correction are to some extent different:

Incorrect:

a. *Man’s activities are ruining our ecosystem. What is especially

alarming, not even huge oceans are completely safe.

Correct:

b. What is especially alarming is that not even huge oceans etc.

c. It is especially alarming that not even huge oceans etc.

d. It is an especially alarming fact that etc.

e. The most alarming thing is that etc.

Here are some other examples of such incorrect phrases (all typically fol

lowed by commas):

*What is astonishing,

*What is curious,

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*What is striking,*What is worth mentioning,1

*What needs to be emphasised,

N.B.

The phrase what follows expressing a logical relationship is rare in the

extreme. Compare the following alternatives:

Incorrect:la. *They will be more able to cope with their disabilities and,

what follows, to lead happ ier lives.

Correct:

lb. They will be more able to cope with their disabilities and,

consequently, to lead happier lives,lc. ...and, bv implication, to lead happier lives.

Incorrect:

2a. *Nowadays it is fashionable to call human wickedness a kind ofillness. What follows, the criminal is essentially absolved from

his actions, requiring a doctor rather than a prison warder.

Correct:

2b. ...It follows from this that the criminal is essentially absolved from

his actions, requiring a doctor rather than a prison warder.


Complete the followin g sentences using the words in block capitals:

1. IRONIC the Party was abolished by the man whom it had once expelled in

disgrace.

2. The defendant stands accused of the aforementioned charges. STRIKINGhe does not consider his actions to be at all criminal.

1 Of course the problem can also be circumvented by the use of discourse markers such

as curiously, ironically, remarkably, sadly etc.

87

3. WORTH MENTION ING George always put other people first and himself

last.

4 REMA RKA BLE they do not overestimate their financial situation



4. REMA RKA BLE they do not overestimate their financial situation.

5. CURIO US people often behave in an irrational way when confronted by

TV-cameras.

6 . IMPOR TANT dreams reveal the stresses with which people are not able tocope in reality.

7. STRIKIN G many companies claim that it is impossible to sell their productswithout resorting to such methods.

8 . EXTR AOR DINA RY no more than a century ago the extended family was the

rule rather than the exception in most of Europe.

Stylistic Devices

Cleft Sentences with the Pronoun It

This construction is widely used in emphasising the importance of certain

words. Compare the two following sentences:

la. Knowledge o f a foreign language broadens one’s mental horizons,lb. It is knowledge of a foreign language that broadens one’s mental

horizons.

As can be seen, the second clause of lb resembles a defining relative clause.

Before the word that it is not possible to insert a comma.

One advantage of using this construction is that it enables a distinction to be brought out with considerable clarity:

lc. Reading things in translation has only a very limited value. It is knowl edge o f a foreign lang uage that truly broadens

one ’s mental horizons.

In fact lc (but not la ) is virtually an implied negative:

It is knowledge o f a foreign language (not reading things in translation)

that truly broadens....

Another advantage of the cleft construction is that the emphasis or focus

can easily be shifted in accordance with what the writer considers to be

especially important. Thus sentence lb has focussed on knowledge of a foreign language, but a different ‘focus’ is also possible:

Id. It is one’s mental horizons that knowledge

of a foreign language broadens.

89

In other words, lb and Id focus on differing elements of la and in effect inter

pret the sentence in different ways. The construction enables us to change the

focus of the sentence in accordance with what we consider to be important

5a. In 1825 Sopot became a spa. But above all the interwar period left its

mark on the town’s appearance.5b. ...But it was above all the interwar period that left its mark on the



focus of the sentence in accordance with what we consider to be important.

Moreover the construction can also be used not only with nominal expres

sions (knowledge of a foreign language, mental horizons etc.) but also with

prepositional or adverbial ones, as in the following alternative sentences:

2a. George Orwell wrote An im al Farm in 1945.

2b. It was in 1945 that George Orwell wrote An imal Far m.

3a. Paula married a film star quite recently.

3b. It was quite recently that Paula married a film star.

As can be seen from Id, the construction can also be used unchanged with

a plural expression. Compare the following alternatives:

4a. Not only Liverpudlians are proud of the Beatles: the fact is that Paul,

John, George and Ringo w ere a peculiarly British phenomenon.4b. It is not only Liverpudlians that are proud....

N.B.

i) In sentence 4b the verb of the that -clause agrees with Liverpudlians and

not with it: i.e. the verb (are) is in the plural.

ii)

With sentences like 2, 3 and 4, where the focus is on people, who is possi

ble instead of that:

2c. It was George Orwell who wrote An imal Farm in 1945.

3c. It was Paula who married a film star quite recently.

4c. It is not only Liverpudlians who are proud of the Beatles....

iii)

This type of cleft sentence cannot be used to focus on the complement of

a verb:

Salman Rushdie is a controversial figure. N ot : **It is a controversial figure that Salman R ushdie is.

iv)

When the sentence refers to the past, then it is is likely to change into

it was:

90

p

town ’s appearance.


Convert the follow ing sentences in the same way (italics have been giv en

fo r guidance). Example:

a. On the foundations o f our childhood memories w e buildall the subsequent stages.

b. It is on the foundations of our childhood memories that we build

all the subsequent stages.

1. Owing to his highly developed brain man is able to learn many difficult things.

2. The psychiatrist explained that while he was always careful to listen to each

patient care full y, the body language told him most.

3. The existence o f a common threat cemented the military alliance.

4. In 1998 the courses in investment banking were especially popular, but in

1999 the courses in derivative instruments drew the most participants.

5. During those years of tyranny per sonal contacts and no t on e’s abil itie s

brough t success i n ma ny spheres of life .

6 . Impeccab le beha viou r in priva te life makes a politician worthy of the respect

and trust of others.

7. Esp ecially whi le being abroad fo r som e time one may begin to think uncon

sciously in the language of the foreign country. I had the opportunity to learn

the local traditions o f Andalusia, and language made it possible.

8. No t un til the publication of his book was this theory called into question.

9. Some people identify wisdom with the knowledge that comes from books.

For others true wisdom may stem only from personal experience.

10. Unfortunately the good aspects o f school are often forgotten. Aft er all, we

remember most the moments o f horror before maths and the attem pts to keep

our eyes open during biology lessons.

Additional Note:

Two rather similar structures are to be found with a number of widely

used phrases, especially typical of formal contexts (speeches, addresses

etc.):

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A: It is... that..

la . We hope that this conference will be a great success,

In each pair the second alternative is more emphatic, making use of

the less likely syntactical pattern; it is also o f a higher register. Note how

the word order has been inverted (we did >did we one may >may one)



la . We hope that this conference will be a great success,lb. It is ou r hope that....

2a. I am / We are convinced that this conference will be a great success.2b. It is mv / our conviction that....

3a. We are deeply sad to announce the death of....3b. It is with deep sadness that we m ust announce....

4a. We heartily approve of and admire your endeavours....4b. It is with heartfelt approval and admiration that we have been observing

your endeavours....

B: It is my / our... to...

la . We have the pleasure to inform you that you have been awarded

the Nobel Prize,lb. It is our pleasure to....

2a. I have the honour to w elcome you to....2b. It is my honour to....

3. It is our great honour and pleasure to....

Emphatic Word Order (‘Fronting’)

I: Ha r d l y , O n l y , Ra r e l y , S c a r c e l y etc.

When used sparingly, emphatic word order is a valuable tool for any writer

of English, both creating syntactic variety and broadening the range

of expressive possibilities. One very important syntactic pattern involves

a group of words and phrases, often with a negative or restrictive meaning.

Compare the following sentence pairs:la . We did not realise what had happened until later,lb. No t un til late r did w e rea lise what had happened.

2a. One may master this craft only through painstaking effort.2b. Only through painstaking effort may one master this craft.

92

the word order has been inverted (we did —>did we, one may —>may one).

The structures exemplified above involve above all the following expres

sions:

I. Those with a negative or restrictive significance:

at no time

hardly (also: hardly ever; hardly... when..., hardly... before...)in no way

little (usually with verbs of knowing etc.,e.g. little does she know, little d id he realise etc.)

neither... nor...

never again, never before, never-once

no sooner... than...not (also: not even once, not until etc.)

not only... but also (cf. also below p.l 13, Coordination III)

nowhereonly (also: only after, only if, only then, only w hen etc.)

on no accountrarely

scarcelyseldom

under no circumstances

II. Others:

sosuch

(For further details of this construction, see Part II of English fo r Writers

and Translators, ‘Emphasis’.)


Make the fol low ing sentences more emphatic (in some o f them words have

been italicised where the new sentence is to begin):

E.g . Such a complex organism has never before existed.

Ne ver be fore has such a complex organism existed.

1. I had seldom before seen such an expressive face.

93

2. Every one of us can derive such wisdom from reading books. (Such is...)

3. Such enormous progress in medicine has never before been achieved.

taking part in a foxhunt”, *“Never will I go to a football match” etc. are

virtually impossible in contemporary British English.1



4. A real relationship can be established only by communicating in this way.

5. Su ch couples very rarely get married becau se they love each other.

6 . A teacher can vary his lessons and make them worth attending only by using

his inborn creativity.

7. The level of soccer violence in Argentina is such that a judge there hasrecently banned all games for a month.

8 . In the worst scenario communication is abandoned and parents devote their

entire energies to attaining co mmon m aterial goals. (In the worst scenario notonly... )

9. One can appreciate the talent and writing skill of the author only by readinghis book or poem in the original.

10. She was so imaginative and creative that every class with her was different.

11. This knowledg e not only imbues one with confidence but also helps one in

getting to know other cultures.

12. Talent mu st be accompanied by hard work, and it yields results only then.

13. There are grounds f or saying that the pen is mightier than the sword. (Notwithout reason...)

14. The fans are so enthralled by their idol that they will follow him to the ends

of the earth.15. Literature should serve ‘useful purpos es’ under no circumstances.

16. This scandal had no sooner been forgotten than another appeared.

17. The traces of the First World War are nowhere more visible than in NorthernFrance.

18. You will be allowed to join our gathering only when your manners improve.

19. He stopped to think about the consequences o f his deed hardly for a singlemoment. (Hardly for...)

20. The princess had no idea of the terrible fate that awaited her. (Little did...)

21. The explos ion was of such force that several people were killed instantly.(Such was...)

Additional Note:

In the above construction the words hardly and nev er are usually part of a

more composite expression (e.g. Hardly e ver does the Prime M inister pu t

aside her mask o f hypocrisy). Thus sentences like *“Hardly would I enjoy

94

II: With A s and T h o u g h

Another frequently used structure involves the conjunctions as and though.

Compare the following alternatives:la. Even though it may seem amazing, it is the simple truth,

lb. Amazing though it may seem, it is the simple truth,

lc. Amazing as it may seem , it is the simple truth.

In lb and lc the word order has been modified, with the predicative adjec

tive amazing made to begin the sentence. In lc the conjunction as is used

instead of though, with little or no discernible change of meaning (as i s

here the equivalent of “though”). This modification of the usual word or

der is typical of a literary or formal register.

In addition there is an important variant, exemplified by the last of the

following series (2c):

2a. Though I like Amsterdam very much, I have no wish to live there.2b. However much I like Amsterdam, I have no wish to live there.

2c. Much as I like Amsterdam, I have no wish to live there.

The pattern with much as generally involves verbs of liking and disliking

or other verbs of emotion:

3. Much as they dislike the situation, they must confront it somehow.

4. Much as we fear the consequences, we are determined to accomplish

our plan.

1 There are very few exceptions:

i: The pattern never... again:

Never were the tw o lovers to see each o ther again.

ii: Rarely encountered rhetorical utterances:

Never was a greate r fuss made ab out any man than about L ord Byron.

95

The construction exemplified by lc may, however, also convey a causal

relationship (“seeing that”, “since”), as in the following alternatives:


Rewrite the follo wing sentences using the structures out lined above.



5a. Since I was tired, I soon fell asleep.

5b. Tired as I was. I soon fell asleep.

It may, of course, be legitimately asked how such a construction does

not give rise to confusion, since the conjunction as is capable of replacing

both since and though. The answer is simply that such ambiguity would be

dispelled by the context, or else by the insertion of additional words:

5c. Tired as I was, I still could not fall asleep.

In 5c the adverb still makes it obvious that the first clause is concessive

(“Even though”), and not causative (“Since”, “Seeing that”).

If we set aside the examples with much as and concentrate on the other

sentences (1 and 5), we will see that they involve the verb to seem ( Amazing

though it may seem) or the verb to be (Tired as I was). It is precisely with

these two verbs that the emphatic construction most frequently occurs.

Very occasionally a noun phrase may be brought to the front, in which

case it generally appears without any article. Compare the following ex

amples:

6a. As I am a dream enthusiast, I confess I find dreams more interesting

than books or films.6b. Dream enthusiast as I am, I confess I find dreams more interesting

than books or films. (Not: **“A dream enthusiast...”)

NB:The construction(s) described above tend to be reserved for clauses which

have the same grammatical subject as the main clause:

Amazing as it may seem, it is the simple truth.

Tired as I was, I still could not fall asleep.

Thus sentences such as the following sometimes read badly:

*Tired as I was, John insisted on seeing me.

96

1. Though the countess was angry, she was tempted to laugh.

2. Since they are fascinated by these characters, children want to be like them.

3. Though most people might be unwilling to admit the fact, the world today isruled by the power of money.

4. Though this may seem cruel, the ability to speak a foreign language isindispensable for any well-paid job.

5. Though he may be well prepared and competent, such a person will never

reach the level of the healer that has true vocation.

6 . Though there may be different sources of the tragedy, poverty has one facefor those who have exp erienced it.

7. There is a widespread belief that most things can be obtained for money.

Though this may seem sad, it is a fact that parents have a tendency to regardlove as a financial transaction.

8 . Being a good general, Hannibal made the most careful dispositions.

9. Since they are spoilt, such children cannot cope with the real world.

10. Nowa days people dream of living like the characters in “Dynasty” . Despite

their being inane, such soap operas flood o ur TV channels.

11. Though it might seem incomprehensible to us, the reclusive way of life is notdevoid of experience.

12. Though Moriarty was cunning, he was outwitted by the superior guile of

Sherlock Holmes.

As with Fronted Transitive Verbs

A related construction involves the modification of an as-clause where

part of the verb, usually a transitive one, is brought to the front:

7a. As the President has many enemies, he seldom sleeps

in the same bed two nights in a row.7b. Having many enemies as he does, the President seldom sleeps

in the same bed two nights in a row.

In sentences of this type (7b) the meaning is invariably “seeing that” or “since”,

and never “even though”. Generally the construction involves a verb which

takes a direct object (e.g. have). The as-clause and the main clause tend to

have the same grammatical subject. (For more details, cf. p. 53.)

97


Rewrite the fol low ing sentences using the structure outlined above.

1 As he has the most highly develop ed brain functions man seems to be

While sentence 2a is not incorrect, the relative clause might easily be recast

as a coordinate clause:



1. As he has the most highly develop ed brain functions, man seems to be

completely different from the other primates.

2. Since it takes up so much time, televisi on can be detrimental to family relations.

3. It will not be difficult for the twenty -first century to seem like an age of gold, as

it has such a terrible and bloody predecessor.

4. TV, which operates by means of visual images, is much more communicative

and fascinating than radio.

5. The publication constit utes an invaluable source of information, since it includesmany crucial discoveries.

Relative Clauses in Apposition

An earlier section (pp. 73-77) discussed the difference between defining

and non-defining relative clauses. In particular it was stressed that one of

the ways of distinguishing the latter from the former was by being able to

insert an apposition or appositional phrase. Thus, at the cost of repetition, let us take the following sentence:

la.*NapoIeon was exiled to St Helena where he was to spend

the rest of his life.

The fact that it is possible to insert an appositional phrase

lb. Napole on was exi led to St H elena, a place whe re he was to spend the

rest o f his life.

shows that the relative clause of la (where he was to spend the rest of his

life) is non-defining, and therefore needs to be preceded by a comma.

This insertion of an apposition remains a very useful technique when we

are dealing with non-defining relative clauses that conclude the sentence.

Let us take the following example:

2a. England ’s culture is the produc t of its long years of history, which

have included several invasions and religious upheavals.

98

2b. England’s culture is the product of its long years of history,

and these years have included several invasions and religious upheavals.

In other words the relative clause of 2a is almost as important as the main

clause. In such cases, the insertion of an apposition is often an excellent

way of formulating your meaning:

2c. Englan d’s culture is the product of its long years of history,

years which have included several invasions and religious upheavals.

The advantage of such an insertion is that it endows the whole sentence

with a certain poise by allowing the second clause to counterbalance the

first more effectively.

Similarly, if we look at the following sentence

3a. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeology’s most perplexing

secrets, which had remained unsolved for ages.

we see that the relative clause could also be reformulated as a coordinate

clause:

3b. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeology’s most perplexing

secrets (these secrets had remained unsolved f or ages).

Again, it can be greatly improved by means of the same appositional structure:

3c. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeolo gy’s most perplexing

secrets, ones that had remained unsolved for ages.

An alternative would be:

3d. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeology’s most perplexing

secrets, secrets that had remained unsolved for ages.

or even:

3e. He succeeded in deciphering three of archaeology’s most perplexing

secrets, enigmas that had remained unsolved for ages.

Mastering this trick will make your writing easier and more pleasant to

read, as well as eliminating potential ambiguities. This is especially impor

tant when the relative clause has an unclear antecedent, as in the following

sentence:

99

4a. The sacked deputy prime minister rejects the accusations o f perjury,

sexual misconduct and financial impropriety, which he claims to be pol itic ally m otiv ated .

P bl h hi h f i h f h h

6a. Many are unaware of the history of their country, which also adversely

affects their knowledge o f other fields of education.

Here which refers not to one word, but to the entire previous clause, al



Presumably the which refers to accusati ons , yet the fact that the two

words are far removed from each other makes the sentence slightly awk

ward to read. It could be greatly improved by the insertion of an appo

sition:

4b. The sacked deputy prime minister rejects the accusations of perjury,

sexual misconduct and financial impropriety, accusations which heclaims to be politically motivated.

or even:

4c. The sacked deputy prime minister rejects the accusations o f perjury,sexual misconduct and financial im propriety, charges which he claims

to be politically motivated.

And if we take another, more extreme example

5a.*Freedom has proved to be scary and to demand great responsibilityfrom our actions, which w e are often afraid of.

we will see that which has no antecedent that is obvious at first sight. If,

as is most likely, which refers to responsibility, then the following would

be a great improvement:

5b. Freedom has proved to be scary and to demand great responsibility

from our actions, a responsibility which we are often afraid of.

Notice how besides a repetition of the word responsibility the indefinite

article has been added. This preference for the indefinite article a/an is

typical of the appositional structure that forms the subject of this section.

(Cf. also below, p. 157.)

If, however, the context of the sentence makes it abundantly obvious

what which refers to, it is still far better to insert an apposition, even if it is

only the word something:

5c. Freedom has proved to be scary and to demand great responsibility

from our actions, something w hich we are often afraid of.

The modified type of apposition shown by 3e and 4c (enigmas instead of

secrets, and charges instead of accusations ) is especially useful when it

comes to the following kind of relative clause:

100

, p ,

though that is not immediately obvious. Hence the following reformulation

would be a great improvement:

6b. Many are unaware of the history of their country, a fact which also

adversely affects their knowledge of othe r fields of education.


Improve the following sentences, inserting an apposition o f some kind:

1. Susan considers the guide dog to be a most precious gift, which has changedher life completely.

2. The plan involves an alternative to spending a prison sentence, which is open

to all wom en prisoners.

3. We do not notice the unique features of our everyday reality and mentality,

which would nonetheless surprise the first-time foreign visitor.

4. English people consume enormous quantities of tea, which has become

legendary.

5. Her relationship to Diana was very profound and heartfelt, which might have

been a ttr ibu tab le to resem blan ces of characte r.6 . The local roads are extremely bad when compared with those in Western

Europe, which makes it impossible to dispense with trains completely.

7. The manuscripts reveal a picture of the composer as endowed with

a marvellous lyrical talent, who builds up the emotional climate of the music

by mea ns of the melodic line.

8 . This is a classic example of a family where a father wants to project his ownambitions onto a child, which in the longer term may and often does provefatal.

9. Mother Teresa was known for her loving heart, which did not distinguish

between nat ion s and re ligions .

10. The face seems to express doggedness and harshness, which is strengthened

by the sin ister g lint in th e ey es.11. The vast majority of anaesthetists refused to continue working, which com

plet ely par aly sed the heal th system.

12 . Scholars also propound another theory, which is based on more conventional

argumentation.

101

13. They treat old people with respect, which is probably linked to the impor

tance attached to good manners.

14. Mr and Mrs Jones have little job security and poor professional prospects,



which may disqualify them as potential foster-parents.

15. A visit to the harbo ur is always like a week in a health resort, where all mysenses may recuperate from the fumes and traffic of the city.

16. The extended family is not an anachronism . It is a cure for loneliness which

has developed along with humanity and must be continuously cultivated.

17. Our tourist is likely to stand in queu es for hours while'clerk s —usually

fema le - are varnishing their nails, reading magazines, drinking coffee,

guzzling cakes and gossiping about their boss’s latest hair-do, which theyacquired during their years under the previous political system.

18. Owi ng to these childhood experiences she is unable to establish any satisfactory relationships with others, which leaves her a very unhappy person.

Clarity and Syntax

Abrupt Sentence Endings

A very common mistake is to end a sentence with an abrupt or otherwise

awkward word or phrase. One especially frequent variant is a very abrupt

predicate, as in the following sentence:

la.*The problem of how best to divide up the profits arose.

Here the predicate arose consists of one word, coming after a subject of

many words. Many British people would consider the sentence awkward

and difficult to read. Yet i f the predicate were longer, the sentence would be unobjectionable:

lb . The problem of how best to divide up the profits was discussed bv all

concerned.

Alternatively the sentence can be reorganised, for example in the follow

ing manner:

lc . The problem arose of how best to divide up the profits.

Now compare the following alternatives:

2a.*The following year Russell’s most important contribution to science,The Principles of Mathematics, appeared.

2b. The following year saw the appearance of Rus sell’s mos t important

contribution to science, namely....

Thus an abrupt predicate ( appeared) has been avoided by means of a re

phrasing.

103

This technique of rephrasing is especially important for the avoidance

of an interminably long and composite subject preceding an abrupt predi

cate. Compare the following:

Both sentences are ambiguous as well as being clumsy, the short under

lined phrases coming abruptly after longer elements. Sentence 6 is am

biguous because at first reading it looks as if the meaning is “too little



p g

3a.*Through the influence of this school the cross-pollination of plants, theintroduction of chemical fertilisers, the concept of growing plants on

a commercial scale, the fundame ntals of breeding cattle and horses,

as well as the introduction of professional accounting for agriculturalenterprises were effectively propagated.

3b. This school was responsible for the effective propagation of the cross pol lination of plants....

Most native users o f English would find the second alternative incompara

bly easier to read.

If we look at the following sentence, we will again notice a short pred

icate preceded by a long subject:

4a.*According to scientists, the most important point of dissimilarity

between h omo sapiens and the res t o f the animal kin gdo m is s pee ch.

Here the predicate is speech consists of two words, coming after a subject

of many words. The sentence needs reorganising:

4b. According to scientists, speech is the most important point....1

An especially common error is to put a short word or phrase at the end of a list of longer words and phrases:

5.* Certain qualities are required in order to be successful in this job, e.g.

an ability to get on with people and listen to them, a sense o f humour,imagination, charm and wit.

Again the word order requires modification - perhaps by bringing forward

the underlined items and placing them before the longer ones.

A frequent type of related error is ambiguity of the following type:

6.* Cigarettes, not enough exercise and stress can shorten our livesconsiderably.

7.* The striking farmers decided upon a strategy which consisted of

hampering the distribution of petrol and roadblocks.

1 An exception to the above remarks is the following pattern involving the adjective only:

The only thing that keeps the two warring factions from each oth er’s throats is the UN

pres ence .

104

g a a a g a a g

exercise and too little stress”. Sentence 7 is similarly unsatisfactory. Both

6 and 7 need to be read more than once before the most likely meaning

emerges.

A related mistake involves one particular type of composite genitive

expression. Contrast the following alternatives:

8a.*Computers have changed not only studen ts’ but also teachers’ lives.

8b. Computers have changed the lives of both students and teachers.

Sentence 8a is unsatisfactory because lives is preceded by and part of

a long and composite genitive expression.


Improve the fol low ing sentences by changing the word order and i f neces

sary by rephrasing them.

1. Another typical example of keeping local traditions in our country is Easter.

2. Urgent action to improve this intolerable and inexcusable situation is neces

sary.

3. It was against this background that the idea of writing a modem history of

England, highlighting the role of Parliament, emerged.

4. Documentaries which focus on some aspects of man’s cultural and socialactivities or those which examine the existence of some wild animals in their

natural habitats may broaden our minds.

5. Opinions as to whether the private lives of politicians should be subject to the

same ethical rules as their public lives m ay differ.

6. Many years have passed since the famous Round Table talks, which are

considered to have been the beginning of the end of communist domination,took place.

7. Observing five-year-olds who can only think about new computer games and

who perceive reality only through a m onitor screen, is sad.

8. From among these Th. Momm sen’s contribution in the field of textual criti

cism and epigraphy, R. Sym e’s work on the significance of the prosopo-

graphical method, and A.H.M. Jones’s immense structuralist study of the

later Roman Empire deserve particular recognition.

105

Additional Note:

A related error is to put an insignificant word or phrase at the end of

a sentence:

3. The decisions that people make and the statements that are uttered are often

irrevocable.

4. Such students devote their whole free time to party activism , and it is forthem a kind of ‘professional hobby’ which will later turn into a political c areer



9a. *But it is simply not enough to know one’s subject inside out, I suppose.

Such a sentence is impossible except in conversation, and obviously the

underlined phrase should go to the beginning.

9b. But I suppose it is simply not enough to....

Coordination

I: Unjustified Change of Subject

A very common error is to change the subject of the sentence when such a

change is unnecessary and even flies in the face of logic. Let us look at the

following example of such an error:

a. *When we form a judgeme nt about other people we should alwaysconsider their appearance, but at the same time externals must not

prevai l in o ur a sses sment.

Here the ‘real’ subject of the sentence is clearly we, and so it is not only

quite unnecessary but even confusing to switch the subject in the conclud

ing clause. The following improvement suggests itself:

b. When we form a judgem ent about other people we should always

consider their appearance, without however being swaved by externals.


Improve the following sentences in the way sugges ted above:

1. We had never before seen such beautiful stars. Hardly a word was spoken

since all of us appreciated the wonderful view.

2. Good teachers are able to admit if any mistake was made by them.

106

them a kind of ‘professional hobby’ which will later turn into a political c areer.

5. Mother Teresa would give away all the money she had raised and never

count the cost, with public opinion meaning nothing to her.

6. It is impossible for animals to communic ate some special circumstances

that have never happened before.

7. It is only natural that many countries sh ould adopt cultural importatio ns

that are perhaps more attractive or convenient for them.

8. Our tourist will have a hard time making himself understood in the street andit will also be a struggle for him to arrange anything in our public institutions.

9. Her activities were acknowledged by awarding her the Nobel Prize.

10. S hould our country join the EU? I do not think so, and an attempt will bemade to explain why.

11. M an has learned to solve many problems, although ther e are some that have

yet to be overcome.

12. Th e princess gave to beggars what was superfluous to her.

13. Whe n the average foreigner visits our deserted woods and forests, he might

think that we do not like trees or that going for walks is unpopular in our

country.

14. Sometimes in life we must sacrifice something in order to gain somethingvital for us.

15. L et me focus on the products of human thought, by which cult ure is meant.

16. A h ealthy way of life is greatly conduc ive to longevity, and it would be a

mistake to think that there are no connections between the two.

17. If anyone examines our history, it will become clear why we have a deeply

ambiguous attitude to the West.

18. In the old days every child was brought up with a deep respect for moral

values, and honesty, keeping one’s word, and respect for one’s elders were

the most highly prized qualities.

19. It is easy to convince ones elf that everything is preordain ed and that there

is no point in trying to change it.

20. Most people live their lives in the pursuit of pleasure, which is the most

important thing for them.

21. Americans especially enjoy meeting Europeans, and they should not think

twice about coming to the States.

107

Additional Note:

Of course, this need for coordination must not be taken to extremes. Some

times sentences read perfectly well even when there is a switch of subject

** ...He or she should realise that his or her moral code is not as muchhis or her own business as he or she might think.

In other words the option exemplified by b may result in language that is



times sentences read perfectly well even when there is a switch of subject

whose necessity is far from obvious. Let us compare the following sen

tence pairs, the first of which (a) is characterised by a subject switch and

the second (b) by ‘coordination’:

la . He spent most of his life in the country, where the majority of his

poems wer e w rit ten .lb.

He spent most of his life in the country, where he wrote the majorityof his poems.

2a. When we watch comedies we laugh, melodramas make us cry or feel

happy, horrors give rise to fear, and thrillers keep us on the edge of

our seats.2b. Comedies cause us to laugh, melodramas make us cry or feel happy,

horrors give rise to fear, and thrillers keep us on the edge of our

seats.

If one compares these sentence pairs, one sees that little if anything has

been gained by making all the clauses o f each sentence start with the same

subject. In other words, it is doubtful whether l b represents an improve

ment on la, or 2b an improvement on 2a.

II: Concord and Gender Bias

Consider the following sentence:

a. A pol itic ian should not hesitate to r esign if th e pu blic is scanda lise d by

his private life.

Many people would be at the very least unhappy with the language of

the above, since it gives the impression that all politicians are male, an

assumption which is as sexist as it is factually incorrect. One method of

avoiding this implication is to modify the sentence slightly:

b. A pol itic ian should not hes ita te to res ign if th e pu blic is scanda lise d by

his or he r private life.

In practice, however, this formulation may also cause problems, as in

the following continuation of b:

108

inept to the point of being ridiculous.

In spoken as well as in informal written English, however, the follow

ing construction is gaining acceptance:

c. A pol iti cian shou ld n ot hes ita te to r esig n i f the publ ic is scanda lise d bytheir private life.

Here a phrase containing a plural possessive adjective (their private life)

refers to a noun which is singular (a politician). This construction will be

rejected by many people on the grounds of grammar, as well as on those o f

formal-stylistic propriety (it is ugly). Indirectly, moreover, this construc

tion may give rise to other problems - for example, whether to use life or

lives in the above example.

Yet another alternative is to turn the subject of the main verb into a plural:

d. Politicians should not hesitate to resign if the public is scandalised bytheir private life.

This reads much more naturally, though again one must decide whether life or lives is preferable.

To repeat, the effort to avoid gender bias (by finding an alternative to a)

often involves problems of its own. Yet with a minimum of ingenuity the

issue can be circumvented, as in the final option:

e. A pol itic ian should not hes ita te t o resig n if the pub lic is scanda lise d b ythat person’s private life.

Everyone, Anyone, No one, Someone etc.

One special case has to do with the words everyone, everybody, anyone,

anybody, no one , nobody, someone and somebody . Let us look at the following options:

1. Everyone is allowed to study whatever he wishes.

2. Everyone is allowed to study whatever he or she wishes.

109

3. Everyone is allowed to study whatever she or he wishes.

4. Everyone is allowed to study whatever s/he wishes.

5. Everyone is allowed to study whatever they wish.

5

Of the above alternatives only the first (a) is standard British English. The

second is American English. Sensitivities as regards gender bias make the

third (c) and fourth (d) options increasingly attractive to many. To many

ears the repetition one. ..one of the first option may sound unnatural, even



5a. Everyone is allowed to study the subject of their choice.

Option 1 is grammatically correct, but conservative. If the sentence re

fers to a group of people some of whom are female, it is also characterised

by gender bias.

Option 2 is fairer, though it may give rise to problems in the subsequent

discourse (as in b above). Of course Option 2 is not completely fair, since

it places the male pronoun he before the female pronoun she.

Option 3 is polemical in intent, as well as being stylistically objection

able: many would simply stop reading at this point.

Option 4 is possible in contexts that impose very limited stylistic or

formal demands on the writer, but many readers would find it slovenly.

Options 5 and 5a have gained widespread acceptance, especially in rather

informal contexts, and have the advantage of not specifying the sex of the

person or people referred to. In other words, everyone, anyone etc. take a

singular verb ( Everyone is ...), but may be referred to by means of a plural

pronoun (they wish) or a plural possessive adjective (their favourite subject). Many, however, would try to avoid using this construction, just

as they would never allow sentence c above.

One... one...

An important case concerns the pronoun one. If one has been used at

the beginning of the sentence, then in formal British English one is used

to refer back to it. Consider the following options:

a. If one believes in the evolution of the species, one regards mankind as

pa rt of t he n atu ral wor ld.

b. If one believes in the evolution of the species, he regards mankind as

pa rt of t he n atu ral worl d.c. If one believes in the evolution of the species, he or she regards

mankind as part of the natural world.d. If one believes in the evolution of the species, they regard mank ind as

pa rt of the natu ral world.

110

p p y ,

laboured, and perhaps the best advice is to try to avoid the construction

altogether, for example along the following lines:

e. Belief in the evolution of the species implies a recognition of mankindas part of the natural world.


Fill in the missing spaces with one or more words:

1. A tourist who is in Scotland over Hogmanay should not be surprised if --------invited to a friendly drink.

2. Each of us has ----------own life,---------- percep tion o f the wor ld.

3. As no one likes to be a mediocrity, everyone tries to be as successful a s ------

can.

4. To continue one ’s edu catio n----------generally has to move to a bigger townor city.

5. How can doctors judge whether someone is seriously ill if they do not have

the time to examine-------------------?

6. Every human being spends one third o f ----------life sleeping.

7. Individual academic success depends on the financial resources which each

student - or more likely ----------parents - has a t ---------- disposal.

8. If anyone thought this was going to be an easy operat ion, ----------was mistaken.

9. What determines whether someone is a good teacher or not is the presence of

qualities that allow ----------to fulfil-----------duty satisfactorily.

10. If everyone is given the opportunity to develop ----------talents and to realise

----------ambitions, the whole country will prosper.

11. A modem constitution guarantees freedom of worship for everyone irres

pective o f----------religious beliefs.

12. Whoever goes to this film will see things that will distu rb----------.

13. A good teacher will always notice someon e’s effort and will never forget to

draw attention to some good points o f ---------- perf orm ance.

I l l

14. The average adolescent takes everyt hing ----------sees on TV for granted and

takes fiction for reality .-------- - does not realise that a person who is kicked

or beaten cannot stand up as if nothing had happened.

15. The IM F’s policy has always been to help each country to develo p----------

A: both... and....

la . This observation applies both to material objects and spiritual values,lb. This observation applies both to material objects and to spiritual values.

Whil l i t tl ti k f E li h ld



economic system.

16. Anyone who considers ----- :— wise, by definition ceases to be wise.

17. The state should not ignore someo ne’s misfortunes or refuse to help --------to

improve------ lot.

18. It is very important that everyone should have access to nature, no matter

how busy ----------might be.

19. If doctors go on strike, someone somewhere may be denied help. I f ----------die(s), then it is the fault of doctors.

20. Faith is fundamental for all Christians. If one is a Christia n,------------- be-lieve(s) in Jesus and His Resurrection.

21. The average person has to work hard if --------- want(s)---------- dream about

a big house to come true.

22. If anyone wishes to se e ----------essay, please leave a message for me via the

secretary.

23. If someone has to choose between a train and, for example a bus, I am quite

sure th at ----------will choose the train.

24. When a customer buys a new car ,----------expects satisfactory performance.

25. As long as a celebrity is aware of ------------- impact on society and considers

----------responsible fo r ---------- act ion s,-----------influence upon the youngwill not be dangerous.

26. In using this book of puzzles the rea de r----------chooses the appropriate level

of difficulty.

27. These dangers may make it impossible for an individual to live in ----------

own community.

28. The surest way to lose a friend is to lend --------- money.

Ill: Absence of Parallel Structure

Another very common error is to write sentences where the necessary par

allelism of structure is absent and which hence appear lop-sided. The most

common manifestation of this kind of error involves the constructions both... and..., not only... but also..., either... or... and neither... nor.... Here are

a few typical examples:

112

While la is not exactly wrong, very many native speakers of English would

feel that regularity of structure would require the repeat of the preposition to.

B: not only... but also....

2a. Politicians are expected not only to be outstanding leaders bu t alsomen of unblemished character.

2b. Politicians are expected to be not only outstanding leaders but also

men o f unblemished character.

In 2a-b the infinitive to be obviously has as its complement both outstand

ing leaders and men of unblemished character. While 2a is not absolutely

wrong, most English people would feel that at least in more formal writing

a clear parallelism of structure should be maintained.

Another recurrent error can best be illustrated by a juxtaposing of the

following alternatives:

3a. * Literature is beneficial in a variety o f ways. It does not merelyinstruct us but also preserves us from boredom.

3b. ...It not merely instructs us but also preserves us from boredom.

Sentence 3a would be widely felt to be incorrect, the reason being that the

construction is again lop-sided.1

Another very common error involves the fronting of not only. Compare

the following sentence alternatives:

4a. Politicians should not only pass laws but also set an example fo r others.4b. *Not only should politicians pass laws but also set an exam ple for

others.4c. Not only should politicians pass laws but they should also set an ex

ample for others.

Only 4a and 4c are correct. By contrast 4b would feel ‘lop-sided’ to most

native writers of English.

1 The reader expects the second part of the sentence (preserves...) to be in some kind ofgrammatical harmony with the first part (It does not...). If, however, the second part iscoordinated with the first part, that causes problems of its own:

3c. *...It does not merely instruct us but also preserve us from boredom.

Sentence 3c is simply un-English.

113

C: either... or..., neither... nor....

5a. *There are two ways of achieving immortality: either become a heroor a serial killer.

5b become either a hero or a serial killer

15. Some people live so long that they not only have grandchildren but great

grandchildren as well.

Parallelism of Structure



5b. ... become either a hero or a serial killer.

6a. *He was neither able to show his feelings nor to love his children.

6b. He was able neither to show his feelings no r to love his children.

Both correct versions (5b, 6b) are characterised by parallelism of struc

ture. The guiding principle is simply common sense.


Improve the follow ing sentences:

1. TV gives us no t only the latest news but also tells us about the surroundingworld.

2. The question either has no answer or it could be answered in various ways.

3. Not only do people often bear grudges against one another but also showhostility to those who differ.

4. These films m ay not only become a source of nightmares, but they may alsodesensitise children to suffering.

5. Not only are the young expected to maintain a pleasant home atmosphere but

also to attend to increasingly frail parents.6. A good teacher should not only be a lecturer but also a role model.

7. Not only is man able to create, but to destroy as well.

8. Bringing up children does not only mean providing them with food, clothesand toys but also giving them attention.

9. Not only was M other Teresa widely recognised but also believed to be caringand compassionate.

10. Let us hope that the new generation of TV-addicts will neither turn into mo

ronic characters from cartoon serials nor into crazed killers.

11. Voters choosing their candidate not only expect him to be a competent politician but also a good man.

12. Life style does not only determine longevity but it also determines the quality

of life.

13. Such teenagers not only are unaware of the evil they do, but they also ruin

what is left o f their young lives.

14. It is difficult to remain philosophical about both the good and bad things thatlife brings.

114

Parallelism of Structure

If we look at the following sentence, we will again notice an absence of

parallelism in the form of a gratuitous repetition of about:

7. *1 have a cousin in America who never forgets about Welsh traditions,

St David ’s Day, or even about the annual Eisteddfod.

The sentence can easily be corrected by removal o f the underlined word.1

The following (8a) is yet another type of frequently occurring mis

take:

8a. *Nobody imagined that TV sets would be found in every house andmillions of people would be able to watch the same pictures.

8b. Nobod y imag ined th at TV sets wou ld be foun d in every h ous e and tha t

millions of pe op le would be able to watch the same pictures.

Here again common sense would suggest the insertion of that to bring

out the parallelism of structure (8b).

Parallelism of Grammatical Categories

The principle of parallelism can also be brought to bear on the following sentence:

9a. *These problems are often caused by the rejection of the family or

losing a job.

Here the reader expects the noun rejection to be paralleled by another word

of exactly the same grammatical category. Instead what he gets is the ger

und losing. The sentence can be greatly improved by changing the gerund

into a straightforward noun:

9b. These problems are often caused by the rejection of the family or the

loss of a job.

1 The logical alternative, namely to repeat about before each nominal phrase, produces

a sentence that is impossibly cumbersome:

7a. *1 have a cousin in America who never forgets about Welsh tradition s, about

St David’s Day, or even about the annual Eisteddfod.

115


Impro ve the fo llo wing sentences, creating parallelism o f structure where

appropriate:

2a. This guide will be useful to those who are involved in tourism in all its

forms - whether in the highlands or in the lowlands.2b. ...whether in the highlands or lowlands.

While l c and 2b do not conform to the principle of coordination they



1. By introducing a common currency and elimination of international barriersthe countries of Western Europe b ecame integrated in terms Of economics,

trade, and to some extent in terms of culture.

2. Democ racy does not imply equality or being wealthy.

3. Everyone, whether unabashed atheist or Catholic clergy, speaks with one

voice on this issue.

4. Teachers are often too tired and busy to meet their students, help them, talkto them, or even sometimes to prepare for lessons.

5. In the course of time they lost their independence, culture and their identity.

6. The question is whether these reforms will exacerbate social divisions and

will they harm the poor.

7. For a miracle to be truly valid, the cure must be immediate, absolute, and

mus t still be effective after ten years.

8. Are parents only to blame, or perhaps the fault lies with society as a whole?

9. Many young people squander their chances of educating themselves, finding

a job and, most importantly, of enjoying a high standard o f living.

10. No conflict threatens the European and world’s status quo to such a degree.

11. A proper diet, a balanced life style, practising sports and avoiding addictions

are associated with longevity.

12. In Am erica petrol is relatively cheap, and the average American can afford to buy much mor e pe tro l w ith his sala ry than the ave rage m an in E urope.

13. All things considered, the railway is neither better nor worse than driving a

car or going by bus.

14. She received the Nobel Prize for her research into methods of separation,

pur ify ing and measu rem ent of act ivi ty of radioac tive e leme nts.

Additional Note:

Of course, the desire for coordination should not be taken to extremes.

Obviously i f the sentence reads well , that is the most important thing.

Compare the following cases:

la . There will be an exhibition by artists both from England and from

abroad.lb . ...from both England and abroad.

lc . .. .both from England and abroad.

116

While l c and 2b do not conform to the principle of coordination, they

come across as being perfectly natural.

IV: Unjustified Change of Person

Another common error is to switch pronouns or possessives without any

justification. Let us look at the following sentence:

a. *One should never ignore one’s dreams, since they simply tell you the

truth about vour emotions.

In this particular example, there is no justification for one and one’s to be

taken up by you and your. The most obvious improvement is to change you

and your.

b. One should never ignore on e’s d reams, sinc e they sim ply tell one the

truth about one’s emotions.

The other alternative is to change one and one’s:

c. You should never ignore vour dreams, since they simply tell you thetruth about your emotions.

Of the above sentences a is absolutely wrong, but the alternatives b and c en

tail problems of their own. In b the repetition of one and one’s several times

over sounds awkward and unnatural; in c, by contrast, the use of you and your

is informal and even colloquial. Best therefore to undertake a paraphrase:

d. Dreams should never be ignored, since they simply tell one the truth

about one ’s emotions.


Correct the following sentences, paraphrasing where necessary:

1. If one has decided to become a teacher and is strong enough to face up tothe everyday problems of school life, it is a worthwhile activity, as the

proc ess of tea ch ing is en ric hed by the ga in ing of ex pe rie nc e and ed uc ati ngyourself.

117

2. The things that we dream about seldom come true. Thus, if we dream aboutthe death of a relative, it does not have to mean anything. Or wh en you dream

about failing your exam, there is no need to panic.

3. Transmit ted deliberately in the middle of a film, when your mind is stimulated

d i i fl h d i d f f i d

2b. A number of problems are likely to present themselves to anyone

trying to obtain a British visa.

2c. One is likely to encounter a number of problems while trying to obtaina British visa.



and very recepti ve to influence, these ads induce a state of stupefaction and

make us believe in a half-truth that is in fact a lie.

4. We smoke too many cigarettes or else drink too much coffee or alcohol -

things that w e consider to be useful as they help you either to work until late at

night or to defuse the tension after a hard day.

5. One can never fall asleep if you travel alone because either you will wake upnaked and all your baggage will be gone, or else you will not wake up at all.

V: ‘Dangling Participles’

A ‘dangling participle’ is one that, when referred to its grammatical sub

ject, makes nonsense. Let us look at the following sentence:

la . *Not knowing British history, the phenomenon of devotion to the

monarchy might seem rather anachronistic.

If we look at the participle Not knowing, we will see that its grammatical

subject is none other than the subject of the main verb, namely the phenom

enon o f devotion to the monarchy, although that was not what the writer

intended. There are several ways of correcting the sentence, two of the

most obvious being:

lb . To anyone not knowing British history the phenomenon of devotion to

the monarchy might seem rather anachronistic.

lc . Not knowing British history one might find the phenome non of devo

tion to the monarchy rather anachronistic.

A closely related phenomenon involves a special type of clause begin

ning with when, while or though:

2a. *A number of problems are likely to present themselves while trying

to obtain a British visa.

Again the subject of while trying should be the same as the subject of the

main verb.1 The sentence needs reformulating:

1 In conversation, however, such a sentence would be acceptable.

118


Correct the follow ing sentences in any o f the ways suggested above:

1. Examining the influence of TV one important question arises.

2. When visiting Brit ain’s former colonies it is still possible to come across

many residences in the neoclassical style.

3. Observing the sheer variety of opinions on the subject, it is hard to see eventhe beginnings of any consensus.

4. Having attained such a rank, it is common practice to abuse the power andstatus that go with it.

5. Though called an ‘eater of time’, I would go so far as to claim that TV is a

necessary source of information as well as entertainment.

Of course, there are a number of words and phrases in English that resem

ble participles, but are really conjunctions or discourse markers, and to which

the above remarks do not apply - for example: assuming, broadly speaking,

considering, depending on, failin g that, generally speaking, including, ju dg

ing by, owing to, providing, seeing that, strictly speaking, supposing etc.

Splices

By ‘splice’ is meant an element in the middle of a sentence whose relation

ship whether to the preceding or subsequent part of the sentence is ob

scure. Example:

a. *Like Mother Teresa, devoting herself to the poor and dving.

Lady Diana also made caring for them he r principal work.

In this sentence it is unclear whether the subject of the participial clause

devoting herse lf to the poor and dying is Mother Teresa or Lady Diana.

119

If the subject of the clause is Mother Teresa, then the obvious correction is:

b. Like Mother Teresa, who devoted herself to the poor and dying,Lady Diana also made caring for them her principal work.

Otherwise use an alternative conjunction:

c. Sympathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher,vet they are not enough to start working at school.

d While sym pathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher



And if the subject of the clause is Lady Diana, then the sentence might be

rewritten as follows:

c. Like Mother Teresa, Lady Diana also made caring for the poor and dyingher principal work, devoting herself to them.


Identify the ambiguous elements o f the following sentences. Make the sen

tences less ambiguous:

1. People generally have very inconsistent attitudes to sports. While most people

admire sportsmen, watching them on TV, they all too rarely move from thefront o f the screen.

2. With a freely elected government in office and the free market taking hold, atlong last, the country is looking forward to the kind of prosperity that the West

has long enjoyed.

3. Although it may at first be difficult to follow the gist, as many masterpiecesoften use a very sophisticated language, the fact that you have read one such

work will give you a great deal of satisfaction.4. When the countries of the East started to turn towards democracy, freedom of

speech, press and conscience, the division into eastern and western Europestill survived in peop le’s minds.

5. Anyone w ho wishes to become a successful practitioner, invests in his

education, never ceases to increase his qualifications, is devoted to all his pat ien ts.

A related error involves the word howeve r placed between two clauses:

a. *Sympathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher, however,they are not enough to start w orking at school.

The position o f however in the above example also sows confusion, since at a first reading it is not obvious that the word belongs to the second clause.

Best put a full stop after teacher:

b. Sympathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher. How ever,

they are not enough to start w orking at school.

120

d. While sym pathy and patience are essential for a prospective teacher,

they are not enough to start working at school.


Improve the following sentences:

1. The only way to make money is to set up a private practice, however, onlysome doctors are successful.

2. Many answers have been put forward. The question is a tricky one, however,

in this essay an attempt will be m ade to examine it.

Unclear Antecedents (I)

A very common error is to use pronouns and possessive adjectives that are ambiguous because they have no obvious antecedents, as in the following

example:

la. *Teachers should be ready to answer all kinds of questions from thestudents. They may sometimes be really strange, but so can the students.

Here it is not immediately obvious that they refers to ‘questions’, and

hence the second sentence is unintentionally amusing. (The sentences need

to be reread for the most likely meaning to emerge.) A slight change of

pronoun makes the antecedent clearer.

lb. ...These may sometimes be really strange, but so can the students.

Alternatively, the word ‘questions’ may be repeated:

lc. .. .These questions m ay sometime s be really stra nge....

Careless use of the possessive adjectives its and the ir may also give

rise to confusion:

121

2a. *Responsibility involves patience and an appropriate attitude to

students and their abilities. Unfortunately not every teacher is aware oftheir existence.

Here it is unclear whether the phrase their existence refers to students, stu


Identi fy and eliminate the a mbig uitie s in the follow ing sentences:

1. Many people think that everything can be bought for money. Is this justified ?

O th t i t t thi i lif t id th l f ?



dents’ abilities, or even ‘patience and an appropriate attitude’. Better would

be to rewrite the second sentence so as to make the antecedent explicit:

2b. ...Unfortunately not every teacher is aware of the existence of thoseabilities.

A particularly widespread error is the use of the pronouns this and that

in a manner that may cause confusion, as in the following example:

3a. *Apart from providing recreation, books are a stimulus to ourimagination and creativity. We cannot underestimate this.

Here it is far from clear what this refers to. If we go for the most likely

interpretation, then the following would be an improvement:

3b. ...We cannot underestimate this basic truth.1

In 3b the pronoun this has been turned into a phrase that is both explicit and appropriately sententious.

Another frequently encountered error is when the pronouns that and

this are used in a manner that is not so much obscure as clumsy, as in the following example:

4a. *Many well-to-do people are simply too lazy to study, or else regardthat as unimportant for their lives.

In 4a what that refers to is not immediately obvious, and hence needs to be

replaced by a more explicit expression, e.g. such an activity or the like:

4b. Many well-to-do people are simply too lazy to study, or else regardsuch an activity as unimpo rtant for their lives.

Of course the above examples are far from exhausting the possible ways of

circumventing such problems. Often it is only a matter of common sense

and developing a ‘feel for language’. Cf. also p. 123 (The Pronoun It) , below.

1 The phrase this basic fact is equally possible.

122

Or are the most important things in life outside the realm of money?

2. We do not always remember that it is a great blessing when everyone in our

family feels all right. We should appreciate this.

3. Commuter trains that link various suburbs seem to be the pet aversion ofcountless multitudes. People complain that they are late, overcrow ded and

dirty; in winter the windows leak, while in summer they are jammed.

4. Some may claim that our lives are governed by forces outside our control, butthis is simply not true.

5. We often speak disparagingly of people by comparing them to pigs, even

though they are known for their love of cleanliness.

Unclear Antecedents (II). The Pronoun It.

A frequent mistake is to use pronouns, especially it, without any clear an

tecedent. The result of such a mistake is to make the language ambiguous and even unintelligible. Let us look at the following example:

1. *To the southwest of Snowdonia National Park the mountainous terrain

gradually gives way to a hilly coastal belt, ending in the Lleyn

Promontory, which juts out into Cardigan Bay for some 20 miles.

It is an area of remarkable scenic diversity.

The meaning of the second sentence can only be guessed at. Does the pro

noun it refer to Snowdonia National Park, the hilly coastal belt, the Lleyn

Promontory, or even Cardigan Bay? All these interpretations are possible.

Hence, it is necessary to rephrase the sentence by spelling out the real

subject:

la. The coastal belt is an area of remarkable scenic diversity.lb. The Lleyn Promontory is an area o f remarkable scenic diversity.lc . The whole area is characterised by a remarkable scenic diversity.

In the last of the above alternatives, lc, a paraphrase has been used.

123

Yet even when the antecedent is perfectly clear, English very often avoids

it in favour of this, that, or some paraphrase. Compare the following alter

natives:

2a Many long for a lasting peace settlement in the Middle East but

11. So far we have mentioned the Tower of London, Buckingham Palace, the

Millennium Dome and the churches and museum s. Impressive as it mayseem, it does not exhaust London ’s attractions.

12. Rubbish is seldom collected and there are some forlorn buildings between the

castle and the main square It is an eyesore and not only for tourists



2a. Many long for a lasting peace settlement in the Middle East, butwhether it is feasible or not is a different matter.

2b. ...but whether that is feasible or not is a different matter.

2c. ...but whether such a thing / scenario is feasible or not is a differentmatter.

In the last of the above alternatives, 2c, a paraphrase has again been used,

a stylistic preference that is very typical of more formal written English.


Can the pronoun it be replaced by something better in the follow ing s en

tences? Occasionally a paraphrase of several words may be necessary.

1. Fewer and fewer schools pay attention to artistic subjects, such as art, music

and craft. It is mainly because schools lack the most basic resources.

2. Most o f the Teutonic castles lie within 30km of each other. It is supposed tohave something to do with the way the Teutonic Order communicated.

3. People often lose their heads w hen they are in large groups. It can also beobserved in many other species of the animal kingdom.

4. Ms Prithw orthy had no talent for teaching, as her classes were dull and bor ing . It m ade man y s tud ents p lay truant.

5. By his own account, Mr Jones remem bers his daughter as being nicest at the

age of four. It speaks volumes about his possessive attitude.

6. Putting lives at risk is simply unacceptable, no matter whether a strike is

legal or not. Those doctors who forget about it should ask themselveswhether they have chosen the right profession.

7. Whe ther we lose our traditions in the face of Americanization depends on us.But as far as I am able to judge, it is just impossible.

8. Our headma ster did not like boys looking like hippies, and he showed it on

every possible occasion.9. People spend much of their lives in front of the TV, and there seems to be

nothing abnormal in it.

10. Peter travels around the world at least twice a year, but it does not seem totire him.

124

castle and the main square. It is an eyesore, and not only for tourists.

13. Amy did not even try to understand her father or to point out what was

wrong. It could have given new life to th eir relationship.

14. Legal regulations should be introduced obliging firms to set aside some oftheir profits for the further training of employees. It would make employers

more aware of the importance of professional development.

15. Many people are prejudiced, but few are ready to admit it.

16. Parents imagine their child will be following their example. Unfortunately ithappens very rarely, as youngsters generally choose other people to imitate.

Additional Notes:

i. A most frequent error is to use the phrase do it as a paraphrase of some

previous verb, as in the following instance:

*TV informs, but it does not always do it in an objective way.

In the above sentence it needs to change into so.

ii. The phrases It is so and Is it so? are hardly typical o f formal written English:


a. ^Parents are no longer role models for their children. Why is it so?

b. ...Why is that the case?

In written English the second alternative is infinitely preferable to the first.

iii. The phrases *it is so because, *it is so since, *it happens so because, and

*it happens so since are hardly English. Compare the following alternatives:

a. *Our first-time foreign visitor is likely to have many surprises when he

crosses the border. It is so because our country was for m any yearsisolated from others. b. ...This is bec ause our c ount ry w as....

c. ...the reason being that our country was....

Only b and c are correct.

125

The phrase *it means that is hardly English. Compare the following sen

tences:

a. *Dreams should be interpreted as signifying the opposite of what they

IV.7. The news is full of various conflicts tormenting now that continent.

8. A friend whom Diana had trusted made out of publishing untrue or half-truestories about her a small fortune.

9. One may see here many interesting exhibits.

10 H th t hil h lik th USA h d i C t l d E t E



appear to signify. It means that if one dreams about winning money,

one will end up poor.

b. This means t ha t—.c. What this means is that....

Of these alternatives, a is impossible.

Un-English Syntax

I: Verb and Object

Generally English tries not to place any words between verb and object.


la . *We see very often such sights,lb . We very often see such sights.

Only lb reads like English.


Impro ve the follow ing sentences:

1. Such eyesores represent generally the tasteless architecture of the past.

2. Few politicians enjoy in reality any privacy.

3. The young generation does have role models that influence profoundly

teenagers.

4. Those are the boys who killed in cold blood a two-year-old child.

5. A good teacher can make you adore for example physics, even if you loathed

the subject sincerely before.

6. They want for their children the best.

126

10. He says that while he likes the USA, he can do in Central and Eastern Europemuch more.

11. TV affects tremendously our lives.

12. Man usually considers himself superior, calling himself conceitedly ‘homo

sapiens’.

13. John realises perfectly well this fact.

14. If you were to ask such people, they would probably put after a mo ment ’shesitation money at the top of their list of priorities.

15. We have improved considerably our safety precautions.

II: Main and Subordinate Clauses

When the main clause of a sentence is preceded by a subordinate clause, it

is not likely to begin with anything other than the subject of the main verb.

Let us compare the following alternative sentences:

la . *Now that the bureaucratic problems have been overcome, this spring

they ’ll be getting married,

lb . Now that the bureaucratic problems have been overcome, they’ll be

getting married this spring.

la is hardly English, since an initial subordinate clause ( No w tha t the bu

reaucratic hurdles have been overcome) and the subject of the main verb

(they) are separated by the phrase this spring. If, however, we were to re

move the first clause, the second clause of la could remain unchanged:

This spring th ey’ll be getting married.

The same remarks might be made of the following alternative sentences:

2a. *Though we are aware that appearances can lie, in most cases it is

difficult not to judge by them.

2b. Though we are aware that appearances can lie, it is difficult in most

cases not to judge by them.

In 2a an initial subordinate clause and the subject of the main verb (it)

are separated by the phrase in most cases. If, however, we were to re-

127

move the though-clause, the second clause of 2a could remain un

changed:

In most cases it is difficult not to judge by them.

3a. *However eager our foreigner mav have been to visit our country, after

using anv means of public transport he will want to go back home.

Here the sentence is improved by changing the position o f the second subordinate clause:




Improve the follo wing sentences in the same way:

1. Although the RSC is perceived as exclusively producing Shakespeare, in fact

their programme includes classical theatre of all periods.2. As we grow up and face more and more moral dilemmas, no longer can we

condemn such behaviour.

3. Had it not been for such events, perhaps we would now be living in a com

ple tely different reali ty.

4. When we cross the threshold of parenthood, simultaneously we cross the

threshold o f the generation gap.

5. While in the initial stages training was focussed mainly on traditional

ban king, gradual ly t he cour se cam e to inclu de oth er a reas.

6. Although the majority of people have chosen to live in small units, in some

regions there is still a tendency towards preserving extended families.

7. As I am not a music lover, frequently my d islike of concerts has led to

serious quarrels between us both.

8. Founded by 12 countries in Washington in 1949, initially NATO was a military alliance against the USSR.

9. As most would agree, to a certain extent it depends on ourselves in what way

we are influenced by the mass media.

10. If a child is deprived of the possibility of imitating grown-ups, as an adult he

or she will probably find it difficult to perform the role of parent.

11. Although he offers a plausible theory, unfortunately he sometimes borders on

fantasy.

12. When it comes to politics, after many years of unbridled capitalism our

country seems finally to have established its own middle way.

13. Sad as it may seem, so far nothing has been done to eliminate this problem.

A main clause preceded by two subordinate clauses should be avoided

wherever possible:

128

3b. However eager our foreigner may have been to visit our country, he

will, after using anv means of public transport, want to go back home.


Improve the fol low ing sentences:1. Despite the fact that we had spent fifty years in a prison, when the walls

finally came down it turned out that the dream of instant paradise on earth hadnot come true for everyone.

2. Although a dog may be cheerful and wag its tail, however much it tries it willnever laugh at our jokes or understand us.

Additional Note:

The problems discussed in this section are especially frequent with sen

tences beginning with although. Sometimes such a sentence may benefit

from a complete rephrasal. Compare the following alternatives:

a. *The Wettins are among Europe’s oldest dynastic families.Although the end of their rule came with the revolution of 1918, despitetheir dethronement the family continued to live in Saxony until 1945.

b. ...The end o f the ir rul e cam e w ith t he re volutio n o f 1918, yet d espi tetheir dethronement the family continued to live in Saxony until 1945.

Ill: Composite Attributive Expressions

One particularly common error involves a composite expression being made

to function as a kind of attributive adjective, as in the following:

la . **The university ’s tennis courts are part of the campus, while the

leaving much to be desired swimming pool is situated near the citycentre.

Here the phrase leaving much to be desired must go elsewhere, and the

sentence needs to be rephrased in accordance with English idiom:

129

lb. The university’s tennis courts are part of the campus, while the

swimming pool, one that sadlv leaves much to be desired, is situatednear the city centre.

The mistake exemplified by l a leaves at the very least an impression that the

writer is incompetent in English; at worst such writing becomes unintelligible.

3b. ...Young and hungry for knowledge, students are becoming increas

ingly critical of their teachers.

In 3b the sentence has become “left-handed”.1

S d i ( 2)



Generally speaking, composite adjectives in the attributive position con

form to very few types, above all the following:

1. set phrase containing one or more nouns often linked by hyphens:

state-of-the-art technologyton gue-in-cheek humo ura larger-than-life portrayal

2. adjective or participle preceded and modified by an adverb:

environmentally friendly technology

a rapidly falling rate o f inflation(but not: **“a falling rapidly rate of inflation”).

Whether a composite expression is acceptable is determined primarily

by usage. Thus, for example, we may say that an artist’s portrayal of his

subject “is larger than life”, and we may say that it “is full of life”. Yet

while it is correct to speak of “a larger-than-life portrayal”, it is hardly

possible to speak of **“a full-o f-life portrayal”. Thus, while many composite expressions may be perfectly acceptable

in the predicative position, they may be impossible in the attributive one.


2a. *This is not only a controversial but also a difficult to define phenom enon.

2b. This is a phenomenon that is not only controversial but also difficultto define.

Only the second sentence, with difficult to define in the predicative posi

tion, is grammatical.

Syntactic errors involving composite attributive expressions can some

times be avoided by the addition of punctuation:

3a. *On our campuses things are beginning to change. Young and hungry

for knowledge students are becom ing increasingly critical of theirteachers.

130


Identi fy the words in the fo llo wing sentences that vio late Engli sh syntactic

patterns; rewrite the sentences in correct English :

1. The famous, surrounded by parks Grand Hotel usually hosts international

pop- star s.

2. Developm ent is hampered by the dominant everywhere bureaucracy.

3. The Pope ’s remarkable and impossible to characterise personality works

wonders with various foreign dignitaries.

4. In our country such improving their qualifications teachers are very unique.

5. The Internet can be used to disseminate forbidden and often harmful in some

way material.

6. John was a sensitive, very easy to hurt individual.

7. This reasonable in its assumptions economic policy led to widespread

impoverishment.

8. Many city dwellers dream of living in a quiet, close to nature village with

fields, meadows and unspoilt by civilisation landscapes.

9. In their eyes Maureen is still a perfect, obedient to her parents daughter.10. The located there Toyota factory is a principal source of employment.

11. Such immature idealists will one day become callous, egotistic and loving

only themselves people.

12. Looking at the littered with rubbish lawns and dilapidated houses, one might

suppose that our town has no future.

13. Winter is presaged by swarms of leaving for warm er climes birds.

14. The mentioned above history teacher was always making our lives a misery.

15. This scintillating and skilfully manipulating the mass media ma n is the

ultimate politician.

16. Parents often find it difficult to accept the growing with age independence of

their children.17. Many factories are full of obsolete, imported from the former USSR technology.

1 This construction is dealt with in some detail in Part II of my English for Writers and

Translators (cf. “Left- and Right-Handed Sentences”).

131

18. To make matters worse, there have been complaints from dissatisfied with

their low salaries railwaym en, who are threatening to go on strike.

19. He was famous for performing the first in Britain heart transplant.

Additional Note:

3a. *Literature often illustrates certain basic truths, reveals important

mysteries.3b. Literature often illustrates certain basic truths and reveals important

mysteries.

Again it is only 3b that is in conformity with English idiom.



Sometimes syntax may be violated by a common phrase like in my opin

ion. Compare the following alternatives:

4a. *Let me now turn to in mv opinion the most disturbing mistake made

by parents .4b. Let me now turn to what is. in mv opinion, the most disturbing

mistake made by parents.4c. Let me now turn to what is perhaps the most disturbing mistake made

by paren ts.

4a is wrong, while 4b and 4c are correct. In practice, 4c might be consid

ered a more idiomatic and natural alternative to 4b.

IV: Parallel Expressions

English does not generally express emphasis by juxtaposing two parallel

expressions which are unlinked by any conjunction and separated by a

comma. Compare the following alternatives:

la . *We hate to tell our parents about our problem s, difficulties.lb . We hate to tell our parents about our problems and difficulties.

Sentence la completely violates English idiom, while lb is correct.

The most frequent form of stylistic error is that exemplified by la, i.e.

with two nominal expressions, but the error may also involve two predi

cate adjectives. Compare the following alternatives:

2a. *Feeling useless, helpless as she did severely underminedthe princess ’s mental health.

2b. Feeling useless and helpless as she did severely undermined

the princess ’s mental health.

Again, only 2b is correct.But English idiom also generally avoids parallel expressions that con

sist of two clauses, as in the following:

132

When three expressions are brought together, the last of the three is

generally linked by and or or (“X, Y and Z”). An especially frequent error

among non-native writers of English is to confuse this structure with the

one exemplified by la:

4a. *Literature communicates feelings, experiences, and provides

important evidence of human thought.4b. Literature communicates feelings and experiences, and provides

important evidence of human thought.

Of the above alternatives only 4b is correct.

There are few significant exceptions to the above remarks, cases where

it is sometimes possible to juxtapose two parallel expressions without

a conjunction. One is when the parallel relationship is underlined by means

of anaphora (rhetorical repetition). Compare the following alternatives:

5a. *Cumbria with its beautiful mountains, picturesque landscapes, haslong been a m ecca for tourists.

5b. Cumbria with its beautiful mountains and picturesque landscapes has

long been a m ecca for tourists.5c. Cumbria with its beautiful mountains, its picturesque landscapes, has

long been a m ecca for tourists.

Sentence 5a juxtaposes two parallel phrases (beautiful mountains, pictur

esque landscapes) in the same unidiomatic way already exemplified in la . Sentence 5b, which like lb uses the conjunction and, is a more obvious

formulation. Sentence 5c, by contrast, joins the same parallel phrases sole

ly by means of rhetorical repetition of its. Yet while 5c is correct, it differs

from 5a and 5b by being of a far higher register, which narrows the range

of suitable contexts.

Another case involves clauses —generally brief ones - that are virtually

self-contained sentences, and where some counterpoise is intended:

6. I travelled there by bus, Susan arrived by taxi.

In the above sentence a semicolon is, of course, equally possible.

133


Correct the following sentences:

1. TV influences o ur feelings, emotions, changes our social attitudes.

2. There m ust be a good atmosphere in class, so that students can take part in

Relatives are given us by God. Friends we can choose for ourselves.

John loves Renaissance music. B aroque he absolutely hates.

In these exceptions, however, the direct object (Friends and Baroque re

spectively) is immediately followed by the subject (we and he). Contrast

i i f i i fi f i



g p p

discussions, express their opinions on the subject.

3. Medic al advances have saved countless lives. It is enough to mention the

transplantation of organs, the invention of the artificial heart.

4. Many people wo uld prefer to lie, be dishonest, in order to avoid an unpleas

ant situation.

5. Sitting in front of the TV causes headaches, backaches, and is bad for the eyes.6. I am going to discuss the features of a perfect teacher, explain which of them

are inbom and which acquired.

7. Ou r world will soon become more cohesive, standardised, and will be

governed by omnipresent commercial forces.

8. Fami ly life helps people to appreciate such things as love, friendship;it teaches people how to respect others.

9. We m ust face these problems, try to understand them.

10. The Internet informs us about the present as well as the past, gives us a clear

idea of what is going on in the world.

11. The roads here are narrow, full of holes, and are constantly undergoing

repair.

12. Each day the mi nister has meetings, consultations, he sends letters and faxes.

13. It is impossible to improve the world w ithout any profound changes in the

way we perceive, understand, and in the way we are educated.

14. T he situation of complete misunderstanding, non-communication, leads to

deadlock.

15. Often readers identify w ith literary characters, share their emotions. Indeed,

they sometimes even imitate them, copy their behaviour.

16. We have sim ilar views, interests; we listen to the same kinds of music, watchHollywood blockbusters.

17. There is seldom any clear rule, direction that we must take in life.

V: Active vs. Passive

In English syntax sentences seldom begin with the direct object, the few

exceptions being exemplified by the following:

134

this with the following alternative sentences, the first of each being com

pletely un-English:

la . **A great influence on Polish society has the Church,lb . The Church has a great influence on Polish society.

2a. **The director’s childhood experiences reflects his latest film.

2b. The director’s childhood experiences are reflected in his latest film.

3a. **His literary talents ruined alcohol and drugs.

3b. His literary talents were ruined bv alcohol and drugs.

4a. **King Philip’s political objectives realised his son Alexander the Great.

4b. King Philip ’s political objectives were realised bv his son Alexander the Great.

In lb grammar is restored by bringing the subject forward to the beginning

(The Church), the word order being subject + verb + object (a great influ

ence).

In 2b, 3b and 4b a different method is used: the word order remains essen

tially unchanged, but the verb-form has changed from active into passive

voice (are reflected, were ruined, were realised)-, what was the object (The

director’s childhood experiences, His literary talents, K ing P hilip’s polit i

cal objectives) has now become the subject of the verb.


Rewrite the follo wing sentences so as to make them English:

1. The high academic level of the book guarantee specialists of international

standing, who are the authors of the respective sections.

2. The eastern edge of the Vistula delta form the Elbl^g Highlands and the

Lowlands of Warmia.

3. The material illustrates a set of twelve diagrams.

4. The decision to build the basilica made Abbot Quodvultdeus.

5. At the Olympic Games each country may represent only one man and one woman.

135

2a. Most would dread such an outcome. On the other hand, some would

welcome it.2b. Most would dread such an outcome. Nonetheless, some would

welcome it.

In both 2a and 2b a semicolon - but not a comma - can be substituted for



Rhetorical Enhancers: Conjunctions and Discourse Markers

Concession and Contrast

The following words and expressions are widely confused:

I II

A:

although / though but, nevertheless , yet etc.

Example:

la . Though it was raining cats and dogs, we decided to set out.

lb . It was raining cats and dogs, though we decided to set out.

The conjunctions though and although are used to qualify the main utter

ance of the sentence, which is generally the main clause. Thus in sentence

la the focus is on the second clause (we dec ided to set out), and in sentence

lb the focus is on the first clause (It was raining cats and dogs).

Yet is a stronger version of but:

lc . It was raining cats and dogs, yet we decided to set out.

Here, the second clause (yet we decided to set out) has received more em

phasis than the first clause.

A frequent grammar mistake is to make although function as an adver

bial link, as if it were like nonetheless, nevertheless, on the other hand

etc. Compare the following sentences (2a-b):

136

the full stop.

Now compare these sentences with the following (2c-d), where although

is used:

2c. ** Most would dread such an outcome. Although some would welcome it.2d. Most would dread such an outcome, although some would welcome it;

2c is ungrammatical, since although is made to function there as an adverb

introducing a self-contained sentence instead of as a conjunction intro

ducing a subordinate clause. In neither 2c nor 2d is a semicolon possible.

B: although / though albeit

Example:

3a. We finally reached the summit, though we were utterly exhausted.

3b. We finally reached the summit, albeit we were utterly exhausted.

3c. We finally reached the summit, albeit in a state of utter exhaustion.

Strictly speaking, each of the above sentences is grammatically correct.

However, the structure exemplified by 3b is seldom met with in contem

porary British English. Albeit is much more formal than though.

Alb eit serves to weaken the force of a preceding utterance. Compare

the following two sentences:

4a. This category of teachers, albeit small, is exceptionally harmful.4b. This category of teachers, though small, is exceptionally harmful.

The second alternative is to be preferred to the first, since in 4a albeit does

not qualify the preceding words.1

1 By the same token while albeit may begin a clause, it hardly ever begins a sentence:

3d. ** Albeit we were utterly exhausted, we finally reach ed the summit.

3e. Albeit in a state of utter exhaustion, we finally reached the summit.

Sentence 3d is un-English and 3e most unusual.

137

C: whereas / while by contrast

Look at the following sentences (5a-d), whose meaning and emphasis are

much the same:

7. While many people have good job prospects, many more do not.

8. While John is helpful, Peter is not at all helpful.

In these two examples, whereas would be highly untypical. While is

weaker than (al)though.



5a. John is helpful, while/w hereas Peter is not at all helpful.

5b. John is helpful. Bv contrast. Peter is not at all helpful.

5c. John is helpful. Peter, bv contrast, is not at all helpful.

5d. While John is helpful, Peter bv contrast is not at all helpful.

5a-d all express a contrast between two equivalent ideas. The adverbial

by contras t is generally preceded by a full stop or semicolon, as in 5b and 5c above. It can be sandwiched within the clause or sentence, as in 5c and 5d.

A frequent grammatical mistake is to make while / whereas function as

an adverb:

5e. **John is helpful. Whereas Peter is not at all helpful.

The above mistake is similar to that exemplified by 2c (with although).

D:

while whereas

There is sometimes a difference in nuance between these two conjunc

tions, which are widely regarded as interchangeable. Both can introduce

contrasts, but while is less emphatic, often meaning little more than “and”.


6a. Lady Diana died in a car crash on 31 August, while Mother Teresa

died of natural causes a few days later. The former dressed like a film

star, whereas the latter preferred a white sari to smart clothes.

6b. Lady Diana died in a car crash on 31 August, and Mother Teresa died

of natural causes a few days later. The form er dressed like a film star;

bv con trast t he l atter p referr ed a w hite sari to smart c lot hes.1

Except in legal contexts whereas does not generally begin the sentence in

contemporary English:

1 Of course, in 6a whereas is possible instead of while, and while is possible instead of

whereas, but they are not optimal.

138

E: despite irrespective of

Example:

9. He was finally executed despite pleas f or clemency.

10. The soldiers killed everyone irrespective of age or sex.

Despite means ‘notwithstanding’. Irrespective of means “without regard

for”.


Supply the words in the follow ing sentences, payin g espec ial attention to

punc tuation:

1. Only emergency cases underwent opera tions ,----------others had to wait for

the strike to end.

2. Animals simply do what their nature tells them to do ,----------humans are

able to curb their instincts, to think prio r to acting.

3. Anyone will agree that there is some truth in the saying that the best things inlife are for free,----------the terms ‘best things in li fe’ and ‘for free’ need to

be defin ed.

4. Thus I regard Nelson Mandela as a very wise m an .----------not only states

men and public figures need to display wisdom. This quality is also a pre

requisite for many other walks o f life.

5. Without families and friends life seems incomparably st eril e.----------weoften need to sacrifice a part of ourselves for the sake of relationships.

6. ----------more and more people are learning En glish, every country has its

own distinctive culture and traditions, which makes total integration unlikely.

7. ----------the good intentions of politicians the lot of the poor never changes.

8. ----------the outgoing prime minister has always been scrupulous about

maintaining appearances, the new one is known for his highly abrasive style.

9. ----------all the girls had to be back hom e by ten, Peter by contras t could stay

out as long as he wanted.

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10. We acquire thought-pattems propagated by the media, ----------

unconsciously.

11. Ms K. urged me to apply fo r the Aca dem y,----------Mr Z. congratulated meon passing the entrance exams to university.

12. Recently there has been some rapprocheme nt between the two presidents,tentative.

Similarity and Contrast

The following are various words and phrases which may come in useful

for expressing similarities and differences:



13. Some of the unemployed showed real initiativ e,----------the others did no

thing but complain and wait for the state to help them.

14. It is possible for very elderly people to remain mentally a ler t----------------age.

15. To conclude, our society would certainly not like to become completely

Americanized,----------there are some people among us who would like that

to happen.

16. A silly Venezuelan series depicts the m elodramatic and unreal lifestyledesired by most frustrated housew ives.---------- , the young generation seeks

role models in the positively awful “Beverley Hills 90210”.

17. The poor are often unable to break out of this vicious circ le, ----------- the richdo not seem to be willing to help them.

18. Frequen t and bloody battles are to be found in both enviro nme nts.----------it

is worth noting that animal conflicts do not take as heavy a toll as those

between human beings.

19. Children may even kill themselves trying to imitate Superman.----------- to bequite fair, not all TV programmes for kids are so terrible.

20. In causing the deaths of several patie nts ,----------unintentionally, the doctorswent beyond the limits of legal protest.

21. Wom en are often banned from participating in polit ics, ----------unofficially.

22. ----------not all mistakes may be avoided, making up for them is essential.

23. Her Majesty is not an intellectual and she avoids discussions that get too

abstract.--------- she is beyond a doubt a highly intelligent woman and veryknowledgeable at that.

24. Some people appear to be extremely intelli gent, ----------others only aspire to

be highly esteemed for possessing such characteristics.

25. Western Europe was dominated by the Roman Catholic Churc h,------------- the

East was under the influence of the Orthodox Church.

26. In twenty countries some polio transmission has been reco rded ,----------- little.

27. Such stories,----------they throw no ligh t on the sublimity of Hinduism, dogive an idea of the colourful background.

28. The Church has compensated some of the victims of priestly abu se,----------

in return for a promise of silence.

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1. as and like

When we wish to say that something is similar to something else, we may

use as and like depending on the grammar of the sentence. Like resembles

a preposition and is followed by a noun or pronoun:

1. There will never be another singer like Elvis.

2. Like John, Peter has also been to Cambridge.

As is a conjunction; it introduces a clause, with a subject and a verb.

3. Julian loves going to the opera, as his father once did.

4. Jack emigrated to America, as his brother had done years before.

In 3 and 4 the use of like instead of as would be considered informal or

sub-standard by many.

2. as in, as with, as against

As is also used with nominal phrases, especially those introduced by the

prepositions in and with:

5. In cinema, as in literature, we can come across masterpieces.

6. In 1917, as in 1789, a revolutio n was to change Europe.

As with often means “just as I / you / we etc. have done with”:

7. With this option, as with the other one, we must proceed very carefully.

8. As with the previous essays, this one is to be handed in by Friday morning.

As against means “compared with”:

9. John swam six lengths as against Peter ’s twelve.

3. as in the case of..., as is (was) the case with

These expressions have very similar meanings and functions. As in the

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case o f means “for example”, but with the special nuance “and I myself

can think of one instance of this happening, namely....”:

10. Tourists are sometimes attacked in our public places, as in the case of

a visiting American delegate who was robbed at the airport.

As is (was) the case with means “as is (was) true of ” :

16. Hitherto my discussion has focussed on healthy economies. Let me bv wav of c ont rast turn to one tha t is in deep t roub le....

7. ju st as... so...

This construction is used to illustrate the parallel nature of two things. Ju st



As is (was) the case with means “as is (was) true of ” :

11. Many people left the concert feeling very disappointed, as was thecase with my neighbour, who says he has never seen such a bad

per forma nce.1

In neither sentence 10 nor sentence 11 is as with possible.

4. in contrast to and unlike

These expressions are almost interchangeable. In contrast to is more formal:

12a. Unlike Peter, John loves the idea of travelling.

12b. John loves the idea of travelling - un like Peter.

13a. John in contrast to Peter loves the idea of travelling.13b. John loves the idea of travelling - in contrast to Peter.

5. on the contrary and by contras t

These expressions are regularly confused.

By contrast expresses a contrast between two things or people:

14. Peter likes jogging but hates swimm ing. John, by contrast, loves

swimming but hates jogging.

On the contrary means “but in reality”, and is often used to contradict a

widespread opinion:

15. So you consider our chairman honest, do you? On the contrary , he is

a liar and a cheat.

6. by way of contrast

This phrase is used especially in transitions from one subject to another:

1 One authority describes this phrase as “an intolerable tautology for like” (E. Partridge,

Usage and Abusage, Penguin Books, 3rd ed.1999, p. 38). The present author begs to differ.

In the above example substituting like for as was the case with would make the sentence

awkward in the extreme.

142

as and so each begin a clause:

17. Just as the Serbs once made life miserable for the Albanians, sothe Albanians are now making life miserable for many Serbs.

8. if... then...

This construction is often used to juxtapose two things in order to empha

sise the latter:

18. If M ary’s essay is good, then John’s is absolutely excellent.

9. by the same token

This means “for the same reason”. It is used especially in making a con

sciously logical deduction:

19. You say you have nothing against people enjoying a glass of wine.Then bv the same token you must tolerate others who prefer marijuana.

10. Similarly means “in the same way”:

20. The President was greeted by huge crowds of people on his arrival in

Tel Aviv, where thousands waved American flags. Similarly when helanded in Kuwait on the second leg of his tour he was met byenthusiastic multitudes.

N.B.

The phrase similarly to does not exist in standard English.


Using the above words and phrases fil l in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. In Pomerania there are beaches sheltered by du ne s,---------in other areas of the Baltic coast.

143

2. ---------- prev ious unwelcome gues ts, Gra ndm other u sed the same tech nique to

get rid of this one.

3. Bri ghto n,----------so many coastal resorts, has a very cheerful atmosphere.

4. Literature gives us a deeper understanding of life an d----------helps us to

mature.

5 ----------friendship love is a gift which people may receive but never buy

24. --------- you think Paris has traffic p robl em s,-----------you should see Rome.

25. In our country there are no legal regulations that prescribe continuoustraining of personnel in a given post. ----------there are no regulations stating

that part of a company’s budget must be set aside for such purposes.



5. friendship, love is a gift which people may receive but never buy.

6. I am not saying that these things should be ignor ed. ---------- , they are very

important, but others are even more so.

7. A person who is given both the translation and the original enjoys a far bro ade r pe rspe ct ive,----------in the p res ent edi tion of this cla ssic author.

8. ----------the world has become a global village,---------- its inhabitants are

becom ing uniform.

9. Unemployed people will increasingly vent their frustrations ,----------- their

forbears in the Industrial R evolution.

10. The Kashm ir,--------- most tourist destinations, is simply unforgettable.

11. Some people are completely manipulated by TV commer cials,-------------afriend of mine who buys all the cosmetics advertised.

12. A wise man nev er displays a contemptuous attitude towards any people or eve nts ,----------pseudo-intellectuals, who have an inclination to despise

everything around them.

13. The genuine article is unimaginably expensive, a nd ----------forgeries abound.

14. A child that is loved and appreciated will find it easier to do as much for

others later in lif e.-----------, a child deprived of these things may have prob

lems in having successful relationships with others.

15. Nowa days more and more serious crimes are being committed by youngsters,the three teenage girls from my home town who murdered another girl.

16. ---------- many famous people, the Pop e is often the focus of controversy.

17. So far we have been examining recent developments in cinema. Let us now

focus on literature.

18. People in Tibet have only one spiritual leade r,-------------- the many spiritual

authorities of the West.

19. Young people often take life too seriousl y,----------- Goethe ’s hero Werther.

20. Animals can feel pain and su ffer----------human beings.

21. ---------- peo ple depe nd increas ing ly on TV for the ir ente rta inm en t,----------

they are ever more influenced by what they see there.22. So far he has never given any money back that he borrowed, and --------- he

is unlikely to be trustworthy with this larger sum.

23. Peter stressed the advantages of a holiday in the mou ntains --------- one by

the sea.

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Therefore and Related Expressions

Therefore is a rather formal word and is greatly overused by many non

native writers of English. In many cases a drastic curtailment (perhaps by

as much as 90%) is recommended, to be replaced by less formal and less

functionally restricted alternatives, such as that is why, as a result etc.

Therefore has more than one nuance that makes it inappropriate in certain

contexts.

i) Firstly it sometimes occurs in contexts where a logical deduction is

explicitly made, as in the following:

I think; therefore I am.

ii) In addition to this, therefore often points to a conclusion that is tantamount to a suggestion, as in the following sentence:

Mr Milosevic’s proposals do not guarantee the safe return

of refugees and are therefore to be rejected.

While other expressions (thus, hence, consequently, accordingly) are pos

sible, they would be arguably less forceful.

iii) Closely linked to this is the nuance of arbitrary decision:

This situation cannot go on for much longer and therefore

I have decided to call an emergency meeting.

Therefore is not as common as is widely supposed, even in case i above; in many contexts other words are more appropriate. Many teachers of En

glish would be familiar with sentences such as the following:

* Nowadays it is very fashionable to have a career.

145

Therefore many people spend most of their time at work

and sometimes forget they are parents.

Therefore is inappropriate in the above example, since its purpose there

is merely to explain; neither does it make a consciously logical deduction

on the one hand, nor does it introduce a suggestion or arbitrary decision on

2: It follows that...

This expression is highly formal and occurs in the context of consciously

logical argumentation, where a key implication needs to be brought out:

If we accept that every criminal is merely sick, it follows that he cannot be

held morally responsible for his actions



the other. Better would be some other discourse marker, such as the following alternatives:

...That is why many people....

...As a result many people....

There are many words and phrases which have meanings that are rather similar to therefore:

1: Thus, Hence, Consequently

These are all formal, but are subtly different from therefore.

la: Thus often means ‘in this way’:

Pablo w as in London at the time o f the coup and thus was ableto escape aiTest.

Thus can often mean ‘as you can see’:

This model is much more reliable and cost-effective than the other and thus

is to be preferred.

lb: Hence means ‘because of this’ and is less forceful than therefore:

Ms Jones wishes to apologise for her absence. Her father has been taken illand hence she will be unable to attend.

Another way of saying this is:

...As her father has been taken ill, she will be unable to attend.

lc: Consequently means ‘as a consequence’; it often occurs in official or ‘authoritarian’ contexts:

The school generator has broken down and consequently all further classes

have been cancelled for today.

Another way of saying this is:

As the school generator has broken down, all further classes have beencancelled for today.

146

held morally responsible for his actions.

3: That is why..., which is why...

That is why is most widely used, whether the context is formal or infor

mal. Which is why also exists as a variant, meaning ‘and that is why....’

Her father has been taken ill, which is why she will be unable to attend.


Fill the gaps in the followin g sentences using any of the above expressions

(including therefore):

1. A language represents the contributions of countless generatio ns.----------- the

learning of a foreign language can only enrich on e’s inner life.

2. So far the Government has not kept any of its undertakings. We ca n ----------

deduce that it is unlikely to abide by its latest one.

3. When a man becomes a politician, he should be aware of the good and bad features of the job .----------when a man intends to become a public figure, he

must be able to control himself.

4. But there are two sides to every story ,-----------1 feel obliged to men tion a

number of things.

5. If you want decent medical treatment in our country, you have to bribe the

doctor.--------- their earnings are not as small as they officially maintain.

6. John was forced by his father to study law, a subject for which he has noreal predisposition; on the contrary he was a talented painter who wanted

to make his living as an artist. Nowadays John is neither a lawyer nor an artist and ----------has wasted half of his life, just satisfying his parents’

expectations.

7. Olympic athletes generally consume huge amounts of energy. Th ey ----------

require diets that are especially rich in calories.

8. If all people are equal in the eyes of G od ,----------- no one has the right to feel

superior to others or to kill.

147

9. The strong conviction that certain jobs demand devotion or even sacrifice

entered our culture in the nineteenth century. The doctor’s profession is oneof th em .----------when a doctor gives priority to his own econom ic interests,

he can expect criticism.

10. In 1961 he discovered that he was terminally ill and ----------decided to put an

end to it all.

11 h l h b h l i i i i ibl f h

Contention:

Arguably (= This is my opinion and i f I had the time, I could provide

some good arguments in support of it)1

Surely (= You must agree with me when I say that...)

It is my contention that... (= / wish to argue that...)

It is my (firm / strong) conviction that (= I am convinced tha t )



11. The culture has become somewh at eclec tic.----------it is impossible for the

younger generation to find any one single moral authority.

12. The cooking plates are covered with a delicate, non-stick coating .----------do

not allow sharp or abrasive objects to come into contact with the surface of the

plates.

13. If a company cannot generate profits, it will never be able to develop itsinfrastructure or make new in vestments.-------- - our railway network will

inevitably collapse unless it receives state subsidies or undergoes drastic

restructuring.

“In My Opinion...”

A frequent error is to obtrude one’s viewpoint in a rather clumsy manner

using phrases like in my opinion, I believe etc, when English people often tend to prefer other ways of expressing themselves. Various alternatives

are given below, grouped according to function:

Intuition:

My feeling is that...

My impression is that...

My intuition tells me that...

I suspect that... (= I know I am the firs t to say this, but I am probably

right...y

I have a hunch that...2

1 Suspect does not always refer to something bad. One can also suspect something that

is neutral or positive:

‘When John retires, I suspect that they will give him a golden handshake.’

2 This phrase is highly informal.

148

It is my (firm / strong) conviction that... (= I am convinced tha t.. .)

It needs to be pointed out that...

I would even go so far as to say that... (= / know you may be shocked,

but I firmly believe that...)

I beg to differ. (= I am afraid tha t I disagree.)

Self-Evident Truth: A moment’s reflection shows that... (= Even an id io t wo uld agree

that...)

Closer observation suggests that... (= I f you sto pped an d exam ined

this fo r a while, you would probably agree with me that...)

It goes without saying that...2

It is a sad truth that... (= It is my sa d observ ation tha t... )

It is common knowledge that...

It is no secret that...

Inescapable Conclus ion:

It would seem that... (= I am probab ly right in conclud ing tha t... ) The conclusion seems inescapable that...

The fact of the matter is that... (= I a m sim ply right in s aying that ...)

The fact remains that... (= There is simply no w ay one can deny that...)

The only conclusion that would suggest itself is that...

There are no two ways about the fact that...3

There is no escaping the fact that... (= An y rea sonable per son wo uld

agree with me when / say that...)

1 Arguably tends to occur in mid-position, rather than at the beginning of the sen

tence.

2 This phrase is highly informal.

3 This phrase is rather informal.

149


In the follo wing sentences fi nd alternatives to the words in italics:

1. The older generation should set a good example to the younger generation. I k now I a m right when I say that when family members are thieves and

drunks, the children will imitate them.

2 S l i th t i l i t lli t i th b t ht t i

13. Many peace initiatives were undertaken. Any reasonab le per son wo uld agree

that military action in that conflict was a necessary evil, an evil that had to

occur in order to preem pt a far greater one.

14. I bel ieve t hat instead of industrial action it is rather patience and determination that this country needs now.

15. While it is true that bringing up a child requires a great deal o f love, the

excessive permissiveness of parents is - you mu st agree w ith me - doing



2. Some claim that animals are intelligent since they can be taught certain

things. I am o f a diff eren t op inio n. Anim als do leam, but only by experience,

and never by any linking of information in the mind.

3. Parents often forget how im portant it is to talk to a child. You must agree with me that lack of communication between these two generations makes under

standing more difficult. I honest ly beli eve that a heart-to-heart conversationwith a child will make it possible for parents to comprehend their child’s

pro blems .

4. So what is wisdom? In my opinion being truly wise means possessing some

real insight into human action and its consequences.

5. Thus the only conclusion that I can draw is that man is indeed very different

from other species.

6. Language should not be considered merely as a device enabling communi

cation. Indeed, in my opinion the ability to speak a foreign languag e makessome people better equipped for life. In my opinion a person who has a knack

of learning foreign languages sim ply has a better chance of surviving in this

world.

7. Man acts for the sake of future advantage. I am w ell info rmed wh en I say that today’s young people are impatient to succeed as quickly as possible.

8. The West turned away from the true path a long time ago. In my opi nio n, inour spiritually impoverished wo rld the Dalai Lama represents som ething very

important.

9. Eve ryone wil l agree w ith m e w hen I say that such a conversation is more

sincere and straightforward tha n one that requires an interpreter.

10. To conclu de, I a m probably right whe n I say that the question admits o f no

straightforward answer.

11. Many people in our country believe that they will benefit a lot from mem

be rsh ip of the EU. Yet I m ust point ou t th at they give little thought to the

consequences in terms of national identity.

12. ‘Wisdom ’ has always been an aspect of the male stereotype. I a m not say ing anything controversial when I say that in the course of history women have

bee n g ene rally dep rived of the rig ht to express the ir thoughts f ree ly, excludedas they were from m ost intellectual occupations.

150

excessive permissiveness of parents is - you mu st agree w ith me - doingmore harm than good.

16. It is impossible to reach any consensus as regards the nature of dreams. In my

opinion, however, there is always a grain of truth in any dream, as it comesstraight from our subconscious.

17. You only have to think fo ra momen t and you will realise that nowadays onecan hardly lift a finger without encountering high-tech devices.

18. No one can deny that since we have been using computers they have been

affecting almost every sphere of our lives. It seems fa ir to c onc lude that

in the near future computers will become indispensable.

19. Some argue that censorship and art are mutually hostile. I am absolute ly

convinced, however, that censorship may actually strengthen the positionof art.

Additional Note:

In the context of more formal writing (esp. scientific publications) phra

ses containing the first person (I, my etc) are used very sparingly. Among

the various ways of avoiding the first person the use of the passive deserves special mention. Compare the following sentences:

a. In this essay I w ill t ry to cons ider the va rious arguments.

b. In this essay an attempt w ill b e m ade to c ons ider the various argumen ts.

Of course, overuse of the passive also entails the disadvantage of the lan

guage becoming excessively impersonal, even to the point of its seeming

unnatural.

Articles: A Few Tips

You had better call an ambulance. (Any ambulance will do.)

How can w e best evaluate a politician? (any politician)

3. The plural of a / an is nothing (‘zero’)

Compare the following alternative sentences:

A ift d t b d t ti t




For the non-native speaker of English complete mastery of the articles

a I an and the generally comes last of all. Nonetheless, the great majority

of mistakes could be avoided by keeping in mind a few basic points. Some of the following will be more familiar than others:

1. Countables and Uncountables

a. Is the word countable? If it is countable, it generally takes an article when the word is in the singular:

The cat was asleep on the mat.A cat was asleep on a mat.

Here both cat and mat are countable.

b. If the word is uncountable, it generally cannot be used with the indefinite article.

Honesty and decency are rare these days.

The words honesty and decency are uncountable, and have no plural. Ex

cept in very special contexts (see below, point 13), we cannot say “an hon

esty”, “a decency” etc.

A good dictionary should tell you whether a word is countable or un

countable.

2. A / an has the nuance of ‘one’ or (any\

i) a t an —oneWhen I w ent out, I saw a lady walking a huge dog.

ii) a / an = any

152

a. A gifted sportsman may be compared to an artist.

b. Gif ted spor tsm en may be com pare d to art ist s.

The plurals of a gifted sportsman and an artist are gifted sportsmen and

artists respectively. Each of the sentences represents one way of saying

essentially the same thing, i.e. of making a generalising remark.

4. Generalisations

The plural with zero article (Bom sportsmen in sentence b of the previous

section) is more frequently used for making generalisations about catego

ries. Consider the following alternatives:

la . A portable telephone is within everyone’s reach,

lb . Portable telephones are within everyon e’s reach.

2a. A small child is very impressionable.2b. Small children are very impressionable.

Of each of these alternatives the second is more likely to occur, especially

since the singular may sound highly sententious.

Sometimes, however, sentences o f the second type (lb, 2b) are the only

way of making generalisations:

3. Westerners have such strange ideas often.

4. Football fans tend to be very loud.

In neither 3 nor 4 is the singular really possible.1In sentence 3 Westerners

means “Westerners in general”, while in sentence 4 footb all fans means

“football fans in general”. In cases o f doubt it is best to use the plural (with

zero article).

1 The singular would require a reformulation: “The average Westerner has such strange

ideas” etc.

153

5. ‘Back-pointing’ the

The often takes up what has already been mentioned:

When I went out, I saw a lady walking a huge dog. The lady was frailand elderly and the dog seemed very much in charge.

6 Th ft “thi ” “th t”

3a. British history spans many centuries.3b. The history of Britain spans many centuries.

This pattern may also extend to proper nouns:

4a. Rome is built on seven hills.4b. The Rome of the Caesars was built of marble.

5a Al d di d t th f 32



6. The often means “this” or “that”.

Mr Jones was a brilliant maths teacher. He was able to make the subjectreally come alive.

A few years ago our economy was in crisis. Since then, however,

the situation has much improved.

In the above sentences the subjec t really means that subject (i.e. maths),

while the situation really means that situation.

7. The sometimes implies “all the”, especially when we are talking about populations or collectives:

Compare the following two sentences:

a. At that time the Vikings lived in Scandinavia.b. Around 1000 AD North America was discovered by Vikings.

The first sentence refers to the Vikings as a whole, i.e. collectively.

The second refers only to some of the Vikings.1

8. The... of...

If the word of occurs anywhere, then there is an especially great likelihood that it will be preceded by the:

Contrast the following sentences:

la . Reality is often depressing.

lb . The reality of daily life is often depressing.

2a. Success generally requires much effort.

2b. The success of the enterprise depends on you.

1 Of course it is also possible to say “discovered by the Vikings”, i.e. giving the credit

collectively for what only a few achieved.

154

5a. Alexander died at the age of 32.5b. The Alexander of mediaeval legend is very different

from the historical Alexander.

While this is only a pattern or tendency and not a rule, being aware of it

will help non-native speakers to avoid many mistakes.

9. Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses are mostly preceded by the. This pattern is found

with both countable and uncountable nouns. Compare the following sen

tence pairs:

With a countable noun:

la. Cigars are expensive nowadays.lb. The cigars that I smoke come from Havana.

With an uncountable noun:

2a. Money makes the world go round.2b. The money that most teachers earn is a pittance.

In the above sentence pairs each of the second (b) is a defining relative

clause: i.e. lb refers to some cigars only, and 2b refers only to one instance

of money.

Note the following gradation:

3a. Poverty makes people desperate.3b. The poverty of Third World countries is desperate.3c. The poverty that afflicts Third World countries is desperate.

The same pattern is found even with proper nouns. Compare the follow

ing:4. I have two friends called Susan. One lives across the road and the other

is my colleague at work. The Susan that lives across the road is getting

married next week.

155

10. Participles as Postmodifiers (i.e. coming after the noun phrase that

they refer to)

There is again a marked tendency for such participles to be preceded by

the. Compare the following alternatives:

la . The phenomen a that are presented here are highly significant,

13. Phrases in Apposition

When a phrase or clause beginning with an article is in apposition to anoth

er, there is an especially great likelihood that the apposition will begin with

a / an, or in the case of plurals with no article at all:

With a singular noun:



lb . The phenomen a presented here are highly significant.

2a. The people who w ork in that place are underpaid.2b. The people working in that place are underpaid.

In reality lb and 2b are reduced versions of defining relative clauses.

11. Other Phrases Containing Prepositional Postmodifiers

The pattern the... of... has already been mentioned: the preposition of is

especially likely to be preceded by the definite article. The same pattern is

found with other prepositions as well, albeit to a lesser degree. Often we

come across prepositional phrases like the old peop le in our distr ict, the trees near the church etc., which can easily be turned into defining rela

tive clauses:

la . Old people are often neglected.

lb . The old people in our district are often neglected.lc . The old people that are in our district are often neglected.

2a. Trees often live fo r centuries.2b. The trees near the church are centuries old.2c. The trees that are near the church are centuries old.

3a. Susan is getting married next week.3b. The Susan across the road is getting married next week.

(i.e. not the Susan at the office)3c. The Susan that lives across the road is getting married next week.

(i.e. not the Susan that works with me at the office)

12. The fact that...

This tip is actually an aspect of point 9, i.e. defining relative clauses. Again

in most but not all cases we say the fa ct that, the reason why, the question whether, not “a fact that”, “a reason why”, “a question whether” etc.

The allegation that he embezzled millions o f dollars is unfounded.

156

At the end of the twentieth century, a century of technical progress,

peop le began to wake up to the envir onm ental costs .

In the above example, the phrase the twentieth century has been taken up

by the phrase a century (not: “the century”).

With a plural noun:

Compare the following sentences:

1. Such a professio n demands flexibility , a feature often all too rare.

2. Such a profession demands flexibility and initiative, features oftenall too rare.

In sentence 2 of the above example the composite phrase flex ibil ity and initiative has been taken up by features (not: “the features”).

This tendency takes precedence over point 9 (Defining Relative

Clauses):

Man possesses the faculty of speech, a faculty that sets him apart from

the animals.

Note how the defining relative clause does not prevent the phrase the. fac

ulty o f speech from being modified into a faculty.

By the same token the tendency also takes precedence over point 10

(Participles as Postmodifiers):

Man possesses the faculty o f speech, a faculty distinguishing him from

the animals.

This tendency to use a / an in appositional structures is found even with

uncountable words, i.e. ones which cannot normally go with the indefinite

article:

Mother Teresa showed great compassion, a compassion that earned hera reputation for saintliness.

157


Supply the article (a / an, the ) where necessary in the gaps o f the followin g

sentences:

1. If he had ha d ------ good map, he would not have lost his way.

2. The President seems to treat everybody around him w ith ------ contempt.

27. ------ H/harmony is ------- feature o f ------- happy relationships.

28 . This is the most ancient view of the wor ld, ------ view based on -------

unspoken premise tha t----------------------------gods can be placated.

29 . ------ L/language allow s------- par tic ula r so cie ty to p res erv e i ts his tory and memory.

30 . Generally speaking, -------- pol itic ians are not hel d in h igh esteem.

31 S/ t idit th t l di l ll d t di



3. Finding------ true friends is difficult.

4. ------ T/theoretical knowledge that we can acquire at university leaves us ill

pre pa red fo r ------ real life.

5. ------ W/war in Bosnia cost 200,000 lives.

6. ------ A/advantages accruing from this merge r will be substantial.7. T hese war criminals behaved lik ed ------ animals.

8. Such a boy will simply rep ea t--------mistakes of his parents.

9. ------ F/freedom and tolerance of American society is envied by many.

10. Immense skill is needed to us e ----------- surgical instrument.

11. M any religious myths tell of the battle betw een ------ good and ------- evil.

12. Laughte r depends o n ------ very imp ortant and subtle human quality —a sense

of humour.

13. ------ V/violence shown on TV is often excessive.

14. ------ D/doctors generally enjoy a high social status.

15. ------ W/words do not always correspo nd to — things.

16. We are seldom sympathetic to ------ peo ple with such prob lem s.

17. ------ France of Louis XIV was culturally preeminent.

18. Anyone w ho spent a fortune on a computer ten years ago would now be ------

pro ud ow ner o f ------ worthless antique.

19. If Aristotle had used ------ language other than Greek, his philosophical sys

tem would have been different.

20. ------ English of the Middle Ages is very different from -------English of today.

21. Sports teach us to res pe ct------ feelings of others.

22. ------ C/chimpanzee behavio ur has interested scientists for many years.

23. ------ T/thought is conditioned b y ------- language to such an extent that people

are not even aware o f ------ fact.

24. Is man really different fro m ------ animals?

25. ------ S/six days of the 1967 war changed ------- face of Palestine.

26. ------ A/answe r to this question is arguably negative.

158

31 . ------ S/stupidity that some people display surpasses all understanding.

32. ------ T/thesis will be examining a number of problems.

33 . Immense skill is needed to use ------ surgical instruments.

34 . Finding------ true friend is far from easy.

35. Many little girls dream of be ing ------ teachers, and their pupils becom e-------teddy bears ,------ dolls and ------- other toys.

36. D o ------ theories mentioned above really exclude each other?

37 . ------ M/myth of Eden tells o f ------- harmony existing between God and man.

38. He advocates ------ freedom and ------- tolerance, no matter what the situation.

39. ------ L/language of human beings is ------- enigma.

40 . ------ P/poetry of William Blake is readily accessible.

41 . ------ Renaissance music is especially fascinating.

42 . ------ E/ethical standards are most important in the medical profession.

43 . Copernicus confirme d ------hypothesis that the earth goes around the sun.

44 . Most people rea d ------ books ju st for pleasu re.

45 . ------ S/stupidity is a characteristic of certain teachers.

46 . There are ------ regular pilgrimages t o ------- pla ce whe re the mi rac le is said tohave occurred.

47 . The two sides will soon add ress ------ issues facing them.

48 . People still reme mber ------ communism,------- system that governed their

lives for many years.

49 . ------ F/foundations of science go back to the Babylonians.

50 . They attend classes in ------ grammar of English, and learn ab out -------------

history and literature o f England.

51 . ------ C/constant turmoil on our TV networks is caused by political interference.

52. People should acquire the ability to think positiv ely, ------ ability which isconnected wit h ------ experience.

53. ------ D/dogs are extremely keen-scented, while ------- cats see exceedinglywell in the dark.

159

54. If you want to pass the driving test, you must Ie am ------ road signs.

55. Mr Jones was able to conv ey ------ knowledge he possessed in an interesting

way.

56. We are seldom sympathetic to ------ per son with such prob lem s.

57. Peabo dy’s proposal was treated w ith ------ contempt that it deserved.

58. Bridging------ gap between------- two halves o f Europe will not be easy. Punctuation



59. ------ P/philosophy is a tricky subject, and ------- phi losoph y of langu age

especially so.

60. ------ V/violence is a part o f ------- American life.

61. ------ B/behaviour o f --------chimpanzees has interested scientists for many years.

62. The President is aware o f ------ great responsibilities that he m ust shoulder.

63. Many people pref er ------ entertainment offered by TV.

64. The candidate is able to get on very well with other peopl e,------ fact which

I consider to be highly significant.

65. This ability to m ak e------ tools is -------uniquely human ability.

66. It is impossible to mak e------ good teacher out o f ------- person who is n ot

bom fo r teachin g.

67. — M/m usic of the Renaissance is especially fascinating.

68. ------ P/proverbs are rooted in -------culture and history o f a country.

69. ------ G/good therapist require s---------------patience. In fact he o r she n eed s-------

pat ien ce of Job.

70. ------ S/sociology that emerged in the 1960s was very different from its pre wa r ve rsion.

71. You cannot expect me to buy all these thi ng s ---------list is rather long.

72. ------ P/peace and ------- prospe rity s hou ld not be taken for gran ted.

73. ------W/wine that France exports is subject to the m ost stringent controls.

74. ------P/politicians seldom stick to --------- moral standards that they publicly

advocate.

75. ------ S/socialism of Mr Blair has little or nothing in common w ith -------

socialism o f ------ Bolsheviks.

76. ------E/evil that men do lives after the m ,--------good is often interred with

their bones.

Punctuation

The Colon (:)

The colon is used above all to give a sense of poise and counterbalance to

what has already been written. By the same token it is very often employed

later on in the sentence, to set off what has gone before.

1. Apposit ions at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence

When the colon is used in order to introduce an apposition, pains should be

taken to ensure wherever possible that it marks the end of a self-contained

grammatical unit, instead of dividing such a unit into two. Look at the

punctuation of the following example:

la. *Its colours: blue, red, green and yellow create a fabu lous picture.

In la the colon separates the subject (Its colours) from the rest of the sen

tence, and is therefore incorrect. If the sentence’s grammatical structure is

left unchanged, then it is best to use different punctuation altogether:

lb. Its colours - blue, red, green and yellow - create a fabulous picture.

Thus, instead of a colon, two dashes have been used to mark the apposition.

Exactly the same principle applies when the apposition happens to be a title:

2a. * The second part: “Proposals for a Cleaner Environment” includes

an impassioned plea for alternatives to fossil fuels.

In 2a the colon is incorrect for the simple reason that it separates the sub

ject The second part from the rest of the sentence. A change of punctuation

is necessary:

161

2b. The second part, “Proposals for a Cleaner Environment,” includes an

impassioned plea for alterna tives to fossil fuels.

Thus, just as in lb the apposition was marked by two dashes, so in 2b it is

marked by two commas.

Similarly in the following sentence the colon, coming after a preposi

tional phrase, is unsatisfactory:

Note how, unlike in la, 2a, 3 and 4a, the colon is preceded by a self-

contained grammatical unit ( ‘Small t alk’ is an essentia l part o f British

life).

And when the co lon’s function is to enumerate a list o f three or more

items, it often occurs after phrases such as the follow ing, as fo llo ws

etc



3. *In her essay: “Life-style and Longevity in the Light of Recent Discov

eries” the author discusses the relations between patterns o f life and mortalityat the tum of the new millennium.

In 3 the colon is incorrect for the simple reason that it cuts a self-contained

grammatical unit into two: the words In her essay are. grammatically in

complete.

A similar mistake is to insert the colon between two clauses that in

grammatical terms are closely interconnected, as in the following:

4a. * Giving birth to two boys: William and Henry, she became a publicfigure.

In 4a the colon has been inserted between a subordinate participial clause

(Giving birth to two boys) and the subject of the main verb (she), which

governs the participial clause. If the sentence’s grammatical structure is

left unchanged, then it is best to use different punctuation:

4b. Giving birth to two boys, William and Henry, she became a publicfigure.

In other words, the apposition William and Henry is marked off from the

rest of the sentence by two commas.

For a further discussion of colons and appositions, cf. also above,

p. 40.

II. Colons with phrases of exemplification and enumeration:

When the colon’s function is to exemplify, it often occurs before phrases

like fo r example, for instance, that is etc.

5. ‘Small talk’ is an essential part of British life: for example, when you

meet an acquaintance in the street, the first thing you will most likely

talk about is the weather.

162

etc.

6. The principal Romance languages are as follows: Italian, Spanish,

Portuguese, Catalan, French, Provencal, Romansh and Rumanian.

As in 5, the colon is again preceded by a self-contained grammatical unit.

In other words, in 6 as well as in 5 the colon marks the end of a clause that,

grammatically speaking, forms virtually a complete sentence.

In 6, however, the use of as follows may strike some readers as being

cumbersome and unnecessary, and it may seem preferable to leave the phrase

out, either with or without the colon:

6a. The principal Romance languages are: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,

Catalan, French, Provencal, Romansh and Rumanian.

In 6a the colon separates the verb from its complement. This usage, which

violates the principle that the colon should not divide elements of a sen

tence that grammatically are closely interconnected, is primarily restricted

to the verbs to be, to include and a very few others. If, however, the colon is left out altogether, it is suggestive of an informal style:

6b. The principal Romance languages are Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,

Catalan, French, Provencal, Romansh and Rumanian.

N.B.

The word both is not generally followed by a colon. Compare the follow

ing alternatives:

7a. * Singapore is an obvious destination for both: businessmen and

tourists.7b. Singapore is an obvious destination for both businessmen and

tourists.

Even in a context where “businessmen and tourists” have already been

mentioned, sentence 7a would hardly be possible. (Cf. also below,

p. 166.)

163


Supply extra punctuation in the following sentences i f and when necessary:

1. Apart from such places o f entertainment as cinemas, night clubs and discos

one will also find several art galleries.

2. The area is famous for its beautiful lakes, of which the best known are Como,

Garda, Maggiore and Lugano.

The Dash ( - )

The dash should be used sparingly except in highly informal contexts.

The following points need to be borne especially in mind:



3. The dictionary has 100,000 entries and also includes the Greek alphabet,

a user ’s guide, abbreviations, and references.

4. The many cafes, pubs and cinemas, together with facilities such as shops, car

pa rks and a w ell -develo ped pub lic tran spo rt syst em m ake the town a mecca

for tourists.5. Apart from this the tow n’s most important works include the BMW car fac

tory and the Renoma leather products cooperative.

6. Both compliment and complement have the same derivation.

7. Many years ago cinema audiences around the world were enthralled by an

American musical entitled “Westside Story”.

8. Wisdom com es from many different factors like age and experience.

9. Two famous museum s the National History and the V&A are situated inKensington but an even more renowned one the British Museum located in

Bloomsbury is closer to the centre.

10. Is the maxim “early to bed, early to rise” really for everyone?

11. Bad t eachers will always be despised because of such factors as arbitrary beh avi our , laziness or she er in com petence.

12. The region possesses great variety including beaches, lowlands, highlands

and steep cliffs.

13. Whatever we do whethe r we wish to broaden our horizons or to realise our

dreams, we are limited by an overwhelming lack of money.

14. All kinds of relationships marriages, partnership s, friendships and parent-

child relations may become toxic and have a detrimental effect on our

health.

15. The m ost important rivers in this area are the Wye, the Monnow, and the

Trothy.

16. However, he r life divorce, love affairs, and conflicts with the rest of the royal

family left her far removed from sainthood.

17. Such failings as anger, jealously or infidelity bring many marriages to an end.

18. T he results obtaine d for the years 1985, 1988, 1990 and 1992 indicate that

further environmental degradation has taken place.

164

I. Ellipsis of verbs

The dash can never mark the ellipsis of a verb. Compare the following

alternative sentences:

la . **The trains are always empty and the busses - always full,lb. The trains are always empty and the busses always full.

2a. **They know that all good deeds will bring joy, and bad ones - sorrow.2b. They know that all good deeds will bring joy, and bad ones sorrow.

Of the above sentences only l b and 2b are correct.

II. Appositions

An appositional word or phrase is generally marked off by commas rather

than by dashes, and never by a mixture of the two:

Incorrect:

3a. * If only Baird - the inven tor of TV, had foreseen the consequences ofhis discovery!

Clumsy or highly informal:

3b. If only Baird —the inventor of TV —had foreseen the consequences ofhis discovery!

Correct:

3c. If only Baird, the inventor of TV, had foreseen the consequences o f hisdiscovery!

For dashes in appositional contexts cf. also above, p. 40f.

III. Appositions after the pronoun we

If the pronoun we is followed by an apposition of one or two words, no

punctuation generally needs to be added, and least of all a dash:

165

Incorrect:

4a. ** All that we - children can do is forgive the mistakes of our parents.

Correct:

4b. All that we children can do is forgive the m istakes of our parents.

More formal:

7b. For many visitors our culture is an enigma: we combine tradition withforeign influences.

VII. ‘Creating an effect’

Using the dash to ‘create an effect’ is less typical o f formal English:

L f l



IV. Parentheses

If the dash is used to introduce a parenthesis, it should also be used to

complete the parenthesis:

Incorrect:

5a. * All species of animals - no matter whethe r they be elephants, mice or

ants, have souls and can suffer.

Correct:

5b. All species of animals - no matter whether they be elephants, mice or

ants - have souls and can suffer.

V. B o t h

Both is not generally followed by any punctuation, and least o f all a dash.

Compare the following alternatives, which mark the very beginning o f an

essay:

6a. **In the course of her history Poland has assimilated both —eastern and

western influences.6b. In the course of her history Poland has assimilated both eastern and

western influences.

The first alternative (6a) is absolutely impossible in English. (Cf. also

p. 163).

VI. Explanatory clauses

The dash is not generally used in explanatory clauses, except in highly

informal contexts: Less formal:

7a. For many visitors ou r culture is an enigm a —we combine tradition

with foreign influences.

166

Less formal:

8a. We awoke to the shocking news - w ar had broken out.

More formal:

8b. We awoke to the shocking news: war had broken out.

Additional Note:

The expressions fo r e xample, fo r instance etc. are not generally accom

panied by dashes:

Incorrect:

9a. * The results of industrial action can be terrifying: in one country town

- for example - a woman died of influenza because the local doctorrefused to treat her.

Correct:

9b. The results of industrial action can be terrifying: in one country

town, for example, a woman died of influenza because the localdoctor refused to treat her.


Supply extra punctuation in the followin g sentences if and when necessary:

1. On the north Westminster is bounded by Mayfair, Bloomsbury and Maryle- bone all dis tric ts o f London.

2. Through the first window one could see the deep blue ocean, through thesecond the endless forests, and through the third the m isty mountains.

3. TV is part of our everyday life it follows us wherever we go.

4. Years ago margarine was believed to be good for one and butter bad for one.

5. One of Europe’s largest Gothic structures St Mar y’s Church towers over thecity.

167

6. Generally, relationships between English people appear to be by no means per fec t, or th e E ngl ish themselve s happy.

7. Who should do this job? For sure not everybody.

8. When necessary, it is the Speaker of the Lower House that acts as deputy pre sid ent , and should that be impossibl e the Spe ake r o f the Upper Hous e.

9. It is difficult to tell which is a blessing and which a curse.

10. The Normans spoke French and English people Anglo-Saxon, the two basic

III. Irony and distance

Sarcasm is the lowest form of wit, as the saying goes. Being generally

something very banal and commonplace, it seldom requires inverted com

mas. The following sentence represents a typical misuse:

3a. * In our country the average teacher works ‘jus t’ 35 hours a week.

The inverted commas are notjustified by the quality of the sarcasm which



0. e No a s spo e e c a d g s peop e g o Sa o , e wo bas celements of our language.

11. The co-authors distinguished doctors from Britain and America are specia

lists in various branches of medicine.

12. We hated him and his approach to his subject —he was a hateful egocentricwho always tried to demonstrate his superiority.

13. This can best be illustrated by the behaviour of my bro ther’s girlfriend Kate.

How can the following sentence be improved?

14. England and Wales are divided into 53 counties (before 1974 - 62).

Inverted Commas (‘ ’ and “ ”)

Inverted commas are used for the following purposes:

I. Genu ine quotations

1. Marx described religion as “the opium of the masses” .

II. Received Opinion

Sometimes, however, the writer may merely repeat hearsay or received opin

ions without specifying the source. Compare the following alternatives:

2a. * We should question the morals o f this, as some say,

“unpredictable” man.2b. ...the morals o f this reputedly unpredictable man.

Note how the clumsy and asyntactic parenthesis as some say of 2a has been

replaced in 2b by reputedly, while the inverted commas have disappeared.

168

The inverted commas are not justified by the quality of the sarcasm, which

could be expressed much more appropriately by a rephrasing:

3b. In our country the average teacher works a mere 35 hours a week.

There are various ways of expressing irony, without resorting to inverted commas, as in the following example:

4a. What made such a calm krid “innocent” person as myself havesuch a murderous dream?

In the above sentence, the inverted commas would only be justified if we

knew beforehand that the writer had been described as “innocent”, i.e. if

the word was a direct quotation or an obvious reference. If no quotation or

reference is involved, the sentence requires modification, perhaps as fol

lows:

4b. What made such a calm and supposedly innocent person...?

Or:

4c. What made such a calm and seemingly innocent person...?

Thus the word supposedly (seemingly) has been added, while the inverted

commas have disappeared.

Let us now look at the following sentence, taken from a discussion on

nonconformists:

5a. No nco nfo rmists dese rve the cre dit for mo st hum an progre ss, since in

practice “re vol t” often m eans i magin atio n and crea tivi ty.

Here again, if the concept revolt has occurred for the first time and there is

no obvious quotation, inverted commas might strike many as being inappropriate. Moreover, the irony or distance inherent in the writer’s use of

the word is hardly forceful enough to justify them. The sentence needs to

be rephrased, perhaps along the following lines:

169

5b. ...since in practice so-called revolt often means imagination andcreativity.

Thus, the phrase so-cal led has been added, while the inverted commas have disappeared.

For a writer who wishes to create a certain distance between himself

and the word or phrase that he is using, other options are also available:

6a. In many countries of the world, capitalism is the most important single

Generally, overuse or misuse of inverted commas leaves an impression

of affectation, so apart from reported speech and genuine quotations they

must be employed sparingly.


In which o f the following sentences are inverted commas justified? H ow



y , p p g“discovery” of the 1990s.

6b. In many countries of the world, capitalism is the most important singlediscovery - if one can call it that - o f the 1990s.

7a. The mixture of violent films and shocking talk-show confessions is

further “enriched” with endless soap operas.7b. ...is further enriched with endless soap operas, if ‘enriched’ is

the word.

In each of the above pairs the second alternative (6b, 7b) is preferable.

Of course, there are also occasions when the sarcasm is less common

place, and it is then that inverted commas are justified, perhaps in the fo l

lowing example:

8. My only “education” consisted of parental abuse, sadistic teachers andseveral stays in a borstal.

IV. Metaphors

Look at following sentences, in both of which mirror is used as a metaphor:

9. Literature should be the mirror of life.

10. Death is often the ‘mirror’ of life.

In 9 the metaphor is obvious; in 10 it is not. Hence the difference in punc

tuation. In other words, inverted commas should be reserved for a meta

phor that is genuinely original or striking. Among foreign writers of

English a widespread error is to use inverted commas for even the most

obvious metaphors, as in the following example:

11. * D eployed on the battlefield because of its size and ferocity,

the Neapolitan mastiff was the “tank” of the ancient world.

In modem warfare, tanks immediately spring to mind as battlefield equip

ment. Thus tank is an obvious metaphor, and requires no inverted commas.

170

might some of the sentences be improved?

1. Parents are often unaware of the sort of “edification” that violent films provide.

2. Such are the down-and-outs who are poor “from choice” or simply because

they “like it”.3. Envy has the potential to turn a relationship into a ‘prison’, so to speak.

4. The Government should realise the dangers of “forgetting” about the poor.

5. Sadly, it seems that the only “literature” that many of us know consists of

pul p m agazines, thre epe nny rom anc es or sensationa l ta bloi ds.

6. In their hunt for success reporters show no compassion for their “victims” .

7. Let me explain what the term ‘bom artis t’ denotes.

8. Mrs Thatche r’s programm e included “family values”, “law and order”, and“short, sharp punishmen ts” for persistent offenders.

9. Half the class had to retake the year thanks to that maniac. After such ‘en

couragem ent’ few of us saw any point in studying any more.

10. Hungary belongs to Western Europe, where ‘western’ means ‘better developed’ .11 . Someone who is always afraid of “what the neighbours will say” does not

really live for himself. Adapting your life to “standards” means living a lie all

the time.

12. My parents were brought up in a “different reality” , the reality of the sixties.

13. Over our monotonous world the “natural bom conform ist” reigns supreme.

14. The speaker insisted that she did not believe in any ‘truths’ from the Bible, or

in any God.

15. Little did Marjorie know that her “little angel” was really a little devil, ter

rorising the other kids.

Additional Note:

We can choose between single (‘ ’) and double (“ ”) inverted commas.

Single ones tend to be favoured especially when we discuss an individual

word or phrase or else use it in a striking manner (cf. exx. 7b and 10, above).

171

The Semicolon (;)

I. Semicolons and commas

The semicolon’s most usual function is to show the basic organisation of

a sentence that already contains commas. Compare the alternative punctu

ation of the following example:

3. In a film the producer creates every detail of his world for us; in a bookthe author allows us to create that w orld for ourselves.

In 3 the two clauses are so closely parallel and mutually complementary

that a semicolon is preferable to a full stop. On the other hand, the sentence

is too long to warrant a comma.

The same pattern applies in sentences where a division into more than

two grammatically comparable sections needs to be marked:



g p

la . * The duties of the monarch are to open Parliament, to appoint

ministers, to act as head o f the Church of England, as well as of the

British Commonwealth, to take part in various time-honoured rituals,and generally to try to keep far away from the tabloids, which are

always in search of salacious gossip.lb . The duties of the monarch are to open Parliament; to appoint

ministers; to act as head o f the Church of England, as well as of the

British Commonwealth; to take part in various time-honoured rituals;and generally to try to keep far away from the tabloids, which arealways in search of salacious gossip.

In lb semicolons have been introduced in order to bring out the underlying

structure of the sentence, to create an impression of order and hierarchy

amidst what would otherwise have been a forest of commas. After all, why

should commas be used all the time, no matter whether the pause in the

sentence is more important or less important?

Similarly the punctuation of the fol lowing example can be compared:2a. * The country possesses huge oil-deposits, though yet to be fully

exploited, extensive coffee plantations, albeit hampered by antiquated

technology, and finally, almost unlimited resources o f rain forest.

2b. The country possesses huge oil-deposits, though yet to be fullyexploited; extensive coffee plantations, albeit hampered by antiquated

technology; and finally, almost unlimited resources of rain forest.

Here also 2a, having only commas, is confused and bewildering, while 2b is

clearly organised. Thus, to repeat, the semicolon often separates phrases and

clauses that are themselves broken up by commas or other punctuation.

II. Semicolons without commas

In addition, the semicolon is often used to mark a division of a sentence -

often a long one —into two grammatically comparable sections even when

other punctuation is absent:

172

4. Some people are sent home after a day or two; others stay for a couple of

weeks; still others require very long-term treatment.

Again, the clauses are clearly parallel and complementary so as to make

semicolons preferable to full stops. On the other hand, the sentence is too long for commas to be optimal.

Thus the semicolon may be considered as being at a halfway stage be

tween the comma and the full stop.

III. Semicolons and sentence adverbials

The semicolon is often used to link two sentences that are grammatically

separate but connected in thought when the second one is introduced by

sentence adverbials, such as the following: accordingly, also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in fact , moreover, nevertheless,

on the contrary, otherwise, so, stil l, then, therefore, thus, what is more,

ye t etc.Two typical patterns deserve to be noted. The first is exemplified by the

following sentence:

5. All these years Mr Jones has been employed as a junior clerk;

consequently, it is time we thought about assigning him to a more

senior position.

Here the sentence adverbial consequently begins the second statement,

and is directly followed by a comma. The pattern may be summed up as

semicolon followed by one comma.

A second typical pattern is when the sentence adverbial is embedded in

the second statement:

6. For some students a teacher may be a mentor and the greatest authority;

to others, by contrast, he or she appears as Public Enemy N o.l and

simply a monster.

173

I

Here the sentence adverbial by contra st makes explicit the relation of the

two principal parts of the sentence to each other; nonetheless, it does not

start the second part directly, but is embedded or sandwiched in the text.

The pattern may be summed up as semicolon followed by two commas.

Additional Note:

I E li h th j ti d b d d b th d i

refused to take care of her insisting that it was the family doctor that should

take care of her.

8. We are not all bigots and not all drunks there is a young generation that is not

at all influenced by past horrors and most importantly not everything here is

upside down.

9. For some people the countryside is a place of freedom from cars buses and

pol luti on for others how eve r it is a place of har d w ork and poverty .

10 People rarely go to a library for a good book they prefer to stay at home in



In English the conjunction and may be preceded by the comma and semi

colon, as can be seen from two of the above examples (la-b and generally,

2a-b and finally).


Complete the punctuation in the follow ing sentences (in each of them at

least one semicolon is required):

1. Such students usually do not pay too much attention to learning they cheat in

order to pass exams and finally they become frustrated pessimistic teachers

who are not ab le to forget their problems as they enter the classroom.

2. In my opinion there are several kinds of poor people those who are poor

becau se they do n ot care much about m ate ria l good s thos e w ho are too lazy to

work more and finally those who are industrious and work from dawn to dusk but stil l can no t save enough mo ney for a hi gher stan dard o f living.

3. In this essay I am going to give some example s to support this view and at thesame time answer two crucial questions firstly whether we have the right to

pry int o po lit ic ian s’ privat e l ive s a nd sec ond ly wheth er t hose s tate sme n w hose

pri va te liv es do n ot con for m to t he sam e e thical stan dard s as thei r condu ct in

pub lic des erve t o be condemned .

4. Some labourers became unemployed some of them however succeeded in

making a living from agriculture.

5. There are programme s really worth seeing films that are works of art plays weare not able to see in the theatre but m ay watch on TV we can find truly edu

cational productions that are not likely to have a detrimental effect on the

character of the young.

6. Such a child has everything all his dreams are fulfilled at once his life is like

a fairy tale without pain close to mother’s apron strings.7. The results of such a strike can be terrifying in one country town for example

a woman died of influenza because the local doctor refused to help her claim

ing that he was simply overwhelmed with patients the emergency services also

174

10. People rarely go to a library for a good book they prefer to stay at home in

front of the TV.

11. Western borders were suddenly open which gave the peoples of the Warsaw

Pact countries an opportunity to visit foreign countries shops w ere filled with both im por ted and local pro duc e the growth o f the f ree ma rke t became a fact.

12. Literature trains the imagination of the reader someone who rea ds a book can

imagine things as he wants to and create the main characters in his own way.

13. Many parents seem to forget about their essential role they treat their children

as playthings or as a necessary fulfilment of marriage.

14. People did not abandon their traditions what is m ore they did their best to

pres erve them.

15. The human psyche has three levels the id standing for impulses and urges theego representing one’s personality and the superego dealing with sublimated

desires and urges.

16. Good teachers never treat those entrusted to their care as their inferiors on the

contrary the relationship is based on the principle of equality.

17. Each literary epoch possesses the rich legacy of patriotic lyrics whose pur pos e was to aro use the f igh ting spir it a nd win bat tle s love lyr ics wr itte n to

express an author’s feelings towards his beloved religious poems expressing

an author’s faith and devotion to God political treatises voicing the need for

change or philosophic tracts setting forth a wri ter’s reflections about different

aspects of human life.

18. Today people work very hard to earn money they stay at work late take addi

tional hours and spend much of their free time on activities connected with

their jobs.

1

Key to the Exercises*



Nominalisations

(1, P- 20):1. It is not easy to answer this question. / A nswerin g this question is not a simple

matter. 2. Our foundation invites you to par tic ipa te in.... 3. ...but the easiest way o f

manipulating people as well. 4. ...to witness many discussions about politics. 5. The

purpose of t he cour se is to prepare the students to use the language in a conscious

and critical manner. 6. The Royal Family was opposed to the King’s manying a

divorcee. 7. Such a man is unsuited to represent a country and its people. 8. Another

mistake often made by parents is fai lin g to trust children. 9. Every Buddhist wishes

to attain Enlightenment. 10. A good teacher m ust be patient, as it is often necessary

in this job to repeat the same information several times over. 11. Poles may criticise

pries ts.... 12. U nfor tuna tely some teenagers fa il to grow ou t o/adolescence. 13. For

those people who do not happen to be lucky enough to own a car.... 14. Imp rovi ng

the railways and utilising them more intensively would have the effect of decreasing

traffic congestion to a significant extent. 15. The engine resisted all attempts at getting it started again, and we....

(2, p. 21):1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger o f small countries becoming dom

inated by multinational concerns. 2. A teacher must be capable of jud gin g his or her

students fai rly as individuals. 3. ...a consequence of fai lin g to rea lise the full signif

icance of the situation. 4. ...identified by comparing the present century with former

epochs. 5. The theme of this essay is the way the computer has in v a d e d ry sphere....

6. ...people seem to have ceased to fee l that it is necessary to do good deeds. 7. The

fa ct that cats have incredib ly sh aip sens es makes them react.... 8. We run a serious

The answers provided below do not by any means exhaust all the possibilities of correctness.

In many cases alternative answers may also be found.

177

risk of losing our traditional, rathe r conservative values. 9. The new developments

in archaeology resulted in the possibility being considered of the coexistence of

groups of people.... / The new developments in archaeology resulted in the possi

bility being considered o f groups o f pe op le coe xist ing as reflected....

Proper Adjectives

(3, p. 25):1 Philadelphia is one of A meric a’s biggest cities / one of the biggest cities in Amer

Emerge, Happen, Occur, Prove, Turn Out

(7, p. 31):1. prove (to be); turn out to be 2. happened 3. proves (to be), turns out to be 4. it

now transpires that 5. turn out, prove. 6. It emerges, turns out, transpires that....

7. occurs 8. it turns out that 9. it turns out that 10. turns out to be. 11. turned ou t




1. Philadelphia is one of A meric a s biggest cities / one of the biggest cities in Amer

ica 2. The various cultures of Europe / E urope ’s various cultures 3. Poland’s young

generation / the young generation in Poland 4. one of Britain’s most aristocratic

families / one of the most aristocratic families in Britain

Adjectives vs. Prepositional Modifiers

(4, p. 26):1. words of criticism 2. path to democracy

Belong

(5, p. 27):1. Dunes are among the characteristic features o f the Baltic littoral. 2. These monu

ments are among those mos t often visited by lovers of art. 3. Frankly, the Joneses are

not to be numbered (ranked) amo ng those people who have fastidious tastes. 4. A c

cording to the latest computer-based analyses the BM J is one of the top three most

prest igious jou rnal s in the world . 5. Visi ting the poor and chair ing various charity

organisations formed part of her many duties. (Or: Her many duties included....)

6. Sensitivity, intelligence and tolerance are also to be included among the qualities of a

good teacher. 7. Health and happiness are among the most precious things in life.

8. The murder mysteries of Agatha Christie are among the most popular books

ever written. 9. Diet is one of the most crucial factors in human longevity.

Get

(6, p. 29):1. acquire; gain 2. possesses 3. become; grow 4. has; is left with; cannot avoid;

cannot escape 5. be; obtain a proper education etc. 6. avoid; evade 7. extract; ob

tain 8. become; grow 9. select; find something interesting for oneself in the pro

gramme offered 10. have 11. grows 12. derive, obtain 13. grow

178

i


(8, p. 33):1. namely 2. namely 3. In other words, Thus 4. i.e. 5. namely 6. Thus, In other

words 7. namely 8. Thus 9. namely, which is

Easy, Difficult, Possible, Impossible

(9, p. 35):1. It is impossible to achieve such prosperity within a few years. 2. If it were poss i

ble to marke t hope.. .. 3. Th e area is we t and the refore dif ficult to ploug h. 4. T he se

things are priceless but it is possible to obtain them for free. 5. It was not possible

to experience these things until recently. 6. It is almost impossible for anyone to

learn skiing at such an age. 7. Such books are not easy to read. 8. It is impossible

to erase such bad memories within a short time. 9. Ethnic conflicts are inherently

intractable and it is impossible to solve them only by bombing.

Value

(10, p. 36):1. elements 2. aspects; features 3. elements 4. for things of such priceless value

as; for such blessings as 5. have an eternal value, being respected by...; ...are things

of eternal value, being respected by.... 6. thing

Citizen

(11, p. 37):1. townsfolk, townspeople, city dwellers 2. non-specialists, lay people, ordinary

peo ple 3. ordin ary Am eric ans , the average A me ric an 4. peo ple’s lives , the lives ofordinary people 5. the average adult 6. the people who live there 7. westerners,

peo ple from the We st 8. ord inar y p eople 9. Many Ro mans 10. edu cat ed peo ple ,

educated folk

179

Appositions (I)

(12, p. 42):1. Our company owns the Dutch publishing house Polkadot. (Also possible: owns

Polkadot, a Dutch publishing house.) 2. The British PM Benjamin Disraeli played

a crucial role in the crisis. 3. The book describes the relationship between the writ

er Humber t Humber and a precocious teenager. 4. The Soviet politician Mikhail

Gorbatchev also describes these events. 5. From my window I have a spectacular

view of the extinct volcano S havnabada which forms part of the central mountain

Because in Negative Sentences

(14, p. 50):1. for, since, the reason being that, for the simple reason that. (Also possible is a

new sentence starting with After all.) 2. since, for the simple reason that. (Also

pos sib le: their only goal being to make maximum profits.) 3. since 4. for. (Also

pos sib le: for it is simply not enough.)



view of the extinct volcano S havnabada, which forms part of the central mountain

range. ( A lso poss ible: ...a spectacular view of Shavnabada, an extinct volcano which

forms part of the central mountain range.) 6. The above journals are complemented

by the month ly b ulletin Forthcoming P ublications. (Alsopossible: ...by Forthcom

ing Publications, a monthly bulletin.) 7. “Viking” comes from vikingr, an old Nordic word meaning “pirate” . 8. The Peasa nts’ Revolt was led by Wat Tyler, a man of

humble origins. 9. Using e-mail I can communicate with my Australian friend Ri

chard within a few seconds. ( Al so possib le: ...with Richard, an Australian friend of

mine....) 10. A poll conducted by the American magazine News we ek also gave the

same results. 11. The Roman poet Juvenal once said that.... 12. Taking the double

name John Paul II, he soon established a reputation for himself as a defender of

freedom, offering great moral support for the Solidarity trade union. ( A lso poss ible :

...for the trade union Solidarity.) 13. Not only does the President face a charge of

sexual harassmen t by former Arkansas State employee Paula Jones, but he has also

had an extramarital affair with 21-year-old White House intern Monica Lewin

sky. 14. The name ‘Iron Curtain’ was given to the Elbe frontier. 15. Orphee, con

ceived and directed by the great French playwright Jean Cocteau, is a case in

poin t. 16. ...in the framewo rk o f the ma ss mo vem ent A llia nce fo r Change. 17. Thus

Raskolnikov, the protagonist of Dostoyevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment, u n

dergoes something of a spiritual rebirth. 18. I would like to quote the words of a

song by the British heavy-metal band Iron Maiden. 19. Pope John Paul II has tried

to continue the work of the great reformer John XX III and the enlightened conserv

ative Paul VI.

Appositions (II): Appositions vs. Prepositional Structures

(13, p. 47):In all sentences (1-10) the first option only is correct.

180

Being and Having

(15, p. 51):

1. Nowadays it is difficult to find anybody who does not have a TV set. 2. Young people in love hav e b een the sub ject .... 3. Che lten ham has long been kno wn as a

spa which has a distinctive microclimate. (Also: ...as a spa with a distinctive micro

climate.) 4. In the course of the years the duchess’s smile, which was initially warm

and natural, froze into a studied, official one. (Also: ...the duchess’s smile, initially

warm and natural....) 5. A range of hills of pivotal importance is the Pennines.

6. Despite his enormous wealth Hughes had no one who truly loved him.... 7. At

the age of 70 Mann crossed the Pyrenees on foot to escape arrest. 8. ...by people

who had a hostile attitude towards her. 9. ...the government of a country that is a

member of the EU.... 10. Marilyn Monroe died as a young attractive woman. (Also:

...died a young attractive woman.) 11. Though they have few resources and poor

equipment.:.. (Also: Despite their few resources and poor equipment...; With their

few resources etc.) 12. Though intelligent and good-looking.... (Also: Though she

was inte lligent etc....) 13. Mothe r Teresa visited many people in need . (Also: ...many

people who w ere in nee d.) 14. While h aving no fo rmal education. ... (Also: Though

he had ....-) 15. ...is not unusual fo r a person who is so young a nd vet has a high

social position. (Also: ...for a person so voung and with a high social position.)

16. Though so fragile and small compared to the great universe.... (Also: Though he

is....) 17. ...there is at least one rescue worker with a specialised medical training.

(Also: ...one rescue worker who has undergone....) 18. People under the influence

of alcohol do not have the right to use our facilities. (Also: People who are un der....)

Be + to-infinitive

(16, p. 55):

1. is expected to, is supposed to, is meant to 2. is expected to, has to 3. exists to, is

intended to, is there to 4. are expected to, are supposed to

181

Comment Clauses with As

(17, p. 57):1. It is widely assum ed that this cataclysm destroyed the entire Minoan civilisation

in a single day. (Also: This cataclysm, it is widely assumed, destroyed....) 2. The

bes t way to dismantle a pe rso nal ity was , she rem ark ed, to iso late it. (Also: She

remarked that the best way to....) 3. The lama stressed that his mental state was....

4. It seems that (or: It would seem that) dishonesty is sometimes justified. (Also:

Dishonesty is it seems sometimes justified 5 Unchanged: the sp eaker’s position

Constructions with As and Than

(20, p. 63):

1. as did his attempt 2. As was ascertained 3. as may be inferred 4. as did most

peo ple 5. as did most of the peo ple the re 6. as is u sua lly ima gined 7. As has be

come apparent 8. As shown; As has been shown 9. as can be seen 10. as had been

expected 11. as all too often happens (In this sentence as means “jus t as” and no t

“seeing that”.) 12. as can be illustrated 13. as is common 14. As had once hap

pened 15 as c an be not iced 16 as is observ able 17 as might hav e b een expe ct



Dishonesty is, it seems, sometimes justified. 5. Unchanged: the sp eaker s position

is identical to that o f the person w ho wrote the report. 6. The relationship between

her husband and Camilla had, she said (or: she insisted), appalled her from the

very beginning. (Also: ...the relationship between her husband and Camilla had,

as she put it, appalled her.... - cf. p. 56, footnote.) 7. You claim in your article thatnuclear energy is the only feasible option. (Also: Nuclear energy is - so you claim

in your article - the only feasible option.) 8. Her deep love of her spiritual mentor

inclined her towards what she called “free and wholehearted dedication....” 9. ...be

cause they assumed I was too young....

Complements and the Verb To Be

(18, p. 59):1. The birds are the first thing that visitors to Australia notice. 2. Doctors are distin

guished from others by their professional ethics. (Also possible: What distinguishes

doctors from others is their professional ethics.) 3. The beggars who throng the

streets and train stations are yet another sign of the country’s poverty. 4. Our longterm goal is bilateral relations.... 5. Philosophers are another group of people whose

aim is to possess wisdom. 6. Another proof of the villa’s late occupation is the

pav ement s o f mosaic a nd m arbl e f ragments ind isc rim ina tely mixed.

(19, p. 60):1. The Botanical Gardens constitute one.... 2. People who are completely absorbed

in their careers provide (or: constitute) another interesting instance..; Another in

teresting instance of bad parents is provided by people.... 3. ...but the greatest at

traction is provided by the tall cliffs...; ...but it is the tall cliffs jutting straight into

the sea that constitute the greatest attraction.

182

pened 15. as c an be not iced 16. as is observ able 17. as might hav e b een expe ct

ed 18. as was humanly possible 19. as is the fact that 20. as did some other states

men 21. as can be illustrated 22. as is typical 23. as was proper 24. as is their

intention 25. As is widely realised 26. than had previously been supposed.

Gerunds

(21, p. 65):

1. There should be strict controls on the manufacturing o f such articles. 2. The

Council cannot tolerate the killing o/unarm ed civilians by paramilitaries. 3. A spe

cial term exists for this manipulating o/public opinion.... 4. The Institute prompted

the setting up o f two research stations.

Mos t

(22, p. 66):

1. the most frightening thing is the fact that...; what is especially frightening is t he

fact that... 2. the most important thing is... 3. The most visible thing for anyone...;

What is most visible for anyone... 4. the most crucial thing is... 5. The most re

markable thing abo ut...; What is most remarkable about... 6. are most important...

7. the most important thing... 8. are most appropriate at this moment; are the most

appropriate measures (steps etc.) at this moment 9. the most important thing of all

is that...

Of (Many of..., M ost of..., Some of... etc.)

(23, p. 68):

1. Some parts 2. No parent is... 3. Any human values were... 4. One such organi

sation... 5. Hardly any such child stands... 6. Most Americans possess... 7. one

book 8. a ll pe ople

183

Problems with Negative Sentences

(24, p. 72f.):A. 1. either 2. let alone, to say nothing of 3. either 4. let alone, to say nothing

of 5. either 6. to say nothing of 7. let alone, least of all 8. let alone, to say nothing

of 9. any more than 10. either 11. let alone 12. any more than 13. let alone, least

of all 14. any more than her parents were 15. let alone, least of all 16. any more

than 17. let alone, least of all 18. let alone

T here

(26, p. 79):1. Most of us wonder whether watching TV has more positive or negative aspects.

2. When people of different nations meet, a discourse may develop between them.

3. Owing to this a maritime climate prevails in our part of the world. 4. Such

a situation must have had a cause. 5. When this slanderous article appeared, he was

absolutely speechless. 6. Serious problems often occur if proper precautions are

not taken. 7. They do not realise that such a problem exists. 8. Recently a debate



B. 1. Our new secretary is not very hard-working, and she does not prove to be

very competent either. 2. The turmoil on the Japanese markets has not affected the

economic situation of neighbouring countries to any considerable degree. 3. Joan

has no talent for teaching, let alone for getting her knowledge across.

Relative Clauses and the Comma

(25, p. 75):1. Touris ts may well be charme d by their visit to our country, where remarkable

custom s are still to be found. 2. The most important organisation is the EU, which

now comprises 15 members. 3. Unchanged 4. The ties between man and nature,

which were very close until the nineteenth century, can no longer be restored.

5. Unchanged 6. Even in the economically most developed countries, where it

might seem that everyone lives in affluence, there are people whose standard of

living is low. 7. Unchanged 8. Unchanged 9. Unchanged 10. Even now Eng

land has a num ber of old traditions, an example o f which is November 5, whenchildren bum a dummy. 11. Unchanged 12. Euro pe’s paparaz zi, some of whom

even disturbed her last moments, m ust take much o f the blame for the princess’s

death. 13. Unchanged. 14. Becoming poor is not a punishment: it is simply life,

which is often cruel and full of injustices. (A coordinate clause can easily be

fo rm ed : it is simply life —and life is often cruel and full of injustices.) 15. Un

changed 16. Unchanged 17. Everything began in the early 50s, when the foun

dations for the EU were being constructed. 18. Unchanged 19. Unchanged

20. The E uropean Comm ission, to which mem ber-states send delegates, m eets in

Strasbourg. 21. Unchanged 22. Napoleon, who is remembered today as one of

Fra nce ’s greatest men, was actually a Corsican. 23. Global warming will have

especially serious consequences in Central Africa, where malaria already reaps a

grim harvest. 24. Unchanged 25. Their marriage, which used to be consideredso stable, has now come to an end. 26. Unchanged 27. Unchanged 28. Paper,

silk and gunpowder were first manufactured in China, where recorded history

reaches back 5000 years.

184

y p y

on this particular issue has emerged. 9. While the traditional method of learning

has many adherents.... 10. If these two problems can be overcome, possibilities of

real development will appear. 11. In the last few years doubts have also arisen about

the benefits of.... 12. One should stress that this reform has numerous p ros andcons. 13. As a result of the changes we see that education is no longer free . Of

course some will’ argue that paving for edu cation does have its good aspe cts.

14. ...for this strike has already claimed too many victims. 15. Obviously, arbitrary

or unjust redundancies sometimes occur. 16. These examples show that thousands

of young people do actually have positive role models. 17. ...it seems obvious that

significant changes and improvements have appeared in the wav we live. 18. Those

years were crucial for music, seeing as they did the emergence of reggae, heavy

metal, techno and rap. (Also: Reggae, heavy metal, techno and rap emerged.)

(27, p. 81):1. No more staff meetings have been planned for the foreseeable future. (Not: No

more staff meetings for the foreseeable future have been planned.) 2 .1 am going toconsider whether anv limits should be established to such interference in private

affairs. (Not: ...whether any limits to such interference in private affairs s hould be

established.) 3. A special term has even been coined for this kind of thing. (Not:

A special term for this kind of thing has even been coined.) 4. organisations ought

to be formed, devoted to the needs of such social groups. (Not: organisations devot

ed to the needs of such social groups ought to be formed.) 5. No written accounts of

this event have been found in the records of other civilisations. (Not: No written

accounts of this event in the records of other civilisations have been found.)

6. Every year innocent people are murdered.... 7. Fortunately, people are inventing

more and more ways of dealing with such problems.

Additional Note to Exercise 27: Not e how in each of the above sugg este d answ ers long sub jects f ollowed by sho rt

pre dicates have been avoided, in accordance w ith the principle out line d e lsewh ere

(pp. 103-106).

185

(28, p. 82):

1. Beyond the picturesque town of Penzance lies the westernmost point of Great

Britain. 2. Adjacent to the Grand Hotel is / is situated the Sopot pier, extending 512

metres. 3. Ahead of them, clearly discernible on the horizon, rose / towered the

Pillars of Hercules. 4. On the w estern edge of the Nile delta lies / is situated / i§

located the city of Alexandria. 5. At a right angles to the square is / is to be fonnH

the town’s most famous monument.

inal. 3. It is worth mentioning that / What is worth mentioning is that George al

ways put other people first and himself last. 4. It is remarkable that / The rema rka

ble thin g is. that / Wha t is re markable is tha t they d o not ove res tim ate t hei r fin ancial

situation. 5. It is curious that / It is a curious fact that / Wh at is curious is that

people ofte n be hav e in an irra tion al way when c onf ron ted by TV-camer as. 6. I t i s

an important fact that / The important thing is that dreams reveal the stresses with

which people are not able to cope in reality. 7. It is striking that / The striking thing

is that / What is especially striking is that many companies claim that it is imp ossi

ble to sell the ir p rodu cts wit hou t r eso rting to such methods 8 It is ext rao rdinar y



What, Which etc.

(29, p. 83):

1. Mr Jones is an avid football-fan, a circumstance that is often a cause of arguments. 2. They watch soap operas every day, a habit that is certainly a waste of

time. 3. John said he would fight for custody of the children, an attitude / stance

that he justified by saying that Jane was unsuited as a mother. 4. The Joneses have

different social backgrounds, a circumstance that seems to influence the relations

betwe en Mrs Jones’s pa rent s and the ir own son- in-law.

(30, p. 84):

1. Dreams are closely related to reality, as can be illustrated by the fact that we often

dream about people and places we know. 2. People in our country tend to be very

hospitable, as visitors will easily notice. (Also: ... as will easily be noticed by vi

sitors.) 3. In extreme cases love may demand the sacrifice of life, as was the case

with Romeo and Juliet. 4. The government does not attach much importance to the

teaching profession, as is obvious from the teache rs’ wages. 5. Life expectancy

and life style are closely related, as has been established beyond all doubt by an

immense number of scientific studies.

(31, p. 86):

1. more worryingly, worse still etc. 2. Worse still, Making matters worse 3. more

importantly 4. more importantly, worse still, more worryingly etc. 5. making mat

ters worse

(32, p. 87):1. It is ironic that / The ironic thing is that the Party was abolished by the man whom

it had once expelled in disgrace. 2. It is striking that / The striking thing is that /

What is especially striking is that he does not consider his actions to be at all crim

186

ble to sell the ir p rodu cts wit hou t r eso rting to such methods. 8. It is ext rao rdinar y

that / It is an extraordinary fact that / The extraordinary thing is that / What is

extraordinary is that no more than a century ago the extended family was the rule

rather than the exception in most of Europe.

Cleft Sentences with the Pronoun It

(33, p. 91):1. It is owing to his highly developed brain that man is able to learn many difficult

things. 2. The psychiatrist explained that while he was always careful to listen to

each patient carefully, it was the body language that told him most. 3. It was the

existence of a common threat that cemented the military alliance. 4. In 1998 the

courses in investment banking were especially pop ular, but in 1999 it was the courses

in derivative instruments that drew the most participants. 5. During those years of

tyranny it was personal contacts and not on e’s abilities that brought success in many

spheres of life. 6. It is impeccable behaviour in private life that makes a politician

worthy of the respect and trust of others. 7. It is especially while being abroad for

some time that one may begin to think unconsciously in the language of the foreign

country. I had the opportunity to leam the local traditions of Andalusia, and it was

language that made it possible. 8. It was not until the publication of his book that

this theory was called into question. 9. For others it is only from personal experi

ence that true wisdom may stem. 10. After all, it is the moments of horror before

maths and the attempts to keep our eyes open during biology lessons that we re

member most.

Emphatic Word Order (“Fronting”) I: Hardly, Only, Rarely, Scarcely etc.

(34, p. 93):1. Seldom before had I seen such an expressive face. 2. Such is the wisdom that

every one of us can derive from reading books. 3. Never before has such enormous

187

pro gress in m edic ine been achieved . 4. Only by com munica ting in t his way can a

real relationship be established. 5. Very rarely do such couples get married be

cause they love each other. 6. Only by using his inborn creativity can a teacher

vary his lessons and make them worth attending. 7. Such is the level of soccer

violence in Argentina that a judge there has recently banne d all games for a month.

8. In the worst scenario not only is communication abandoned but parents devote

their entire energies to attaining common material goals. 9. Only by reading the

autho r’s book or poem in the original ca n one appreciate the talent and w riting skill

of the author 10 So imaginative and creative was she that every class with her was

(36, p. 98):1. Having as he does the most highly developed brain functions, man seems to be

completely different from the other primates. 2. Taking up so much time as it does,

television can be detrimental to family relations. 3. It will not be difficult for the

twenty-first century to seem like an age of gold, having as it does such a terrible and

blo ody pre decess or. 4. TV, op era ting as it does by m eans of vis ual images, is m uch

more commun icative and fascinating than radio. 5. The publication constitutes an

invaluable source of information, including as it does many crucial discoveries.



of the author. 10. So imaginative and creative was she that every class with her was

different. 11. Not only does this knowledge imbue one with confidence but it also

helps one in getting to know other cultures. 12. Talent must be accompanied by

hard work, and only then does it yield results. 13. Not without reason can one say

that the pen is mightier than the sword. 14. So enthralled are the fans by their idol

that they will follow him to the ends of the earth. 15. Under no circumstances should

literature serve ‘useful purposes ’. 16. No sooner had this scandal been forgotten

than another appeared. 17. Nowhere are the traces of the First World War more

visible than in Northern France. 18. Only when your manners improve will you be

allowed to join our gathering. 19. Hardly for a single moment did he stop to think

about the consequences of his deed. 20. Little did the princess realise what terrible

fate awaited her. 21. Such was the force of the explosion that several people were

killed instantly.

Emphatic Word Order (“Fronting”)

II: With As and Though (35, p. 97):1. Angry though (or: as) the countess was, she was tempted to laugh. 2. Fascinated

by t hese c haracters as t hey are, c hild ren wa nt to b e lik e them. 3. Unwilli ng as most

peo ple might be to adm it the fac t, the wo rld today is rul ed by the pow er of mon

ey. 4. Cruel though (or: as) this may seem , the ability to speak a foreign language is

indispensable for any well-paid job. 5. Well prepared and competent though (or:

as) he may be, such a person will never reach the level of the healer that has true

vocation. 6. Different as the sources of the tragedy may be, poverty has one face

for those who have experienced it. 7. Sad as (or: though) this may seem, it is a fact

that parents have a tendency to regard love as a financial transaction. 8. Good gen

eral as he was, Hannibal made the most careful dispositions. 9. Spoilt as they are,

such children cannot cope with the real world. 10. Inane though (or: as) they are,

such soap operas flood our TV channels. 11. Incomprehensible as it might seem to

us, the reclusive way of life is not devoid of experience. 12. Cunning though (or:

as) Moriarty was, he was outwitted by the superior guile of Sherlock Holmes.

188

Relative Clauses in Apposition

(37, p. 101):1. Susan considers the guide dog to be a most precious gift, one which has chan ged

her life completely. (Also: one that...; a gift th at....) 2. The plan involves an alter

native to spending a prison sentence, one which is open to all women prisoners.

3. We do not notice the unique features of our everyday reality and mentality, ones

which would nonetheless surprise the first-time foreign visitor. (Also: ones that...;

features that....) 4. English people consume enormous quantities of tea, a habit which

has become legendary. (Also: a habit that....) 5. Her relationship to Diana was very

pro fou nd and hea rtfe lt, an att itud e which mi gh t have been attr ibu tab le to re sem

blan ces of cha rac ter. (Also: an attitude that....) 6. The local roads are extremely bad

when compared with those in Western Europe, a circumstance which makes it im

possible to dispense with t rain s com pletely. (Also: a circumstance that....) 7. The

manuscripts reveal a picture of the composer as endow ed with a marvellous lyrical

talent, an artist who builds up the emotional climate of the music by means of the

melodic line. 8. This is a classic example of a family where a father wants to project

his own am bitions onto a child, an attitude which in the longer term m ay and often

does prove fatal. (Also: a situation which / that...; an inclination which / that....)

9. Mother Teresa was known for her loving heart, one which did not distinguish

betw een nat ions and religion s. (Also: one that...; a heart which / that....) 10. The

face seems to express doggedness and harshness, an impression which is strength

ened by the sinister glint in the eyes. (Also: an impression that...; an effect which /

that....) 11. The vast majority of anaesthetists refused to continue working, a deci

sion which completely paralysed the health system. (Also: a decision that....)

12. Scholars also propound another theory, one w hich is based on more convention

al argumentation. (Also: one that....) 13. They treat old people with respect, an

attitude which is probably linked to the importance attached to good m anners. (Also: an attitude that....) 14. Mr and Mrs Jones have little job security and poor profes

sional prospects, a circumstance which may disqualify them as potential foster-

par ents. (Also: a circumstance that....) 15. A visit to the harbour is always like

189

a week in a health resort, a place where all my senses may recuperate fro m thefumes and traffic of the city. 16. The extended family is not an anachronism. It is a

cure for loneliness, an institution which has developed along with humanity and

must be continuously cultivated. (Also: an institution that; a remedy which / that....)

17. Our tourist is likely to stand in queues f or hours while clerks —usually female —

are varnishing their nails, reading magazines, drinking coffee, guzzling cakes and

gossiping about their boss’s latest hair-do, an attitude which they acquired during

their years under the previous political system. (Also: an attitude that...; an ap

pro ach to w ork whi ch / t hat. ..; hab its w hich / that.. ..) 18. Ow ing to these chi ldhood

i h i bl bli h i f l i hi i h h

Coordination II: Concord and Gender Bias

(40, p. Ill) :1. h e or she 2. his, his 3. he (also: he or she) 4. one 5. him (also: him or her; that

pers on) 6. his 7. his , his (also: each student’s, his or her) 8. he (also: he or she; that

perso n) 9. him, his (also: that person, his or her; such people, their) 10. his, his 11. his

(also: his or her; that perso n’s) 12. him 13. that pers on’s (also: his; his or her) 14. he.

He (also: he or she, The average adolescent) 15. its own 16. himself (also: him- or

herself) 17 him his (also: that person his or her; that person his) 18 he (also: he or



experiences she is unable to establish any satisfactory relationships with others,

a predicament which leaves her a very unhappy person. (Also: a predicament that....)

Abrupt Sentence Endings

(38, p. 105):1. Eas ter is another typical example... 2. Urgent action is necessary to improve.... 3. It

was against this background that the idea emerged of writing.... 4. Ou r minds may be

broadened by do cumentar ies w hich. ... 5. Opinions may differ as to whethe r.... 6. Re

move the last two words in the sentence. 7. It is sad to observe five-year-olds

who.... 8. Among these particular attention is due to Th. Mom msen’s contribution....

Coordination I: Unjustified Change of Subject

(39, p. 106):1. We hardly spoke a word... 2. ...if they have made any mistake. 3. ...the state

ments that they utter... 4. ...to party activism, regarding it as a kind of... 5. ...and

never count the cost, caring nothing for public opinion. 6. ...that they have never

encountered before. 7. ...that perhaps they find more attractive or convenient.

8. ...and he will have a struggle arranging anything... 9. ...by the awarding of the

Nobel Prize. 10. . ..and I will atte mp t to exp lain why . 11. . ..tha t he has yet to o ver

come. 12. ...whatever she found superfluous. 13. ...that we do not like trees or

going for walks. 14. ...something that we consider vital. 15. ...by which I mean

cultur e. 16. ...that the two are unconn ected. 17. ...he (also: he or she) will under

stand why... 18. ...a deep respect for such things as honesty, keeping one’s word,

and respect for one’s elders. 19 __ that everything is preordained and thus no t worth

trying to change. 20. ...which they consider the most important thing. 21. Europe

ans are especially well received in the States, and they should not think twice about

visiting the country.

190

herself) 17. him, his (also: that person, his or her; that person, his) 18. he (also: he or

she) 19. that person 20. one 21. he, his 22. his or her (also: his) 23. he (also: he or

she; that person) 24. he (also: he or she) 25. his, himself, his, his 26. himself 27. his

(also: his or her) 28. that person (also: him or her)

Coordination III: Absence of Parallel Structure

(41, p. 114):1. TV not only gives us... 2. Either the question has... (also: ...or could be an

swered...) 3. ...but they also show... 4. ...but also desensitise... 5. The young are

expected not only to maintain... 6. ...should be not only... 7. Man is able not only

to create... 8. Brin ging up children means not only providing... 9. ...but she was

also believed... (also: Mother Teresa was not only widely recognised...) 10. ...will

turn neither into... 11. expect him to be not only a competent candidate... 12. Life

style determines not only longevity but also the quality of life. 13 __

but also ruin...(also: No t only are s uch t eena gers una ware.. .) 14. . ..and the bad thi ngs ... 15. .. .they

have not only...

(42, p. 116):I. By introducing a common currency and eliminating international barriers (also: By the introduction of a common currency and the elimination of international bar

riers) the countries of Western Europe became integrated in terms of economics,

trade, and to some extent culture. 2. ...equality or wealth. 3. ...or Catholic cler

ic... 4. ...to help them, to talk to them, or even sometimes to prepare... 5. ...and

identity. 6. ...and harm the poor. 7. ...and still effective... 8. ...or does perhaps the

fault lie...? 9. ...of finding a job... 10. ...the status quo of Europe and the world...

II. A proper diet, a balanced life style, regular sports and the avoidance of ad

dictions... 12. ...the average European. 13. ...using the railway... 14. ...methods

of separating, purifying and measuring the activity of radioactive elements.

191

Coordination IV: Unjustified Change of Person

(43, p. 117):1. ...and educating oneself. 2. Or when we dream about failing our exam.... (The

alternative, namely o f using one an d on e’s throughout, would read less natural

ly.) 3. ...when the mind is stimulated... (Also: ...when our minds are stimulated....)

4. ...as they help us... 5. You can... (The humour o f the context suggests that the

more informal you and you r are to be preferred to one and o ne’s. Also the repetition

of one and o ne’s would seem highly awkward and unnatural.)

(46, p. 121):1. However, only som e doctors are successful. (Alsopossible: ...yet only some doc

tors are successful.) 2. Tricky as the question is, an attempt will be made in this

essay to examine it.

Unclear Antecedents (I)

(47, p. 123):1. Is such an attitude justified? 2. We should appreciate this basic truth. 3. People



f g y )

Coordination

V: ‘Dangling Participles’

(44, p. 119):1. Whoever examines the influence of TV will have to face one important ques

tion. 2. When visiting Brit ain’s forme r colonies one can still come across... 3. Given

the sheer variety of opinions...; When one observes the sheer variety... 4. Having

attained such a rank, many abuse... 5. Though called an ‘eater of time’, TV is argu

ably a necessary source of information as well as entertainment.

Splices

(45, p. 120):

1. (Depending on the meaning:) i. W hile most people admire sportsmen and watchthem on TV, they all too rarely move from the front of the screen, ii. While most

peo ple adm ire spo rtsm en, they all too rarely mov e f rom the fro nt of the scre en as

they watch them on TV. 2. (Depending on the meaning:) i. With a freely elected

government in office and the free market taking hold at long last, the country is

looking fo rward to the kind of prosperity that the W est has long enjoyed. (A comma

has been removed.) ii. With a freely elected government in office and the free mar

ket taking hold, the country is looking forward at long last to the kind of prosperity

that the West has long enjoyed. 3. Although at first it may, given the sophisticated

language of m any masterpie ces, be difficult to follow the gist, the fact that you have

read one such work will give you a great deal of satisfaction. 4. When the countries

of the East started to turn towards democracy and towards freedom of speech, press

and conscience, the division into eastern and western Europ e still survived in peo

pl e’s min ds. 5. Wh oev er wishes to bec om e a succ essfu l pra cti tioner wil l surely

invest in his education, neve r cease to increase his qualifications, and be devoted to

all his patients.

192

complain that the trains are late... 4. but such ideas are simply mistaken. 5. even

though the latter are known for their love of cleanliness.

Unclear Antecedents (II) The Pronoun It.

(48, p. 124):I. This is mainly because.... 2. Such an arrangement / Such a pattern is supposed

to.... 3. Such a pattern of behaviour can also be observed.... 4. The result was that

many students played truant. 5. Such words speak volumes.... 6. Those doctors

who forget this basic truth / this basic fact.... 7. ... such a scenario / outcome is just

impossible. 8... . and he showed his disapproval.... 9... . and there seems to be nothing

abnormal in such behaviour / in doing so. 10. ...but such a life style does not seem

to tire him. (Also: ... but his journeys / peregrinations etc. do not seem to tire him.)

II . Impressive as all this may seem ....; Impressive as this list may see m .... 12. The

whole area is an eyesore.... 13. Doing so could have given.... 14. ...Such meas

ures would.... 15. ...but few are ready to admit the fact. 16. Unfortunately such

a thing happens very rarely....

Un-English Syntax I: Verb and Object

(49, p. 126):1. Such eyesores generally represent the tasteless architecture of the past. 2. In

reality, few politicians enjoy any privacy. 3. The young generation does have role

models that profoundly influence teenagers. 4. Those are the boys wh o in cold

blood kill ed a two-year -old child. Al so : who killed a two-year-old child in cold

blood. 5. A goo d teache r can, for exam ple, ma ke you ador e p hys ics , eve n if you

loathed the subject sincerely before. 6. They want the best for their children.

7. The news is full of various conflicts now tormenting that continent. 8. A friend

193

whom D iana had trusted made a small fortune ou t of publishing untrue or half-true

stories about her. 9. One may see many interesting exhibits here. Al so : Here one

may see.... 10. He says that while he likes the USA, he can do much more in Cen

tral and Eastern Europe. 11. TV affects our lives tremendously. 12. Man usually

considers hims elf superior, conceitedly calling himself ‘homo sapiens’. 13. John

realises this fact perfectly well. 14. If you were to ask such people, they would

probab ly, after a m om en t’s hes ita tio n, pu t m one y at t he top of the ir lis t o f pr ior i

ties. 15. We have considerably improved our safety precautions. Al so : We have

improved our safety precautions considerably.

Un-English Syntax III: Composite Attributive Expressions

(52, p. 131):1. The famous Grand Hotel, surrounded by parks, usually hosts international pop-

stars. 2. Development is hampered by the bureaucracy dominant everywhere. (Also:

...by the ubiquitous bureaucracy.) 3. The Pope ’s personality —remarkable and im

possible to cha rac teri se —works wonders with var ious foreign dig nitarie s. (Also:

The Pope’s remarkable and enigmatic personality....) 4. In our country such teach

ers ho impro e their q alifications are er niq e 5 The Internet can be sed



Un-English Syntax

II: Main and Subordinate Clauses

(50, p. 128):1. Although the RSC is perceived as exclusively producing Shakespeare, their pro

gramme does in fact include classical theatre of all periods. 2. As we grow up and

face more and more moral dilemmas, we can no longer condemn such behaviour.

3. Had it not been for such events, we would now perhaps be living in a completely

different reality. 4. When we cross the threshold of parenthood, we simultaneously

cross the threshold of the generation gap. 5. While in the initial stages training was

focussed mainly on traditional banking, the course gradually came to include other

areas. 6. Although the majority of people have chosen to live in small units, there is

still a tendency in some regions towards preserving extended families. 7. As I am

not a music lover, my dislike of concerts has frequently led to serious quarrels

bet ween us both . 8. F oun ded by 12 co unt rie s in Wa shington in 1949, NA TO was

initially a military alliance against the USSR. 9. As most would agree, it depends

on ourselves to a certain extent in what way we are influenced by the mass me

dia. 10. If a child is deprived of the possibility of imitating grown-ups, he or she

will probably find it difficult as an adult to perform the role of parent. 11. Although

he offers a plausible theory, he sometimes unfortunately borders on fantasy.

12. When it comes to politics, our country seems finally —after many years of un

brid led capi tali sm - to have es tab lished i ts own middle way. 13. Sad as it may seem,

nothing has been done so far to eliminate this problem.

(51, p. 129):

1. Despite the fact that we had spent fifty years in a prison, it turned out that whenthe walls finally came down the dream of instant paradise on earth had not come

true for everyone. 2. Although a dog may be cheerful and wag its tail, it will never

laugh at our jokes or understand us, how ever much it tries.

194

ers, who improve their qualifications, are very unique. 5. The Internet can be used

to disseminate forbidden material, material that is often harmful in some way.

6. John was a sensitive individual, (and) very easy to hurt. 7. Though reasonable in

its assumptions, this economic policy led to widespread impoverishment. 8. Manycity dwellers dream of living in a quiet village close to nature, with fields, meadows

and landscapes unspoilt by civilisation. 9. In their eyes Maureen is still a perfect

daughter, obedient to her parents. 10. The Toyota factory located there is a princi

pal sour ce of e mpl oym ent. 11. Such immature idealis ts will one day becom e cal

lous, egotistic people, loving only themselves. 12. Looking at the lawns littered

with rubbish and the dilapidated houses, one might suppose that our town has no

future. 13. Winter is presaged by swarms of birds leaving for warmer climes. 14. The

history teacher mentioned above was always making o ur lives a misery. 15. This

scintillating man who skilfully manipulates the mass media is the ultimate politi

cian. (Also: Scintillating and skilful in his manipulation of the mass media, this

man is the ultimate politician.) 16. Parents often find it difficult to accept the inde

pen dence of the ir ch ildr en t hat grows wi th age. 17. M any fact ories a re fu ll o f obs o

lete technology imported from the former USSR. 18. To make matters worse, there

have been complaints from railwaymen dissatisfied with their low salaries, who are

threatening to go on strike. 19. He was famous for performing Bri tain’s first heart

transplant.

Un-English Syntax IV: Parallel Expressions

(53, p. 134):1. TV influences our feelings and emotions, and changes our social attitudes. (Also:

...as well as changing....) 2. There must be a good atmosphere in class, so that stu

dents can take part in discussions and express their opinions on the subject. 3. Medical advances have saved countless lives. It is enough to mention the transplantation

of organs and the invention of the artificial heart. 4. Many people would prefer to

lie and be dishonest.... 5. Sitting in front of the TV causes headaches and backaches,

195

and is bad for the eyes. (Also: ... headache s and backaches, as well as being bad....) 6.I am going to discuss the features of a perfect teacher and explain... .

7. Our world will soon become more cohesive and standardised, as well as beinp

governed.... 8. Family life helps people to appreciate such things as love and friend

ship.... 9. We must face these problems and try to understand them. 10. The Inter

net informs us about the present as well as the past, and gives us.... (Other possibil

ities: ...giving us....; The Internet informs us about the present as well as the past; it

gives us....) 11. The roads here are narrow and full of holes.... 12. Each day the

minister has m eetings and consultations , as well as sending letters and faxes. (Also:

has meetings and cons ltations q ite apart from sending V 13 in the a e

Similarity and Contrast

(56, p. 143):1. as 2. As with 3. like, unlike, in contrast to 4. by the same token 5. Like 6. On

the contrary 7. as 8. Just as... so... 9. like 10. unlike, in contrast to 11. as is the

case with 12. unlike, in contrast to 13. by the same token 14. By contrast 15. as in

the case of, as was the case with, like 16. Like, As is the case with 17. by way of

contrast 18. unlike, in contrast to, as against; also: as opposed to 19. like, as was

the case with 20. like 21. Just as... so... 22. by the same token 23. as against 24. If...

then 25 By the same token Similarly



...has meetings and consultations, qu ite apart from sending....V 13. ...in the way we

per cei ve and und ers tand... . 14. The situ ation of com plet e misun derstanding and

non-comm unication leads.... 15. Often readers identify with literary characters and

share their emotions. Indeed, they sometimes even imitate them and copy their behaviour. (Also: Often readers identify with literary characters, sharing their emo

tions. Indeed, they sometimes even imitate them, copying their behaviour.) 16. We

have similar views and interests; we listen to the same kinds of music and watch

Hollywoo d blockbusters. 17. There is seldom any clear rule or direction that we

must take in life.

Un-English Syntax V: Active vs. Passive

(54, p. 135):

1. The high academic level of the book is guaranteed by specialists of international

standing.... 2. The eastern edge of the Vistula delta is formed by the Elbl^g Highlands and the Lowlands o f Warmia. 3. The material is illustrated by a set of twelve

diagrams. 4. The decision to build the basilica was made by Abbot Quodvultdeus.

5. At the Olympic Gam es each country may be represented only by one man and

one woman.

Concession and Contrast

(55, p. 139):1. while 2. whereas 3. (even) though 4. (And) yet 5. Yet 6. Although, Though,

While 7. Despite, For all 8. While 9. While 10. albeit 11. while 12. albeit

13. while, whereas 14. irrespective of 15. although, though 16. By contrast

17. while 18. Yet 19. Yet 20. albeit 21. albeit 22. While 23. Yet 24. while25. whereas 26. albeit 27. though, while 28. albeit

196

then... 25. By the same token, Similarly

Therefore and Related Expressions (57, p. 147):1. It follows that ( Imp lica tion ). Als o: Hence; Consequently; That is why 2. therefore

(Logical deduction) 3. It follows that; Hence ( Imp lication) 4. and that is why; which

is why; and hence 5. Hence; Thus 6. thus, hence, conseque ntly 7. therefore (Logical

deduction). Also: thus, consequently 8. it follows that (Implication) 9. It follows that

(Implication). Also: Hence; That is why 10. therefore ( Arbitra ry decision). A lso : con

sequently 11. That is why Also : Thus: Hence; Consequently 12. Consequently 13. It

follows that (Implication)

“In My Opinion...”

(58, p. 150):1. The fact of the matter is that...; There is no escap ing the fact that...; The sad truth

is that...; The simple fact is that... 2. I beg to differ. 3a. Th e conclusion seems

inescapable that...; There is no escaping the fact that... b. My impression is that...;

I suspect that...; My feeling is that... 4. It is my contention that...; It is my convic

tion that... 5. the conclusion seems inescapable that...; the only conclusion that would

suggest itself is that... 6a. I would even go so far as to say that...; b. My feeling is

that...; I suspect that...; Surely 7. The fact of the matter is that... 8. In our spiritual

ly impoverished world the Dalai Lama arguably represents...; My feeling is that...;

It would seem that...; A mom ent’s reflection shows that... 9. A momen t’s reflection

shows that...; The fact of the matter is that... 10. my feeling is that...; the question

would seem to admit of... 11. it is a sad truth that...; it needs to be pointed out

that... 12. A moment’s reflection shows tha t...; It is a sad truth that...; It is no secretthat... 13. Surely...; M ilitary action in that conflict w as arguably a necessary

197

evil... 14. It is my contention that...; It is my firm conviction that...; M y feeling is

that... 15. is arguably doing...; is surely doing... 16.1suspect, however, that...; My

feeling is, however, that... 17. A mo ment’s reflection shows that... 18a. It is com

mon knowledg e that...; b. It would seem that...; The conclusion seems inescapable

that... 19. It is my firm conviction, ho wever, that...


(59, p. 158):

for ma l enou gh to deserve a colo n a fte r “inclu din g”. Comm a poss ibl e aft er “varie

ty”. 13. Comma after “do”. A colon is impossible, because that would separate

a subordinate clause from the main clause. 14. Da she s af ter “relati ons hip s” an d

“relations”(cf. exx la- b) . Comma also possib le after “friends hips”. 15. Colon pos

sible after “are” (cf. ex. 6a). 16. However, her life —divorce, love affairs, and con

flicts with the rest of the royal family —left her far removed from sainthood. (Cf ex .

lb, and 14 above. Commas are not possible, because the apposition itse lf contains

commas, and the result would be confusion .) 17. Unchanged. Cf. 1, 4 and 11

above. 18. Unchanged. A colon after “years” is impossible.



( , p )1. a 2. - 3 . - 4 . The, - 5 . The 6. The 7. - 8. the 9. The 10. a 11. -

12. a 13. The 14. - 15. - , - 16. - 17. The 18. the, a 19. a 20. The, the

21. the 22. —23. -, the 24. the 25. The, the 26. The 27. —, a, —28. a, the,

the 29. - , a 30. - 31. The 32. The33. - 34. a 35. - , - , - , - 36. the 37. The, the

38. - , - 39. The, an 40. The 41. - 42. - 43. the 44. - 45. - 46. -, the 47. the

48. - a 49. The 50. the, the 51. The 52. an, - 53. - , - 54. the (i.e. all the mad signs) 55. the 56. a 57. the 58. the, the 59. -, the 60. - , - 61. The, - 62. the

63. the 64. a 65. -, a 66. a, a 67. The 68. -, the 69. A, -, the 70. The 71. the

72. - , - 73. The 74. -, the 75. The, the, the 76. The, the

Colons

(60, p. 164):1. Unchanged. A colon after “as” is impossible. 2. After “are” a colon is possible

in a form al context. Otherwise unchanged. (A comma is also possible after “Mag-

giore”). 3. In a hig hly for ma l con tex t a colo n is p ossib le after “includes ”, even

though that would separate the verb from the direct object. 4. A c omma is possib le

after “car park s". Otherwise unchanged. (There is no colon after “such as”, fo r that

would separate the subject fro m the ve rb.) 5. Unchanged. No colon after “include”,

because the ensuing list consists only o f 2 items. 6. Unchanged. 7. Unchanged.

No c olo n is necessary aft er “entit led ”. 8. Comma a fter “facto rs”. No colon after

"like”. ( “Like ” is not generally follo we d by a colon.) 9. Two famous m useums, the

Na tional Histo ry and the V& A, are situ ated in Ken sing ton ; but an eve n more re

nowned one, the British Museum located in Bloomsbury, is closer to the centre.

(After “an even more renowned one” a colon is im possible, fo r that would separate

a subject from its verb - cf. exx. 2a-b. Here in sentence 9 commas are preferable to

dashes, while the basic organisation of the sentence is indicated by the semico

lon.) 10. Unchanged. The use o f the colon is inappropriate (cf. exx. 2a-b). 11. Un

changed. The phrase “such as” is seldom follo wed by a colon, and the context is

obviously not formal. 12. Best leave unchanged, since the con text is o bvio usly not

198

The Dash

(61, p. 167):

1. On the north Westminster is bounded by Mayfair, Bloomsbury and Marylebone

—all dis tric ts of Lond on. 2. Unchanged. 3. TV is part of our everyday life —it

follows us wherever we go. 4. Unchanged. 5. One of Europe ’s largest Gothic struc

tures, St Mary’s Church, towers over the city. 6. Unchanged. 7. For sure, not

everybody. 8. Unchange d. 9. Unchanged. 10. Unchanged. 11. The co-authors, dis

tinguished doctors from Britain and America, are specialists in various branches o f

medicine. 12. Unchanged. C olon also possible. 13. ...my brother’s girlfriend, Kate.

(Leaving the sentence unchanged is also pos sible .) 14. England and Wales are di

vided into 53 counties (before 1974 it was 62).

Inverted Commas (62, p. 171):

(Places where changes have been introduced have been underlined.)

1. Unchanged. The irony is arguably effective, which justifies the use o f the inverted

commas. 2. I f the inverted com mas are in ten ded to express repor ted speec h, the n it

is completely unclear whose speech it is. If the context is an interview with down-

and-outs, then the follow ing m odification is possible: Such are the down-and-outs

who are poor “from choice”, as they put it. or simply because they “like it”. 3. The

so to spe ak is clumsy. Best rephrase: Envy has the potential to turn a relationship

into a kind of prison. 4. “Forgetting” is both unusual and effective in its sarcasm;

hence the inverted commas seem justified. 5. Li te ra tur e in this con tex t is bit ter ly

sarcastic, and hence the inverted commas seem justified. 6. Victims here is an obvious metaphor. H ence the inverted commas shou ld be removed. 7. Unchanged. Ob

viously, a word or phrase can be put in inverted commas if you wish to discuss it.

199

8. These are all virtual quotations. Hence the inverted commas are justified. 9. The

bitter sarcasm justifies the inverted commas. (Cf. also 5, above.) 10. Unchanged:

the word western is being discussed. Cf. 7 above. 11. “What the neighbours will

say” is immediately recognisable as a cliche, and hence the inverted commas are

pos sib le, to indicate that the wr iter is distanc ing hims elf from it. B y contrast, the

inverted commas around standards are unjustified, and a reformulation is better:

Adapting your life to so-called standards means living a lie all the time. 12. The

inverted commas have no obvious justification. 13. Unchanged. The phrase natu

ral born conformist is strikingly unusual. 14. Here a word is being used in a h ighl y

i i h h i d j ifi d 15 U h d Th h

work and poverty. 10. People rarely go to a library for a good book; they prefer to

stay at home in front of the TV. (A colon is also possible.) 11. Western borders

were suddenly open, which gave the peoples of the Warsaw Pact countries an op

por tun ity to v isi t fo reign c oun tries; shops w ere fill ed with both imp orted and loc al

pro duc e; the growth o f the free m arket beca me a fac t. 12. L ite rature tra ins the im

agination of the reader; someone who reads a book can im agine things as he wants

to and create the main characters in his own way. 13. Many parents seem to forget

about their essential role; they treat their children as playthings or as a necessary

fulfilment of marriage. 14. People did not abandon their traditions; what is more,

th did th i b t t th 15 Th h h h th l l th id



ironic manner; hence the inverted com mas are justified. 15. Unchanged. The phrase

is a notorious cliche and the inverted commas serve to disassociate the writer.

The Semicolon

(63, p. 174):1. Such students usually do not pay too much attention to learning; they cheat in

order to pass exams; and finally they become frustrated, pessimistic teachers who

are not able to forget their problems as they enter the classroom. 2. In my opinion

there are several kinds of poor people: those who are poor because they do not care

much about material goods; those who are too lazy to work more; and finally those

who are industrious and work from dawn to dusk, but still cannot save enough

money for a higher standard of living. 3. In this essay I am going to give some

examples to support this view, and at the same time answe r two crucial questions:

firstly, whether we have the right to pry into politicians’ private lives; and secondly,

whether those statesmen whose private lives do not conform to the same ethicalstandards as their conduct in public deserve to be condemned. 4. Some labourers

bec ame unempl oyed; some of them, how eve r, succeed ed in mak ing a l iving from

agriculture. 5. There are programmes really worth seeing: films that are works of

art, plays we are not able to see in the theatre but may watch on TV; we can find

truly educational productions that are not likely to have a detrimental effect on the

character of the young. 6. Such a child has everything; (colon also possible ) all his

dreams are fulfilled at once; his life is like a fairy tale without pain, close to moth

er’s apron strings. 7. The results of such a strike can be terrifying: in one country

town, for example, a woman died of influenza because the local doctor refused to

help her, claiming that he was simply overwhelmed with patients; the emergency

services also refused to take care o f her, insisting that it was the family doctor that

should take care of her. 8. We are not all bigots and not all drunks; there is a younggeneration that is not at all influenced by past horrors; and, most importantly, not

everything here is upside down. 9. For some people the countryside is a place of

freedom from cars, buses, and pollution; for others, however, it is a place of hard

200

they did their best to preserve them. 15. The human psyche has three levels: the id,

standing for impulses and urges; the ego, representing one’s personality; and the

superego, dealing with sublimated desires and urges. 16. Good teachers never treat

those entrusted to their care as their inferiors; on the contrary, the relationship is based on th e princi ple of equality. 17. Eac h li tera ry ep och p ossesse s th e rich legacy

of patriotic lyrics whose purpose was to arouse the fighting spirit and win battles;

love lyrics written to express an author’s feelings towards his beloved; religious

poem s expressing an a uth or’s fa ith and devotion to God; pol itic al treatis es voi cin g

the need for change; or philosophic tracts setting forth a writer’s reflections about

different aspects of human life. 18. Today people work very hard to earn money;

(colon also possible) they stay at work late, take additional hours, and spend much

of their free time on activities connected with their jobs.

Index

Adi l 145 173

as in the case o/141f

i h i h 61 141f



accordingly 145, 173

according to 24

active (voice) 34, 135

adverbial 136, 138, 173fafter all 49

agreement 57-60, 90

albeit 137

all 59, 154

also 173

although 129, 136-9

anaphora 133

and 69, 74, 99, 132, 174

antecedent 99f, 121-4

any 68, 152

anybody 109

any more than 69

anyone 109f

appear 78f

apposition 39-47, 73, 83, 98-100, 157,

161f, 165

arguably 149

arise 79

arrive 79

article 20, 39-41, 43-7, 64-8, 96, 152-60

as

=just as 55f, 61f, 84 ,141f

= since 49f, 53, 62, 96f

= though 95 f

as against 141

as a result 145f

as... as.... 61as follows 163

as he puts it 56

as in 141

as is the case with 61, 141f

as often happens 62

as well 70

as well a sl \ as with 141 f

at no time 93

attributive 129f

auxiliary 62

B

be 57-60, 62, 77f, 80, 82, 96, 163

be to 54f

be found 82

be situated 82

because 47-50

being 50-3

belong 27

best 67

both 163, 166

both... and 112f, 116

but 136

by contrast 138, 142, 173

by the same token 143

by way of contrast 142f

Ccan be 60

citizens 37

cleft sentence 89-92

colon 40f, 161-3

come 79comma 40f, 49, 73-7, 89, 98, 137, 162,

172-4

comment clause 55f

203

complement 57-60, 90, 113, 163

completely 11

concord 108—11

consequently 87, 145f, 173

considerably 71

considering 119

constitute 59f

coordinate clause 74, 99

coordination 106-119

countable 152, 155

for 35, 50

for example, fo r instance 162, 167

fo r the simple reason that 49

‘fron ting’ 92—8

furthermore 173

Ggender bias 108-112

generalisation 153

generally speaking 119

iti 105

irony 169f irrespective o f 139

it 33, 61f, 89-92, 123-6

it follows that.... 87, 147

it is a curious fact that.... 86-8

J journa lism 41 , 44, 54, 77

judging by 119

jus t as 61f, 69f, 143

nominalisation 19-22nominal phrase (cf. noun phrase)

none of 68

nonetheless 136f

non-finite verb 32

no one 109f

no sooner than 93

not 48-50, 92f

not at a imnot only... but also.... 93, 112f

not to mention 69



D

dangling participle 118

dash 4 Of, 161f, 1 65-8definite article 40f, 65, 68, 76f, 154-6

depending on 119

despite 139

difficult 34f, 130

direct object, cf. object

Eeasy 34f

either 70

either... or.... 112, 114

ellipsis 165

emerge 30f, 79

emphasis 57, 92-8, 136, 138enter 19 entirely 71

enumeration 162f

epithet 47

especially 70f

everybody, everyone 109f

exclamation 57

exemplification 60, 84, 162

exist 78

F failing that 119

fin d cf. be found

first person, expressions involving

cf. in my opinion

follow 79, 87

genitive 105

gerund 19f, 64f, 115

get 28f

greatly 70grow 28

H

happen 30

hardly 92—4

have 28, 78, 97

having 50—4

hence 146, 173

however 120, 173

I

i.e. 33

if... then.... 143implication 147

important 85

impossible 34

include 163

including 119

in contrast to 142

indeed 173

indefinite article 65, 100, 152, 157

in fact 173

infinitive 19f, 34f, 54

in my opinion 132, 148

in no way 93

in other words 33

interestingly enough 85

inversion 62, 92—8

inverte d commas 168—71

204

L

least of all 70f

“left-handed sentence” 131legal contexts 53, 139

let alone 70f

lie 82

like 141f

little 93

live 78

M

main clause 40, 52f, 61, 96, 99, 127f, 136

main verb 118, 127, 162

making matters worse 85f

many of 67 f

metaphor 170

mid-position 149

modal 62, 78

modifier 25

more importantly 85

moreover 173

more worryingly 85

most 66-8

much as 95f

Nnamely 32—4, 39

negative sentence 47-50, 69-73, 89

neither... nor.... 93,112,114

never 93—5nevertheless 136, 173

nobody 109f

not to mention 69

noun phrase 43, 90, 96, 115, 141, 156

nowhere 93

O

object 20, 126, 134f

obtain 29

obviously 85

occur 30

of 43f, 67f, 154f

one 74, llOf, 117, 152

one of 68

only 92f

on no account 93

on the contrary 142, 173

on the other hand 136f

or 69, 71, 133

otherwise 173

owing to 119

P

para llel express ion 132—4

paren thesis 166

parti ciple 77, 80f, 119, 130, 156, 162

passive 34, 62, 81, 134f, 151

past simple tense (cf. simple past)

perhaps 132

possess 29, 78

possessive a djective 109f, 117, 121

possible 34f

postm odifie r 25f, 67 , 78f, 81, 156f partic ipial postm odifi er 156f

preposi tional postm odifi er 25f, 156

205

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Macpherson - Advanced Written English