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SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE3
The Evidence Hunter activities are designed to give young people the opportunity to explore claims they encounter – online, in the news, in advertising, or among their friends – using evidence to evaluate them.
4 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
• Instructions on how to run the Evidence Hunter activities.
• Discussion points and questions to help participants understand
how, why and when to ask for evidence, and to encourage them
to think critically about claims they see in day-to-day life.
• Five examples of claims from five different sources (an
advertisement, a newspaper headline, a celebrity endorsement,
a scientific study and a scientific review) and a set of evidence
items that may or may not support them. These will form the
basis of the Evidence Hunting activity.
• You will need to provide: a print-out of the resource pack (claims,
sources and items cut out), tokens of two different colours (for
example Post-it notes) and a stack of newspapers or magazines.
Included in this guide
A statement that suggests something is true
The available information indicating
whether or not a claim is true
Definitions
Claim
Evidence
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE5
The Claims
1
2
3
4
5
‘Meet your fitness goals with tea’
‘Jupiters moon Europa almost certain to be home to alien life’
‘Charcoal toothpaste whitens your teeth’
‘Social media users copy friends eating habits’
‘Being kind to others makes you happier’
Source: Bootea tea advertisement
Source: Headline on a newspaper website
Source: Nicole Scherzinger, a celebrity
Source: ScienceDaily, a science news site
Source: University of Oxford
The company uses this claim to sell its product.
The news article is reporting a scientist’s opinion
This is an endorsement based on personal experience.
This claim comes from a single piece of research.
This claim is concluded from several research results.
In the attached resource pack there are five claims from five
different sources. These will be explored during the Evidence
Hunting activities. Here’s a guide to each claim:
6 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
• Claims should be printed and stuck up to create five stations
within the activity area. Do not include the sources at this stage.
• Give participants a set of 10 tokens each – these are their
‘trust tokens’.
• After moving around the room and considering each claim,
participants must allocate their trust tokens to the claims they
think are most likely to be true. For example, out of 10 tokens
they might place 7 under the claim they believe the most and 3
under another claim they think could also be true. They may put
all tokens under one claim, or allocate them evenly across all
five of the claims.
The claim examples in this pack are taken from five sources:
Activity One
AN ADVERTISEMENT
A CELEBRITY
A NEWSPAPER
ONE PIECE OF RESEARCH
INDIVIDUAL
THE SUMMARY OF SEVERAL PIECES OF RESEARCH
1
3
5
2
4
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE7
• Now pin up the source next to each claim. Give each participant
10 more tokens of a different colour. Ask them to think about
how much they trust each source. They will then repeat the first
exercise. Now they know who made the claim, their allocations
may change.
DiscussionLook at the results - why did participants trust one claim
more than another?
For example, you might find that they are more likely to trust
claims that they can relate to or have experienced themselves.
DiscussionIs there a big difference between the results
of the two exercises?
Why do they trust one source more than another?
Did participants think about whether there might be
evidence for the claims?
What do they consider to be ‘evidence’?
8 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
• Divide into groups. Each group is given a set of printed website
excerpts. These are in the style of web browser windows.
• Having just discussed the definition and concept of evidence,
groups will read through these excerpts and identify those that
they think represent the strongest evidence.
• Each excerpt can be one of the following types:
Something that sounds ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence
One person’s experience
One scientific study
Multiple news stories about one scientific study
Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed
TYPE ONE
TYPE TWO
TYPE THREE
TYPE FOUR
TYPE FIVE
Activity Two IN GROUPS
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE9
DiscussionWhy did the groups pick these examples as the
strongest evidence?
Can they describe the different types of evidence
they’re looking at?
What are the limitations of each type of evidence?
The accompanying evidence guide (p10-14) will help you
lead a discussion about this.
Has the evidence changed their minds about which
claims they believe?
No matter the claim or source, we must always
look for the evidence.
10 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
Evidence GuideWHAT DOES ‘GOOD EVIDENCE’ LOOK LIKE?
Use this guide to help lead the group in a discussion about types
of evidence.
Terms like ‘free radicals’ and ‘detox’ can make people say “that sounds
complicated - it must be based on science!”, but this is often not the
case and can mask a lack of real scientific evidence.
Type 1: Something that sounds ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence
Did you know?Researchers carry out experiments, collect and examine
results, and compare these with the results of other
experiments to work out how things work or how well they
work. They will write a paper to describe what they did and
submit it to an academic journal where it can be reviewed and
published, so that other researchers can do the same.
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE11
Journalists often use anecdotes or personal stories to make their
articles seem more relevant to people’s lives. They are usually
presented as case studies of individuals’ experiences, which may
not include any facts or figures.
While research may well confirm the experience, we still have to do
that research. What we observe and experience individually helps us
decide what research to do, but shouldn’t be used in its place.
It’s important to ask questions - while you might hear one person
saying “it worked!”, what about the cases where it didn’t work?
Type 2: One person’s experience
Did you know?Vested interests can distort research in different ways,
from directly biasing an experiment towards a particular
outcome, to subtly influencing which result the research
report emphasises. So it’s important to find out who funded
what you’re looking at and ask whether it might have
had an influence or not. In scientific journals, academics
should always disclose their ‘interests’. Equally, celebrity
endorsements and testimonies should be questioned if it
appears that they are trying to influence the reader to buy a
particular product and ask whether the result aligns with their
interest.
12 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
A well-designed and carefully carried-out experimental study can
provide strong evidence. However, if it stands alone as the basis
for a claim it’s important to ask questions of its quality:
• How large was the study?
• Did they include appropriate controls?
• What was the question that the researchers wanted to answer?
• Was it published in a respected, peer-reviewed journal?
• Who produced the research - was it done independently?
Type 3: One scientific study
Did you know?Peer review is the process by which the scientific community
gives feedback on the quality of new research before it can be
published. It is the academic publishing standard for knowing
whether scientific results are valid, significant and original, and
checks that the researchers’ assertions are supported by the
results of the study.
Many of the claims we see online may not have come from
research published in a peer reviewed journal, so always ask:
has this been peer reviewed? If not, why not?
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE13
Sometimes if a piece of research hits the headlines its results can be
misunderstood by reporters and the actual findings can be overlooked
or exaggerated. On top of this, when the public sees the same
single study reported in several newspapers, its reliability can be
exaggerated - the ‘if everyone is saying it, it must be true’ effect.
If reading about scientific findings in a newspaper or online news site,
it’s important to find and check the original published paper. We should
then ask the same questions we would ask of any scientific study.
Type 4: Multiple news stories about one scientific study
Did you know?The ‘illusory truth effect’ is a psychological phenomenon
whereby the more times we hear something, the more accurate
we think it is. The human brain finds it easier to process phrases
and ideas that are familiar, meaning that we trust claims more
readily if they are repeated over time or across several sources.
Read more: Dechêne et al (2009), The Truth About the Truth: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Truth Effect, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2):238-57.
14 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
The strongest kinds of evidence are systematic reviews and
meta-analyses. These filter and analyse results from only the
highest quality studies in order to scientifically test a claim.
Type 5: Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed
Did you know?Systematic reviews collect and analyse all of the relevant and
available data to assess the strength of the current evidence.
They follow detailed quality control guidelines to weed out
poor quality studies. Similarly, a meta-analysis is a statistical
method which pools together data from different studies on
the same subject to get the most complete possible picture
of the existing evidence.
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE15
• Hand out magazines, newspapers, or browse websites that
give examples of the kind of places we might encounter claims
in day-to-day life.
• Get participants to search through and identify claims where they
might want to ‘Ask for Evidence’.
• Ask them to think about where they might go to find out if there is
evidence behind the claim.
Discussion
Where can we go to search for the evidence behind a claim?
Participants might regularly use Wikipedia - this can be a useful
resource, but it’s important to check that information is cited.
Google is also a useful tool, but ask questions of the results.
Remember to check the source - don’t just trust the headlines.
Find out if claims are correctly reported from a peer-reviewed paper.
Activity Three IN GROUPS
16 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
• This is an optional take-home activity for those participants
who would like to become Evidence Hunters and demonstrate
their new skills.
• Ask participants to spend the next week looking out for
claims for which they would like to ‘Ask for Evidence’
- two or three if possible.
• Get them to research whether there is evidence behind these
claims, and write down whether they think the claims are valid,
based on this evidence. They must be able to present this
reasoning to their activity leader at a following session
to demonstrate their new Evidence Hunter skills.
The Evidence Hunter challenge
INDIVIDUAL
SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE17
Further Information
I don’t know what to believe
I’ve got nothing to lose by trying it
Making sense of statistics
Ask for Evidence: working out what’s reliable evidence
Ask for Evidence: help by subject
www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/i-dont-know-what-to-believe/
www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/ive-got-nothing-to-lose-by-trying-it/
www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/making-sense-of-statistics/
www.askforevidence.org/help/evidence
www.askforevidence.org/help/categories
This booklet explains how scientists present and judge research using the peer review process, and how the public can make sense of science stories.
Every day there are news reports about medical breakthroughs and wonder drugs. This guide explores how the public can ask for evidence to help weigh up claims and make decisions about healthcare.
This guide isn’t a lesson in statistics, but a source of questions you can ask and pitfalls to avoid. Knowing something about statistics can help us test and debunk claims and get closer to working out what the figures might be telling us.
This collection helps answer common questions about evidence and how to identify the most reliable information.
A range of resources, organised by subject, from Sense about Science and other organisations to help make sense of the claims you might encounter online.
18 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK
ClaimA statement that suggests
something is true
EvidenceThe available information indicating whether or not a
claim is true
Soci
al m
edia
use
rs
‘cop
y’ fr
iend
s ea
ting
habi
ts
TH
E C
LAIM
TH
E S
OU
RC
EH
TT
PS
://W
WW
.SC
IEN
CED
AIL
Y.C
OM
/REL
EAS
ES/2
02
0/0
2/2
00
20
7074
715.
HT
M
Jupi
ters
moo
n Eu
ropa
‘alm
ost
cert
ain’
to b
e ho
me
to a
lien
life
TH
E C
LAIM
HT
TP
S:/
/WW
W.D
AIL
YM
AIL
.CO
.UK
/SC
IEN
CET
ECH
/A
RTIC
LE-7
978
94
3/E
XPER
TS
-SAY
S-J
UP
ITER
S-M
OO
N-E
UR
OPA
-H
OM
E-A
LIEN
-LIF
E-O
CTO
PU
S-L
IKE-
CR
EAT
UR
ES.H
TM
L
TH
E S
OU
RC
E
Bein
g ki
nd to
ot
hers
mak
es
you
happ
ier
TH
E C
LAIM
TH
E S
OU
RC
EW
WW
.OX.
AC
.UK
/NEW
S/2
016
-10
-05
-BEI
NG
-KIN
D-O
TH
ERS
-DO
ES-
MA
KE-
YOU
-HA
PP
Y-C
ON
CLU
DES
-LA
RG
E-S
CA
LE-R
EVIE
W-E
VID
ENC
E
Char
coal
to
othp
aste
whi
tens
yo
ur te
eth
TH
E C
LAIM
TH
E S
OU
RC
EW
WW
.IO
L.C
O.Z
A/L
IFES
TY
LE/S
TY
LE-B
EAU
TY
/BEA
UT
Y/T
HE-
SEC
RET
-TO
-P
ERFE
CT-
PEA
RLY
-WH
ITES
-IS
-TO
-MA
KE-
TH
EM-B
LAC
K-F
IRST
-717
133
6
Nico
le
Sche
rzin
ger
(sin
ger a
nd
TV c
eleb
rity)
Mee
t you
r fitn
ess
goal
s wi
th te
a
TH
E C
LAIM
TH
E S
OU
RC
EH
TT
PS
://W
WW
.BO
OT
EA.C
OM
/PA
GES
/AB
OU
T-B
OO
TEA
-1
Resource Pack References
https://metro.co.uk/2015/10/30/black-toothpaste-cleans-your-teeth-using-charcoal-5468881/
www.howtobehappy.guru/kindness-makes-you-happier-and-here-is-why/
https://www.bootea.com/pages/about-bootea-1 https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7978943/Experts-says-Jupiters-moon-Europa-home-alien-life-octopus-like-creatures.html
www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/nice-one-being-kind-makes-you-happier-healthier-and-more-attractive-20141112-11ky2n.html
www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/style-beauty/beauty/the-secret-to-perfect-pearly-whites-is-to-make-them-black-first-7171336
https://www.eonline.com/news/582339/exclusive-kendall-jenner-shares-her-fashion-week-diet-beauty-secrets
https://twitter.com/JamilletteG/status/994662299829850112
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31958481
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3263/9/1/9
www.nature.com/articles/ncomms15964
1
5
9
10
11
2
6
3
7
4
8
Type 1: Something that sounds ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence
Type 2: One person’s experience
Type 3: One scientific study
www.ox.ac.uk/news/2016-10-05-being-kind-others-does-make-you-happy-concludes-large-scale-review-evidence
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19597519
15
16
17
18
13
14
Type 4: Multiple news storiesabout one scientific study
Type 5: Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed
https://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest-news/jupiter-moon-europa-almost-certainly-21453593
https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/alien-life-mars-jupiters-moon-europa-certainty-claims-space-scientist-1675411
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7978943/Experts-says-Jupiters-moon-Europa-home-alien-life-octopus-like-creatures.html
Alien headlines
Social media influencing eating habits headlines
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-7751201/Social-media-fuelling-eating-disorders-kids-young-12.html
https://metro.co.uk/2019/12/04/social-media-is-causing-eating-disorders-in-young-boys-and-girls-study-claims-11265727/
https://uk.style.yahoo.com/social-media-may-be-fuelling-eating-disorders-in-children-as-young-as-12-000104378.html
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/01/200109105508.htm
https://newsroom.wiley.com/press-release/international-journal-eating-disorders/social-media-use-and-disordered-eating-young-ad
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/884/1/012002/meta
12
The
new
Cur
apro
x fo
rmul
a is
mad
e w
ith a
bas
e in
gred
ient
of
act
ivat
ed c
arbo
n (c
harc
oal)
whi
ch is
sai
d to
abs
orb
and
rem
ove
stai
ns w
ithou
t wea
ring
away
toot
h en
amel
.
Appa
rent
ly th
is is
bet
ter t
han
typi
cal w
hite
ning
toot
hpas
tes,
w
hose
abr
asiv
e pa
rtic
les
and
blea
chin
g ag
ents
ero
de th
e en
amel
.
As e
xtra
reas
sura
nce,
a b
lue
optic
al fi
lter i
n th
e Bl
ack
is W
hite
(m
int w
ith c
itrus
) and
Whi
te is
Bla
ck (m
ild m
int)
toot
hpas
te
redu
ces
yello
w d
isco
lour
atio
n.
Its e
nzym
es, m
eanw
hile
, are
sai
d to
‘enh
ance
ant
ibac
teria
l an
d an
tivira
l fun
ctio
n’ to
pre
vent
toot
h de
cay.
And
the
calc
ium
in it
‘eff
ectiv
ely
fi lls
exp
osed
hol
es in
the
toot
h’s s
urfa
ce’ t
o re
duce
sen
sitiv
ity a
nd b
uild
up
enam
el a
nd
shin
e.
But i
t’s b
lack
!!?
Blac
k to
othp
aste
cle
ans
your
teet
h us
ing
char
coal
FOCU
SING
ON
THE
BRAI
N
With
in th
e co
nfi n
es o
f the
bra
in, y
ou’ll
fi nd
that
che
mic
al
rele
ases
are
foun
d. C
hem
ical
rele
ases
suc
h as
ser
oton
in c
an
prom
ote
moo
d el
evat
ion.
Wel
l, w
hen
som
eone
giv
es, o
ut o
f the
goo
dnes
s of
thei
r he
art,
som
ethi
ng a
s si
mpl
e as
a h
elpi
ng h
and
the
brai
n re
acts
in a
pos
itive
man
ner.
Dopa
min
e ru
shes
thro
ugh
the
body
, and
the
brai
n si
gnal
s a
cert
ain
type
of “
high
” or e
latio
n as
a re
sult.
Kind
ness
mak
es y
ou h
appi
er
and
here
is w
hy
21
The
new
Cur
apro
x fo
rmul
a is
mad
e w
ith a
bas
e in
gred
ient
of
act
ivat
ed c
arbo
n (c
harc
oal)
whi
ch is
sai
d to
abs
orb
and
rem
ove
stai
ns w
ithou
t wea
ring
away
toot
h en
amel
.
Appa
rent
ly th
is is
bet
ter t
han
typi
cal w
hite
ning
toot
hpas
tes,
w
hose
abr
asiv
e pa
rtic
les
and
blea
chin
g ag
ents
ero
de th
e en
amel
.
As e
xtra
reas
sura
nce,
a b
lue
optic
al fi
lter i
n th
e Bl
ack
is W
hite
(m
int w
ith c
itrus
) and
Whi
te is
Bla
ck (m
ild m
int)
toot
hpas
te
redu
ces
yello
w d
isco
lour
atio
n.
Its e
nzym
es, m
eanw
hile
, are
sai
d to
‘enh
ance
ant
ibac
teria
l an
d an
tivira
l fun
ctio
n’ to
pre
vent
toot
h de
cay.
And
the
calc
ium
in it
‘eff
ectiv
ely
fi lls
exp
osed
hol
es in
the
toot
h’s s
urfa
ce’ t
o re
duce
sen
sitiv
ity a
nd b
uild
up
enam
el a
nd
shin
e.
But i
t’s b
lack
!!?
Blac
k to
othp
aste
cle
ans
your
teet
h us
ing
char
coal
FOCU
SING
ON
THE
BRAI
N
With
in th
e co
nfi n
es o
f the
bra
in, y
ou’ll
fi nd
that
che
mic
al
rele
ases
are
foun
d. C
hem
ical
rele
ases
suc
h as
ser
oton
in c
an
prom
ote
moo
d el
evat
ion.
Wel
l, w
hen
som
eone
giv
es, o
ut o
f the
goo
dnes
s of
thei
r he
art,
som
ethi
ng a
s si
mpl
e as
a h
elpi
ng h
and
the
brai
n re
acts
in a
pos
itive
man
ner.
Dopa
min
e ru
shes
thro
ugh
the
body
, and
the
brai
n si
gnal
s a
cert
ain
type
of “
high
” or e
latio
n as
a re
sult.
Kind
ness
mak
es y
ou h
appi
er
and
here
is w
hy
21
Briti
sh s
cien
tist s
ays
it is
‘alm
ost a
raci
ng c
erta
in’ t
hat t
he
icy
seas
on
Jupi
ter’s
moo
n Eu
ropa
ae
hom
e to
alie
n lif
e th
at
are
‘oct
opus
-like
cre
atur
es’
At B
oote
a, w
e ar
e pa
ssio
nate
abo
ut p
rom
otin
g ac
tive,
hea
lthy
and
bala
nced
life
styl
es. W
ith a
rang
e of
pro
duct
s de
sign
ed
to s
uppo
rt th
e he
alth
and
wel
lbei
ng o
f our
cus
tom
ers,
we’
ve
help
ed m
illio
ns o
f cus
tom
ers
reac
h th
eir g
oals
and
look
as
good
as
they
feel
.
WHA
T W
E ST
AND
FOR
We
belie
ve th
at b
eing
hea
lthy
and
fi t is
n’t a
tren
d or
a fa
d - i
t’s a
life
styl
e. B
ut tr
ying
to m
aint
ain
a he
alth
y lif
esty
le
whi
le b
alan
cing
wor
k, s
tudi
es, y
our s
ocia
l cal
enda
r, fa
mily
co
mm
itmen
ts a
nd a
ll-im
port
ant ‘
me-
time’
? W
e kn
ow, t
he
stru
ggle
is re
al.
HOW
DO
ES B
OO
TEA
WO
RK?
At B
oote
a, w
e cr
eate
pro
duct
s th
at fi
t per
fect
ly in
to b
usy
lifes
tyle
s, h
elpi
ng o
ur c
usto
mer
s to
mai
ntai
n th
eir h
ealth
and
w
ellb
eing
ove
r the
long
-term
. Fro
m o
ur b
est-s
ellin
g Te
atox
es
to w
orko
ut g
uide
s an
d fl e
xibl
e ea
ting
plan
s, w
e’ve
got
ev
eryt
hing
you
nee
d to
hel
p sm
ash
thos
e fi t
ness
goa
ls a
nd
achi
eve
the
resu
lts y
ou w
ant.
3
Just
nat
ural
, her
bal i
ngre
dien
ts th
at d
eliv
er re
sults
.
Mon
ica
Gra
dy, t
he C
hanc
ello
r at L
iver
pool
Hop
e Un
iver
sity
, su
gges
ts th
e ic
y se
as b
enea
th E
uorp
a’s s
urfa
ce is
a p
rime
loca
tion
to fi
nd b
eing
s w
ith s
imila
r int
ellig
ence
to th
e m
arin
e an
imal
.
‘Whe
n it
com
es to
the
pros
pect
s of
life
bey
ond
Eart
h, it
’s al
mos
t a ra
cing
cer
tain
ty th
at th
ere’s
life
ben
eath
the
ice
on
Euro
pa,’ s
he s
aid.
Whi
le th
e oc
eans
are
ben
eath
Eur
opa’s
sur
face
, the
ext
erio
r is
bas
ical
ly m
ade
up o
f fro
zen
seaw
ater
.
This
mea
ns th
at b
elow
its
icy
exte
rior,
ther
e’s li
kely
to b
e a
vast
sal
ty s
ea c
onta
inin
g la
rge
amou
nts
of s
odiu
m c
hlor
ide.
Prof
esso
r Gra
dy s
ays
that
by
look
ing
at th
e bi
gger
, int
er-
plan
etar
y pi
ctur
e, E
arth
’s ow
n ec
olog
ical
situ
atio
n is
bro
ught
in
to s
harp
focu
s.
She
says
: ‘W
e co
uld
be a
ll th
ere
is in
the
gala
xy. A
nd if
ther
e’s
only
us,
then
we
have
a d
uty
to p
rote
ct th
e pl
anet
.’
4
In th
e la
st w
eek
Donn
a Fa
irall
has
left
a c
offe
e vo
uche
r on
a st
rang
er’s
car,
orde
red
a Ch
ristm
as h
ampe
r for
a n
eedy
fa
mily
and
off
ered
to b
abys
it fo
r frie
nds
with
a n
ewbo
rn b
aby.
Donn
a sa
ys s
he e
njoy
s be
ing
kind
to o
ther
peo
ple,
frie
nds
and
stra
nger
s w
hene
ver s
he c
an. “
It m
akes
me
feel
val
ued
as a
per
son,
hum
bled
, may
be a
littl
e le
ss s
elfis
h” s
ays
the
crea
tive
arts
dire
ctor
from
Cof
fs H
arbo
ur.
Nice
one
: bei
ng k
ind
mak
es y
ou h
appi
er,
hea
lthie
r and
mor
e at
tract
ive
5
NICO
LE S
CHER
ZING
ER S
HARE
S HE
R SE
CRET
BEH
IND
HER
PERF
ECTL
Y W
HITE
SM
ILE.
The
X Fa
ctor
judg
e sa
id s
he b
rush
es h
er te
eth
with
a
pow
dere
d fo
rm o
f the
sub
stan
ce, w
hich
is s
aid
to re
mov
e to
xins
and
sta
ins
and
kill
bact
eria
.
Reve
alin
g he
r unu
sual
bea
uty
regi
me,
the
38 y
ear o
ld s
inge
r to
ld th
e M
ail:
‘I’d m
uch
rath
er b
rush
my
teet
h w
ith c
oal.
Mak
es
your
teet
h w
hite
r.’
Alth
ough
she
refe
rs to
the
whi
tene
r as
coal
the
ingr
edie
nt u
sed
in a
var
iety
of p
rodu
cts
on th
e m
arke
t is
activ
ated
cha
rcoa
l.
The
secr
et to
per
fect
pea
rly w
hite
s
is to
mak
e th
em b
lack
firs
t
6
So h
ow d
oes
the
18-y
ear-o
ld p
rep
for t
he ru
nway
? Th
at’s
easy
: Tea
gal
ore!
“I u
sual
ly s
tart
my
day
off w
ith a
cup
of
deto
x te
a,” J
enne
r rev
eale
d to
E! N
ews.
“I h
ave
like
12 c
ups
a da
y.”
Kend
all J
enne
r Sha
res
Her
Fash
ion
Wee
k Di
et &
Bea
uty
Secr
ets
7
Afte
r thi
s cr
azy
wee
kend
, I’m
so
stoc
ked
to s
tart
my
28 d
ay te
atox
@
skin
nym
intc
om e
ven
Frid
a is
goi
ng to
wor
k on
her
bod
y th
is w
eek
lol
“LO
VEM
OM
” for
20%
off
sto
rew
ide,
val
id ti
ll 13
th M
ay o
nly!
#Ski
nnyM
int #
Teat
ox #
Ultim
ateT
eato
x
Jam
illet
teG
8
ABST
RACT
This
stu
dy e
xam
ined
whe
ther
four
per
ceiv
ed n
orm
s ab
out F
aceb
ook
user
s’ e
atin
g ha
bits
and
pre
fere
nces
pre
dict
ed p
artic
ipan
ts’ o
wn
food
con
sum
ptio
n an
d BM
I.
In a
cro
ss-s
ectio
nal s
urve
y, m
en a
nd w
omen
uni
vers
ity s
tude
nts
wer
e as
ked
to re
port
thei
r per
cept
ions
of F
aceb
ook
user
s’
cons
umpt
ion
of, a
nd p
refe
renc
es fo
r, fr
uit,
vege
tabl
es, e
nerg
y-de
nse
snac
ks a
nd s
ugar
sw
eete
ned
beve
rage
s (S
SB),
thei
r ow
n co
nsum
ptio
n of
and
pre
fere
nces
for t
hese
food
s, a
nd th
eir B
MI.
Mul
tiple
line
ar re
gres
sion
reve
aled
that
per
ceiv
ed d
escr
iptiv
e no
rms
and
perc
eive
d fr
eque
ncy
norm
s ab
out F
aceb
ook
user
s’ fr
uit a
nd
vege
tabl
e co
nsum
ptio
n w
ere
sign
ifi ca
nt p
ositi
ve p
redi
ctor
s of
pa
rtic
ipan
ts’ o
wn
frui
t and
veg
etab
le c
onsu
mpt
ion.
Conv
erse
ly, p
erce
ived
inju
nctiv
e no
rms
abou
t Fac
eboo
k us
ers’
en
ergy
-den
se s
nack
and
SSB
con
sum
ptio
n w
ere
sign
ifi ca
nt p
ositi
ve
pred
icto
rs o
f par
ticip
ants
’ ow
n sn
ack
and
SSB
cons
umpt
ion.
How
ever
, per
ceiv
ed n
orm
s di
d no
t sig
nifi c
antly
pre
dict
BM
I. Th
ese
fi ndi
ngs
sugg
est t
hat p
erce
ived
nor
ms
conc
erni
ng a
ctua
l co
nsum
ptio
n an
d no
rms
rela
ted
to a
ppro
val m
ay g
uide
con
sum
ptio
n of
low
and
hig
h en
ergy
-den
se fo
ods
and
beve
rage
s di
ffer
ently
.
Soci
al m
edia
infl u
ence
s ea
ting
habi
ts
9
We
brie
fl y p
rese
nt p
relim
inar
y res
ults
of o
ur s
tudy
of t
he ra
dior
esis
tant
ba
cter
ia in
a lo
w te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd p
ress
ure
and
high
-radi
atio
n en
viro
nmen
t an
d hy
poth
esiz
e th
e ab
ility o
f mic
roor
gani
sms
to s
urvi
ve e
xtra
terre
stria
l hig
h-ra
diat
ion
envi
ronm
ents
, suc
h as
the
icy s
urfa
ce o
f Jup
iter’s
moo
n, E
urop
a.
AIM
In th
is s
tudy
, sam
ples
con
tain
ing
a st
rain
of D
eino
cocc
us ra
diod
uran
s VK
M
B-14
22T
embe
dded
into
a s
imul
ated
ver
sion
of E
urop
a’s ic
e w
ere
put u
nder
ex
trem
e en
viro
nmen
tal a
nd ra
diat
ion
cond
ition
s us
ing
a sp
ecia
lly d
esig
ned
expe
rimen
tal v
acuu
m c
ham
ber.
MET
HOD
The
sam
ples
wer
e irr
adia
ted
with
5, 1
0, 5
0, a
nd 1
00 k
Gy d
oses
and
su
bseq
uent
ly st
udie
d fo
r res
idua
l via
ble
cells
. We
estim
ate
the
limit
of th
e ac
cum
ulat
ed d
ose
that
via
ble
cells
in th
ose
cond
ition
s co
uld
with
stan
d at
50
kGy.
CONC
LUSI
ON
Com
bini
ng o
ur n
umer
ical
mod
ellin
g of
the
accu
mul
ated
dos
e in
ice
with
ob
serv
atio
ns o
f wat
er e
rupt
ion
even
ts o
n Eu
ropa
, we
hypo
thes
ize
that
in th
e ca
se o
f suc
h ev
ents
, it is
pos
sibl
e th
at p
utat
ive e
xtra
terre
stria
l org
anis
ms
mig
ht re
tain
via
bilit
y in
a do
rman
t sta
te fo
r up
to 1
0,00
0 ye
ars,
and
coul
d be
sa
mpl
ed a
nd s
tudi
ed b
y fut
ure
prob
e m
issi
ons.
Surv
ival
of R
adio
resis
tant
Bac
teria
on
Euro
pa’s
Surf
ace
afte
r Pul
se E
ject
ion
of S
ubsu
rfac
e O
cean
Wat
er
10
ABST
RACT
This
stu
dy e
xam
ined
whe
ther
four
per
ceiv
ed n
orm
s ab
out F
aceb
ook
user
s’ e
atin
g ha
bits
and
pre
fere
nces
pre
dict
ed p
artic
ipan
ts’ o
wn
food
con
sum
ptio
n an
d BM
I.
In a
cro
ss-s
ectio
nal s
urve
y, m
en a
nd w
omen
uni
vers
ity s
tude
nts
wer
e as
ked
to re
port
thei
r per
cept
ions
of F
aceb
ook
user
s’
cons
umpt
ion
of, a
nd p
refe
renc
es fo
r, fr
uit,
vege
tabl
es, e
nerg
y-de
nse
snac
ks a
nd s
ugar
sw
eete
ned
beve
rage
s (S
SB),
thei
r ow
n co
nsum
ptio
n of
and
pre
fere
nces
for t
hese
food
s, a
nd th
eir B
MI.
Mul
tiple
line
ar re
gres
sion
reve
aled
that
per
ceiv
ed d
escr
iptiv
e no
rms
and
perc
eive
d fr
eque
ncy
norm
s ab
out F
aceb
ook
user
s’ fr
uit a
nd
vege
tabl
e co
nsum
ptio
n w
ere
sign
ifi ca
nt p
ositi
ve p
redi
ctor
s of
pa
rtic
ipan
ts’ o
wn
frui
t and
veg
etab
le c
onsu
mpt
ion.
Conv
erse
ly, p
erce
ived
inju
nctiv
e no
rms
abou
t Fac
eboo
k us
ers’
en
ergy
-den
se s
nack
and
SSB
con
sum
ptio
n w
ere
sign
ifi ca
nt p
ositi
ve
pred
icto
rs o
f par
ticip
ants
’ ow
n sn
ack
and
SSB
cons
umpt
ion.
How
ever
, per
ceiv
ed n
orm
s di
d no
t sig
nifi c
antly
pre
dict
BM
I. Th
ese
fi ndi
ngs
sugg
est t
hat p
erce
ived
nor
ms
conc
erni
ng a
ctua
l co
nsum
ptio
n an
d no
rms
rela
ted
to a
ppro
val m
ay g
uide
con
sum
ptio
n of
low
and
hig
h en
ergy
-den
se fo
ods
and
beve
rage
s di
ffer
ently
.
Soci
al m
edia
infl u
ence
s ea
ting
habi
ts
9
We
brie
fl y p
rese
nt p
relim
inar
y res
ults
of o
ur s
tudy
of t
he ra
dior
esis
tant
ba
cter
ia in
a lo
w te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd p
ress
ure
and
high
-radi
atio
n en
viro
nmen
t an
d hy
poth
esiz
e th
e ab
ility o
f mic
roor
gani
sms
to s
urvi
ve e
xtra
terre
stria
l hig
h-ra
diat
ion
envi
ronm
ents
, suc
h as
the
icy s
urfa
ce o
f Jup
iter’s
moo
n, E
urop
a.
AIM
In th
is s
tudy
, sam
ples
con
tain
ing
a st
rain
of D
eino
cocc
us ra
diod
uran
s VK
M
B-14
22T
embe
dded
into
a s
imul
ated
ver
sion
of E
urop
a’s ic
e w
ere
put u
nder
ex
trem
e en
viro
nmen
tal a
nd ra
diat
ion
cond
ition
s us
ing
a sp
ecia
lly d
esig
ned
expe
rimen
tal v
acuu
m c
ham
ber.
MET
HOD
The
sam
ples
wer
e irr
adia
ted
with
5, 1
0, 5
0, a
nd 1
00 k
Gy d
oses
and
su
bseq
uent
ly st
udie
d fo
r res
idua
l via
ble
cells
. We
estim
ate
the
limit
of th
e ac
cum
ulat
ed d
ose
that
via
ble
cells
in th
ose
cond
ition
s co
uld
with
stan
d at
50
kGy.
CONC
LUSI
ON
Com
bini
ng o
ur n
umer
ical
mod
ellin
g of
the
accu
mul
ated
dos
e in
ice
with
ob
serv
atio
ns o
f wat
er e
rupt
ion
even
ts o
n Eu
ropa
, we
hypo
thes
ize
that
in th
e ca
se o
f suc
h ev
ents
, it is
pos
sibl
e th
at p
utat
ive e
xtra
terre
stria
l org
anis
ms
mig
ht re
tain
via
bilit
y in
a do
rman
t sta
te fo
r up
to 1
0,00
0 ye
ars,
and
coul
d be
sa
mpl
ed a
nd s
tudi
ed b
y fut
ure
prob
e m
issi
ons.
Surv
ival
of R
adio
resis
tant
Bac
teria
on
Euro
pa’s
Surf
ace
afte
r Pul
se E
ject
ion
of S
ubsu
rfac
e O
cean
Wat
er
10
ABST
RACT
Gen
erou
s be
havi
our i
s kn
own
to in
crea
se h
appi
ness
, whi
ch
coul
d th
ereb
y m
otiv
ate
gene
rosi
ty. I
n th
is s
tudy
, we
use
func
tiona
l mag
netic
reso
nanc
e im
agin
g an
d a
publ
ic p
ledg
e fo
r fut
ure
gene
rosi
ty to
inve
stig
ate
the
brai
n m
echa
nism
s th
at li
nk g
ener
ous
beha
viou
r with
incr
ease
s in
hap
pine
ss.
Part
icip
ants
pro
mis
ed to
spe
nd m
oney
ove
r the
nex
t 4 w
eeks
ei
ther
on
othe
rs (e
xper
imen
tal g
roup
) or o
n th
emse
lves
(c
ontro
l gro
up).
Her
e, w
e re
port
that
, com
pare
d to
con
trols
, par
ticip
ants
in
the
expe
rimen
tal g
roup
mak
e m
ore
gene
rous
cho
ices
in
an
inde
pend
ent d
ecis
ion-
mak
ing
task
and
sho
w
stro
nger
incr
ease
s in
sel
f-rep
orte
d ha
ppin
ess.
Gen
erou
s de
cisi
ons
enga
ge th
e te
mpo
ro-p
arie
tal j
unct
ion
(TPJ
) in
the
expe
rimen
tal m
ore
than
in th
e co
ntro
l gro
up a
nd d
iffer
entia
lly
mod
ulat
e th
e co
nnec
tivity
bet
wee
n TP
J an
d ve
ntra
l str
iatu
m.
Impo
rtan
tly, s
tria
tal a
ctiv
ity d
urin
g ge
nero
us d
ecis
ions
is
dire
ctly
rela
ted
to c
hang
es in
hap
pine
ss.
Thes
e re
sults
dem
onst
rate
that
top–
dow
n co
ntro
l of s
tria
tal
activ
ity p
lays
a fu
ndam
enta
l rol
e in
link
ing
com
mitm
ent-
indu
ced
gene
rosi
ty w
ith h
appi
ness
.
A ne
ural
link
bet
ween
gen
eros
ity a
nd h
appi
ness
11
HYPO
THES
IS
Hab
itual
tea
cons
umpt
ion
is a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith m
ore
heal
thy
year
s of
life
and
long
er li
fe e
xpec
tanc
y.
MET
HOD
The
anal
ysis
incl
uded
100
,902
par
ticip
ants
of t
he C
hina
-PAR
pr
ojec
t with
no
hist
ory
of h
eart
atta
ck, s
troke
, or c
ance
r. Pa
rtic
ipan
ts w
ere
clas
sifi e
d in
to tw
o gr
oups
: hab
itual
tea
drin
kers
(thr
ee o
r mor
e tim
es a
wee
k) a
nd n
ever
or n
on-
habi
tual
tea
drin
kers
(les
s th
an th
ree
times
a w
eek)
and
fo
llow
ed-u
p fo
r a m
edia
n of
7.3
yea
rs.
RESU
LTS
Hab
itual
tea
drin
kers
who
mai
ntai
ned
thei
r hab
it in
bot
h su
rvey
s ha
d a
39%
low
er ri
sk o
f inc
iden
t hea
rt d
isea
se a
nd
stro
ke, 5
6% lo
wer
risk
of f
atal
hea
rt d
isea
se a
nd s
troke
, an
d 29
% d
ecre
ased
risk
of a
ll-ca
use
deat
h co
mpa
red
to
cons
iste
nt n
ever
or n
on-h
abitu
al te
a dr
inke
rs.
In a
sub
anal
ysis
by
type
of t
ea, d
rinki
ng g
reen
tea
was
link
ed
with
app
roxi
mat
ely
25%
low
er ri
sks
for i
ncid
ent h
eart
dis
ease
an
d st
roke
, fat
al h
eart
dis
ease
and
stro
ke, a
nd a
ll-ca
use
deat
h. H
owev
er, n
o si
gnifi
cant
ass
ocia
tions
wer
e ob
serv
ed
for b
lack
tea.
Tea
drin
kers
live
long
er
12
New
rese
arch
sug
gest
s th
at s
ocia
l med
ia, p
artic
ular
ly
plat
form
s w
ith a
stro
ng fo
cus
on im
age
post
ing
and
view
ing,
is a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith d
isor
dere
d ea
ting
in y
oung
ad
oles
cent
s.
In th
e st
udy,
whi
ch is
pub
lishe
d in
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Jo
urna
l of E
atin
g Di
sord
ers,
rese
arch
ers
exam
ined
dat
a on
996
gra
de 7
and
8 a
dole
scen
ts. B
ehav
iors
rela
ted
to
diso
rder
ed e
atin
g w
ere
repo
rted
by
51.7
% o
f girl
s an
d 45
.0%
of b
oys,
with
str
ict e
xerc
ise
and
mea
l ski
ppin
g be
ing
the
mos
t com
mon
.
A to
tal o
f 75.
4% o
f girl
s an
d 69
.9%
of b
oys
had
at le
ast
one
soci
al m
edia
acc
ount
, and
Inst
agra
m w
as th
e m
ost
com
mon
.
A gr
eate
r num
ber o
f soc
ial m
edia
acc
ount
s, a
nd g
reat
er
daily
tim
e sp
ent u
sing
them
, wer
e as
soci
ated
with
a
high
er li
kelih
ood
of d
isor
dere
d ea
ting
thou
ghts
and
be
havi
ors.
Soci
al M
edia
Use
and
Diso
rder
ed
Eatin
g in
You
ng A
dole
scen
ts
13
ABST
RACT
The
aim
of t
his
stud
y was
to d
eter
min
e th
e su
rface
roug
hnes
s ch
ange
s of
toot
h en
amel
afte
r bru
shin
g w
ith c
harc
oal t
ooth
past
e.
Thirt
y spe
cim
ens
wer
e br
ushe
d us
ing
dist
illed
wat
er (t
he fi
rst
grou
p), S
trong
® F
orm
ula
toot
hpas
te (t
he s
econ
d gr
oup)
, and
Ch
arco
al®
For
mul
a to
othp
aste
for f
our m
inut
es a
nd 4
0 se
cond
s (e
quiva
lent
to o
ne m
onth
) and
for 1
4 m
inut
es (e
quiva
lent
to th
ree
mon
ths)
usi
ng a
sof
t fl e
ece
toot
hbru
sh w
ith a
mas
s of
150
gr.
The
roug
hnes
s w
as m
easu
red
usin
g a
surfa
ce ro
ughn
ess
test
er,
and
the
resu
lts w
ere
test
ed w
ith re
peat
ed A
NOV
A te
st a
nd o
ne-
way
AN
OVA.
The
valu
e of
the
surfa
ce ro
ughn
ess
of to
oth
enam
el w
as
sign
ifi ca
ntly
diffe
rent
(p<0
.05)
afte
r bru
shin
g fo
r an
equi
vale
nt o
f on
e m
onth
and
an
equi
vale
nt o
f thr
ee m
onth
s.
Usin
g to
othp
aste
con
tain
ing
char
coal
can
incr
ease
the
surfa
ce
roug
hnes
s of
toot
h en
amel
(whi
ch c
an b
e ba
d fo
r tee
th!).
Surf
ace
chan
ges
of e
nam
el a
fter b
rush
ing
with
cha
rcoa
l too
thpa
ste
14
New
rese
arch
sug
gest
s th
at s
ocia
l med
ia, p
artic
ular
ly
plat
form
s w
ith a
stro
ng fo
cus
on im
age
post
ing
and
view
ing,
is a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith d
isor
dere
d ea
ting
in y
oung
ad
oles
cent
s.
In th
e st
udy,
whi
ch is
pub
lishe
d in
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Jo
urna
l of E
atin
g Di
sord
ers,
rese
arch
ers
exam
ined
dat
a on
996
gra
de 7
and
8 a
dole
scen
ts. B
ehav
iors
rela
ted
to
diso
rder
ed e
atin
g w
ere
repo
rted
by
51.7
% o
f girl
s an
d 45
.0%
of b
oys,
with
str
ict e
xerc
ise
and
mea
l ski
ppin
g be
ing
the
mos
t com
mon
.
A to
tal o
f 75.
4% o
f girl
s an
d 69
.9%
of b
oys
had
at le
ast
one
soci
al m
edia
acc
ount
, and
Inst
agra
m w
as th
e m
ost
com
mon
.
A gr
eate
r num
ber o
f soc
ial m
edia
acc
ount
s, a
nd g
reat
er
daily
tim
e sp
ent u
sing
them
, wer
e as
soci
ated
with
a
high
er li
kelih
ood
of d
isor
dere
d ea
ting
thou
ghts
and
be
havi
ors.
Soci
al M
edia
Use
and
Diso
rder
ed
Eatin
g in
You
ng A
dole
scen
ts
13
ABST
RACT
The
aim
of t
his
stud
y was
to d
eter
min
e th
e su
rface
roug
hnes
s ch
ange
s of
toot
h en
amel
afte
r bru
shin
g w
ith c
harc
oal t
ooth
past
e.
Thirt
y spe
cim
ens
wer
e br
ushe
d us
ing
dist
illed
wat
er (t
he fi
rst
grou
p), S
trong
® F
orm
ula
toot
hpas
te (t
he s
econ
d gr
oup)
, and
Ch
arco
al®
For
mul
a to
othp
aste
for f
our m
inut
es a
nd 4
0 se
cond
s (e
quiva
lent
to o
ne m
onth
) and
for 1
4 m
inut
es (e
quiva
lent
to th
ree
mon
ths)
usi
ng a
sof
t fl e
ece
toot
hbru
sh w
ith a
mas
s of
150
gr.
The
roug
hnes
s w
as m
easu
red
usin
g a
surfa
ce ro
ughn
ess
test
er,
and
the
resu
lts w
ere
test
ed w
ith re
peat
ed A
NOV
A te
st a
nd o
ne-
way
AN
OVA.
The
valu
e of
the
surfa
ce ro
ughn
ess
of to
oth
enam
el w
as
sign
ifi ca
ntly
diffe
rent
(p<0
.05)
afte
r bru
shin
g fo
r an
equi
vale
nt o
f on
e m
onth
and
an
equi
vale
nt o
f thr
ee m
onth
s.
Usin
g to
othp
aste
con
tain
ing
char
coal
can
incr
ease
the
surfa
ce
roug
hnes
s of
toot
h en
amel
(whi
ch c
an b
e ba
d fo
r tee
th!).
Surf
ace
chan
ges
of e
nam
el a
fter b
rush
ing
with
cha
rcoa
l too
thpa
ste
14
JUPI
TER
MO
ON
EURO
PA ‘A
LMO
ST C
ERTA
INLY
’ HO
ME
TO ‘O
CTO
PUS-
LIKE
ALI
ENS’
SOCI
AL M
EDIA
IS F
UELL
ING
EAT
ING
DIS
ORD
ERS
AMO
NG C
HILD
REN
AS Y
OUN
G A
S 12
ALIE
N LI
FE O
N M
ARS
AND
JUPI
TER’
S M
OO
N EU
ROPA
A CE
RTAI
NTY,
CLAI
MS
SPAC
E SC
IENT
IST
JUPI
TER’
S M
OO
N EU
ROPA
‘ALM
OST
CER
TAIN
’ TO
BE
HOM
E TO
ALI
EN L
IFE
SOCI
AL M
EDIA
IS C
AUSI
NG E
ATIN
G D
ISO
RDER
S IN
YO
UNG
BO
YS A
ND G
IRLS
, STU
DY C
LAIM
S
SOCI
AL M
EDIA
MAY
BE
FUEL
LING
EAT
ING
DIS
ORD
ERS
IN
CHIL
DREN
AS
YOUN
G A
S 12
1516
Rese
arch
ers
conc
lude
that
bei
ng k
ind
to o
ther
s ca
uses
a
smal
l but
sig
nifi c
ant i
mpr
ovem
ent i
n su
bjec
tive
wel
l-bei
ng.
The
revi
ew fo
und
that
the
effe
ct is
low
er th
an s
ome
pop-
psyc
holo
gy a
rtic
les
have
cla
imed
, but
als
o co
nclu
ded
that
fu
ture
rese
arch
mig
ht h
elp
iden
tify
whi
ch k
ind
acts
are
mos
t ef
fect
ive
at b
oost
ing
happ
ines
s.
The
clai
m th
at ‘h
elpi
ng m
akes
you
hap
py’ h
as b
ecom
e a
stap
le o
f pop
psy
chol
ogy
and
self-
help
man
uals
. Per
form
ing
‘rand
om a
cts
of k
indn
ess’
has
bee
n to
uted
as
a su
re-fi
re w
ay
of b
oost
ing
your
moo
d —
doi
ng g
ood
mak
es y
ou fe
el g
ood,
as
wel
l as
bene
fi tin
g ot
hers
. But
do
thes
e cl
aim
s st
ack
up, o
r ar
e th
ey ‘t
oo g
ood
to b
e tr
ue’?
In o
rder
to fi
nd o
ut, a
team
from
the
univ
ersi
ties
of O
xfor
d an
d Bo
urne
mou
th c
arrie
d ou
t a s
yste
mat
ic re
view
of t
he
scie
ntifi
c lit
erat
ure.
The
y an
alys
ed o
ver 4
00 p
ublis
hed
pape
rs
that
had
inve
stig
ated
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
kind
ness
an
d ha
ppin
ess,
and
iden
tifi e
d 21
stu
dies
that
had
exp
licitl
y pu
t the
cla
im to
the
test
– th
at b
eing
kin
d to
oth
ers
mak
es
us h
appi
er. T
hey
then
con
duct
ed a
‘met
a-an
alys
is’, w
hich
st
atis
tical
ly c
ombi
nes
the
resu
lts o
f the
se p
revi
ous
stud
ies.
Bein
g ki
nd to
oth
ers
does
mak
e yo
u ha
ppy,
conc
lude
s la
rge-
scal
e re
view
of e
vide
nce
17
PURP
OSE
To e
luci
date
by m
eta-
anal
ysis
whe
ther
gre
en te
a in
deed
has
a
func
tion
in b
ody w
eigh
t reg
ulat
ion.
MET
HODS
Engl
ish-
lang
uage
stu
dies
abo
ut W
L an
d W
M a
fter g
reen
tea
supp
lem
enta
tion
wer
e id
entifi
ed
thro
ugh
PubM
ed a
nd b
ased
on
the
refe
renc
es fr
om re
triev
ed a
rticl
es. O
ut o
f the
49
stud
ies
initi
ally
iden
tifi e
d, a
tota
l of 1
1 ar
ticle
s fi t
ted
the
incl
usio
n cr
iteria
an
d pr
ovid
ed u
sefu
l info
rmat
ion
for t
he m
eta-
anal
ysis
. Effe
ct
size
s w
ere
com
pute
d an
d ag
greg
ated
bas
ed o
n a
rand
om-e
ffect
s m
odel
. The
infl u
ence
of s
ever
al m
oder
ator
s on
the
effe
ct s
izes
w
as e
xam
ined
.
CONC
LUSI
ONS
AND
REL
EVAN
CE
Cate
chin
s or
an
epig
allo
cate
chin
gal
late
(EG
CG)-c
affe
ine
mix
ture
hav
e a
smal
l pos
itive
eff
ect o
n W
L an
d W
M. T
he
resu
lts s
ugge
st th
at h
abitu
al c
affe
ine
inta
ke a
nd e
thni
city
m
ay b
e m
oder
ator
s, a
s th
ey m
ay in
fl uen
ce th
e ef
fect
of
cate
chin
s.
Asso
ciat
ion
Betw
een
Port
able
Scr
een-
Base
d M
edia
Dev
ice
Use
and
Slee
p O
utco
mes
: A S
yste
mat
ic R
evie
w an
d M
eta-
anal
ysis
18
