AIR POLLUTION MONITORING IN NEW ZEALAND 1960-1992

Client ReportMESC 94/27

Library InformationServiceMt EdenScience Centre

AIR POLLUTION MONITORINGIN NEW ZEALAND

1960-1992

Prepared as part of a Ministry of Health/Public Health Commissioncontract for scientific services

by

B W GrahamH Narsey LI

August 1994

IM

Client ReportMESC 94/27


AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

IN NEW ZEALAND1960-1992

Prepared as part of a Ministry of Health/Public Health Commissioncontract for scientific services

by

B W GrahamH Narsey

August 1994

EN VIRONMENTALJ


AIR POLLUTION MONITORINGIN NEW ZEALAND

1960-1992

A report for theMinistry of Health/Public Health Commission

August 1994

Institute of Environmental Science & Research LimitedMt Eden Science Centre17 Kelly Street, Mt Eden, Auckland, New ZealandTelephone: (09) 815-3670, Facsimile: (09) 630-9619

A CROWN RESEARCH

-INSTITUTE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report gives a review of air pollution monitoring that has been carriedout either by or for, the Department of Health over the last three decades.Most of this work was done because of the Department's responsibilitiesunder the Health Act 1956 and the Clean Air Act 1972. With theintroduction of the Resource Management Act 1991, this situation has nowchanged and the direct responsibility for air pollution monitoring has beentransferred to other bodies, such as Regional Councils. It therefore seemsappropriate for a review of all the past work to be carried out at this time.

The report begins with a short overview of the development of air pollutionmonitoring in New Zealand. This is followed by descriptions of the commonair pollutants and the methods used for their measurement. A detailedsummary of the monitoring results throughout the country is then given foreach pollutant, followed by a summary of specific monitoring programmes ineach region, and some general comments on the overall significance of theresults. A full listing of air monitoring sites is given in Appendix 1, andgraphical presentations of some of the data are given in Appendix 2.

As shown in the report, there has been a substantial amount of effortdirected at air pollution monitoring in New Zealand over a period of nearly40 years. The first significant studies into urban air quality were undertakenat a local level in response to specific local problems. The early work leadquite quickly to a recognition of the need for some more official involvementby central government, a task which fell to the Department of Health. Thisrole has continued for the last 30 years, and the information given hererepresents just one part of the total effort involved.

There have been some obvious improvements in air quality over this time,although it is sometimes not clear how much of this was due to regulatoryactions and how much to other factors. Sulfur dioxide levels around thecountry have improved markedly over the years, particularly so inChristchurch where the concentrations measured in the 1960s and 70s wereunacceptably high. Similarly, there has been a significant improvement inthe levels of suspended particulate matter at many sites around the country,although this remains an area of concern for Christchurch in the middle ofwinter. The results for lead in air have shown the most clear cut changes, asa result of the reductions in lead content of petrol.

In the case of other motor vehicle-derived pollutants however, the situationis not so good. For both carbon monoxide and the oxides of nitrogen, thereis no indication that the situation has changed at all over the last 20 years.Carbon monoxide levels are unacceptably high at times, in some inner citylocations and oxides of nitrogen are also significant, although there is no

immediate cause for alarm. We have not yet experienced the levels ofphotochemical smog so typical of some cities overseas, but the indications ofthe potential for this have been seen.

Perhaps the bigest shortcoming in the data reported here, is that there hasbeen no corresponding monitoring of changes in the emissions of airpollutants. Some attempts have been made to compile this sort of data, inChristchurch especially, but these have been limited by a lack of informationon specific aspects (eg. wood comsumption for home heating) and a lack ofvalid emission factors for most sources. The absence of good emissions datamakes it impossible to identify the exact causes for most of the changes in airquality that have occured over this time.

It might also be noted that some of the data suffers from a lack of continuity,either in the location of monitoring sites or in measurement methodologies.There are significant gaps in some of the data where sites and/or methodshave been changed without any attempt being made to establish anycomparative information.

Notwithstanding the above comments, the work carried out over the last 30years has produced a valuable information resource on urban air quality inNew Zealand. Much of the information relates to Auckland andChristchurch, but there is sufficient data from other locations to give areasonably good indication of the air quality that might be expected in mostparts of the country.

As noted above, responsibilities for the management of air quality in NewZealand have now been passed to regional councils. It is pleasing to notethat the need for air monitoring is being recognised by these bodies. ESR iscurrently involved in on-going programmes with the Auckland, Waikato andCanterbury Regional Councils. A number of short term studies have alsobeen undertaken in Northland, Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawkes Bay,Wellington, West Coast, Dunedin and Southland.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 11.1. Outline 112. A Brief History of Air Monitoring in New Zealand 1

1.2.1. Christchurch and Auckland 11.2.2. Legislative Changes 3123 Department of Health Monitoring 3

2. THE COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS 62.1. Particulate Matter 62.2. Sulfur Dioxide 723. Carbon Monoxide 82.4. Oxides of Nitrogen 82.5. Ozone and Photochemical Smog 82.6. Lead

92.7. Hydrogen Sulfide 92.8. Fluorides 10

3. MONITORING METHODS 113.1. Particulate Matter 12

3.1.1. Dust Deposition 123.1.2. Suspended Particulate 133.1.3. Inhalable Particulate 143.1.4. Smoke 14

32. Sulfur Dioxide 1433. Carbon Monoxide 163.4. Oxides of Nitrogen 163.5. Ozone 163.6. Lead 173.7. Hydrogen Sulfide 173.8. Fluorides 173.9. Site Selection 183.10. Air Quality Standards 18

4. MONITORING RESULTS

204.1. Deposited Particulate 2042. Suspended Particulate 2143. Inhalable Particulate (PM10)

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4.4. Smoke 254.5. Sulfur Dioxide 27

4.5.1. Sulfonation 274.5.2. Wet-chemical Methods 284.53. Instrumental Monitoring 30

4.6. Carbon Monoxide 30

4.7. Oxides of Nitrogen4.7.1. Wet Chemical Measurements4.7.2. Instrumental Monitoring

4.8. Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants4.9. Lead4.10. Hydrogen Sulfide4.11. Fluoride

5. PROGRAMME SUMMARIES5.1. Northland52. Auckland53. Waikato5.4. Bay of Plenty5.5. Gisborne5.6. Taranaki5.7. Wanganui/Manawatu5.8. Hawkes Bay5.9. Wellington5.10. Nelson/Malborough5.11. West Coast5.12. Canterbury5.13. Otago5.14. Southland

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX 1Monitoring Sites

APPENDIX 2Graphical Summaries of Monitoring Results

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Outline

This report gives a review of air pollution monitoring that has been carriedout either by or for, the Department of Health over the last three decades.Most of this work was done because of the Department's responsibilitiesunder the Health Act 1956 and the Clean Air Act 1972. With theintroduction of the Resource Management Act 1991, this situation has nowchanged and the direct responsibility for air pollution monitoring has beentransferred to other bodies, such as Regional Councils. It therefore seemsappropriate for a review of all the past work to be carried out at this time.

Most of the data covered in this review are those which are held on behalf ofthe Department of Health by the Institute of Environmental Science andResearch Ltd in Auckland. The major emphasis is on results of regionalsignificance and the coverage will by necessity, be relatively general. Becauseof the large amount of raw data, graphical presentations have been usedwherever possible, to provide additional detail. Data relating to specificindustries have not been covered in any detail in this report.

A short overview of the development of air pollution monitoring in NewZealand is given below. This is followed by descriptions of the common airpollutants and the methods used for their measurement. A detailed summaryof the monitoring results throughout the country is then given for eachpollutant, followed by a summary of specific monitoring programmes in eachregion, and some general comments on the overall significance of the results.A full listing of air monitoring sites is given in Appendix 1, and graphicalpresentations of some of the data are given in Appendix 2.

1.2. A Brief History of Air Pollution Monitoring in New Zealand

1.2.1. Christchurch and Auckland

Air pollution measurements in New Zealand prior to 1968 were reviewed ina paper by Sparrow'. According to this review, the first published reportsdate back to the end of last century, with measurements of dissolved solids inrainwater covering the periods 1884-88 and 1907-1909. Similar work wascarried out in the 1930s, however the subject really only came in for any sortof intensive study in the raid- to late 1950s, as a result of specific issues inboth Christchurch and Auckland. Intensive air quality studies were set up inboth cities, and these esentially laid the groundwork for monitoringprogrammes which are still in operation today, albeit in substantiallydifferent forms.

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Winter-time air pollution problems have been experienced in Christchurchfor many years, largely due to smoke and sulfur dioxide from domestic firesand other sources. The first investigations into this problem were undertakenby the Dominion Laboratory of the DSIR starting in 1954, and the resultswere reported in a paper by Wilkinson 2. In 1959 an Air Pollution AdvisoryCommittee was established by the Christchurch Regional Planning Authority,with representation from a wide range of organisations including CanterburyUniversity, local authorities and various government departments. Anintensive monitoring programme was carried out from 1959 to 1964, and theresults were reported by the committee in 1966.

In Auckland the initial concern over air pollution was primarily due to theemissions of 'fumes' from the Manukau mudflats, although there were alsoproblems with a number of local industries as well. Parts of the ManukauHarbour were severely polluted as the result of uncontrolled discharges ofindustrial wastes and because of this, hydrogen sulfide was being generated insignificant quantities from the mudflats. Under stable weather conditionsthis led to objectionable concentrations of the gas, which could be detected innumerous parts of the city.

The situation in Auckland was first addressed in 1955, with the convening ofa government-appointed Commission of Inquiry4. The first measurements ofpollution levels were carried out by Sullivan in 1956 and 1957, and anAuckland Air Pollution Research Committee (AAPRC) was establishedalong similar lines to the Christchurch advisory committee in 1959. The workcarried out by this committee was published in a series of annual reports6,and has also been reviewed by Sparrow et a17, and by Graham and Thom8.

In both of the above cases, an intensive programme of measurements wascarried out for about the first 5 years. Most of the work in Christchurch wasundertaken by the DSIR, while in Auckland it was done in the ResearchCommittee's own laboratory, although in 1962 this was transferred to thecontrol of the Department of Health. As the situation became betterunderstood, the monitoring effort was maintained at a reduced level, withresources being directed at other air pollution issues such as carbonmonoxide from motor vehicles.

The initial problem of hydrogen sulfide fumes in Auckland effectively'evaporated' almost overnight, with the diversion of industrial liquid wastes tothe new Mangere sewage plant in 1961. By comparison the problem inChristchurch was not so readily dealt with by some 'easy fix'. Sulfur dioxidelevels have improved markedly over the last three decades, as a result ofcontrols on the use of high-sulfur coals, and a significant reduction in coaland oil consumption overall. Smoke measurements have also shown someimprovement, but the levels of this and other pollutants in the winter monthsare still cause for some concern.

1.2.2. Legislative Changes

The first legislative controls on air pollution in New Zealand wereintroducted in Part V of the Health Act 1956, which allowed for themanagement of specific industrial emissions, and a wider interpretation ofthe previous 'nuisance' provisions for the control of industrial smoke andodour. The Act also allowed for the establishment of the office of ChemicalInspector within the Department of Health, modelled very much along thesame lines as the Alkali Inspectorate in the UK.

While this approach to air pollution control was reasonably effective forindustrial processes, it contained no provisions for the control of othersources such as domestic fires, or motor vehicles. These deficiencies wereaddressed in a report from the Board of Health published in 1970. This alsoincluded recommendations for a new Clean Air Act which was eventuallypassed into law in 1972. This established a system of licensing for industrialprocesses, the creation of Clean Air Zones in urban areas if required, andcontrols on motor vehicles, also if required. In this last case, the onlycontrols ever introduced were for the emission of black smoke from dieselpowered trucks.

The Clean Air Act was administered by the Department of Health throughthe office of the Chief Air Pollution Control Officer. Industrial processeswere classified into three categories, Parts A, B and C, according to their sizeand/or air pollution potential. Part A processes were licensed by theDepartment, while the responsibility for Parts B and C was delegated to localauthorities. This system of licensing was again based on a UK example, withthe underlying philosophy being application of the 'best practical means'approach. The main emphasis here is on ensuring that the most appropriateemission control systems are used, on the basis of available technology,practicality and cost.

In 1991, the Clean Air Act was superceded by the Resource ManagementAct, which is intended to cover all environmental media and has anunderlying principle of 'sustainable development'. Most of the existingcontrols on air pollution have been carried over into the new act but theprimary emphasis is now on monitoring and control of effects rather thanengineering controls at source. In addition the task of day-to-dayadministration and enforcement has been transferred to regional councils,with the Ministry for the Environment having an over-riding responsibility.

1.2.3 Department of Health Monitoring

As noted above, the early air pollution investigations in Auckland andChristchurch, were carried out under the auspices of two committees

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established for that task. After the initial surveys, a more limited programmein Christchurch was continued by DSIR until 1969, when it was taken over bythe newly appointed Chemical Inspector for the South Island. This work wasreported to the Canterbury United Council in a series of annual reportsthrough to 197310. In Auckland, the work of the Research Committee wasclosely interwoven with that of the local Chemical Inspector, almost from theday it began, so that the Department of Health involvement in monitoringdates back to about 1962.

The work at the Auckland laboratory was also fairly quickly extended toother locations throughout the country, and this gradually becameestablished as the Department's main base for air monitoring work. Thelaboratory was initially housed in a Department of Health building inSymonds St, on the edge of the inner city area. In 1975 the operation wasrelocated to Fenton St in Mt Eden. The laboratory functions were separatedfrom those of the Air Pollution Control group in 1978, and the laboratorybecame known as the National Environmental Chemistry and AcousticsLaboratory (NECAL) after integration with other scientific staff in theAuckland region. NECAL was relocated to Kelly St, Mt Eden in 1985, andtransferred to Chemistry Division of DSIR in 1989. The laboratory becamepart of the Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd (ESR), withthe reorganisation of government science into Crown Research Institutes in1992.

In Christchurch, the initial Department of Health monitoring work wasoperated out of a small laboratory attached to the offices of the ChemicalInspector (later Regional Air Pollution Control Officer) and his staff. Thiswas originally in the Reserve Bank building in Hereford St, but in 1976 it wasrelocated to Bealey Avenue on the edge of the central business district. In1982 the work was transferred to the National Radiation Laboratory,followed by moves to DSIR and then ESR, in parallel with the Aucklandchanges noted above.

In both laboratories the initial monitoring programmes were mainlyconcerned with a continuation of the surveys started in 1959, but with abroader range of coverage involving other pollutants and/or locations.Particular attention was also given to background monitoring prior to theestablishment of industries such as NZ Steel in South Auckland and thealuminum smelter in Invercargill. The 1970s saw an expansion of activity as aresult of the passing of the Clean Air Act. More intensive investigations ofwinter-time pollution were again carried out in Christchurch, while inAuckland the potential for photochemical smog came in for a significantamount of attention. Permanent monitoring programmes were alsoestablished around some of the larger industries throughout the country. In1977, three sites in both Auckland and Christchurch were established as part

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of the World Health Organisation (WHO) Global EnvironmentalMonitoring (GEMS) programme.

By the end of the decade, much of the above effort had been scaled downonce again, with routine monitoring being mainly confined to the GEMSprogramme and a few other sites in Auckland añdChristchurch, along withsome of the industrial programmes. This situation was maintainedthroughout the 1980s with only two major changes; the development of anational lead survey based on sites in Auckland, Hamilton, PalmerstonNorth, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, and the additionof two monitoring sites for smoke and sulfur dioxide in Dunedin. This latter

• work was carried out using a small laboratory within Dunedin, under thecontrol of the Regional Air Pollution Control Officer.

With the passing of the Resource Management Act in 1991, the day to dayresponsibility for air pollution control has now been transferred to regionalcouncils. Hopefully, this will lead to a resurgence of interest in air qualitymonitoring, as regional councils face up to their responsibilities underSection 35 of the Act. It should be noted that while it now has no directresponsibilities for air pollution control in this country, the Department ofHealth has continued to fund the work for the WHO GEMS programme, inkeeping with its need to maintain an overview of public health issues.

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2. THE COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

The urban air pollutants which are commonly measured throughout theworld are particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, the oxides ofnitrogen, ozone and lead. These can be produced either directly orindirectly, from a variety of sources but the major contributor in most cases,except for particulate matter, is the combustion of fossil fuels. Many of themeasurements carried out by the Department of Health were also directed atthese pollutants, along with studies of hydrogen sulfide from geothermalactivity, and fluorides from a number of industrial sources.

The possible sources for each of the above pollutants and their effects, aredescribed briefly in the notes below. More detailed information can befound in a number of publications, such as those produced by the WorldHealth Organisation".

2.1. Particulate Matter

The term particulate matter refers to any airborne material in the form ofparticles, and encompasses those pollutants that we might commonly refer toas dust, smoke, aerosols or haze. Airborne particulate matter can arise froma wide variety of sources including domestic fires (especially coal and woodburning), power stations (coal or oil), motor vehicle emissions, rubbishburning, agricultural activities, quarries, road and building construction, andnumerous industrial operations as well. There are also natural sources ofparticulate matter including volcanoes, sea spray, plant and animal matter(eg. pollens and fungal spores) and wind blown dust and dirt.

The primary effects of particulate matter are aesthetic ones. Large quantitiesof particles suspended in the air can have a significant impact on visibilityand make the air look hazy or dirty. Dust falling out of the air can beobjectionable if it settles onto clean surfaces. In rural areas large amounts ofdust deposition can lead to reduced crop production as well.

Airborne particles can affect humans in two ways. There are simple nuisanceeffects, such as irritation to the eyes from windblown dust. However, of moreconcern are the effects due to inhalation, and especially from those particlessmall enough to be drawn deep into the respiratory tract. Long termexposures to high levels of inhalable particles can have significant effects onthe performance of the lungs. Those especially at risk are people withchronic lung diseases, asthmatics, the elderly and very young children.

Airborne particulate matter can be measured in a number of different waysthat are intended to reflect some of the different effects noted above. Themost commonly used methods are as follows:

Dust deposition - the amount of dust settling over a fixed surface,can be used to monitor this nuisance effect.

Total suspended particulate (TSP) - the dust collected by suckingair through a filter gives a measure of the total quantity ofparticles suspended in the air.

Inhalable particulate (PM10) - this measurement is similar to TSPbut only those particles with a median diameter of 10 microns orless are collected. This measurement is the most relevant forpotential health effects.

Smoke - the darkness of particles collected on a filter is measuredusing light reflectance. This gives an indication of relative 'soilingpotential' and was originally used for monitoring smoke fromdomestic fires.

2.2. Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide is an acidic gas with a pungent odour, which is mainlyproduced by the burning of fossil fuels. The primary sources are coal whichtypically contains 0.5 to 3.0% sulfur, fuel oil (< 0.5% sulfur) and diesel (0.3%sulfur). There is no significant sulfur in natural gas, petrol, or wood. Sulfurdioxide can also be emitted from a number of specific industrial operations,such as sulfuric acid manufacture and oil refining. It is found in volcanicgases as well.

Sulfur dioxide is a corrosive and irritant gas which can cause damage tobuilding and other materials, and can have significant effects on the humanrespiratory system. It can cause cell damage to plants at high concentrations.When sulfur dioxide is present in the air, there is usually particulate matterpresent as well. As a result the effects of these two pollutants are difficult toseparate. Prolonged exposures to mixtures of sulfur dioxide and particulatematter have been linked to increased incidences of respiratory diseases suchas bronchitis, particularly in young children. Severe air pollution episodesinvolving these pollutants, in other countries, are believed to have causedincreased deaths in the elderly and other people with chronic lung diseases.

In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide can combine with oxygen and water to formsulfuric acid, one of the major components of acid rain. This is an importantissue in the Northern Hemisphere, but is believed to be relativelyinsignificant in New Zealand.

2.3. Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, highly toxic gas which is formedas a product of incomplete combustion in the burning of fossil fuels. Themain sources in most parts of New Zealand are motor vehicle exhaustemissions, so that elevated levels are mainly found in areas of significanttraffic congestion, particularly at busy intersections on inner-city streets.Carbon monoxide can also be present in the emissions from domestic firesand backyard incinerators. Industrial fuel use and some specific industrialprocesses, such as steel manufacture, can also be significant sources.

Carbon monoxide acts on humans by displacing oxygen from the blood.Prolonged exposure at moderate levels can lead to symptoms such asheadaches and dizziness, while at high levels it can lead to loss ofconsciousness and even death. At the lower levels typically encountered inurban areas, carbon monoxide measurements can serve as a useful indicatorfor objectionable levels of vehicle exhaust fumes.

2.4. Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) is the term used to describe a mixture of two gases,nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These are formed in mostcombustion processes by oxidation of the nitrogen present in combustion air.Nitric oxide is the primary product but this can then be oxidised to nitrogendioxide in ambient air. As with carbon monoxide, motor vehicles are themajor source of the NOx in most parts of the country, although powerstations and other large combustion units may be significant localised sourcesas well.

The main -health effects of the oxides of nitrogen are due to NO 2, which is arespiratory irritant. At high levels it can corrode materials such as metals,and can also damage plants. Nitric oxide is believed to be quite harmless atthe levels normally encountered in urban air.

NOx is an important air pollutant because of its role in photochemical smog(see below). It also contributes to the problem of acid rain, due to theconversion of NO2 in the atmosphere to nitric acid.

2.5. Ozone and Photochemical Smog

Ozone is classified as a secondary air pollutant because it is not directlyemitted as a pollutant from human activities, but is formed instead from thereactions between other pollutants in air. This reaction takes place betweenthe oxides of nitrogen and a wide range of volatile organic compounds,

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particularly those present in motor vehicle emissions, and industrial solvents.The reaction is driven by sunlight and warm temperatures, and leads to thephenomenon which is commonly referred to as photochemical smog.

Photochemical smog is due to a complex mixture of chemical species in air,formed by the process outlined above. Ozone is one of the main componentsof this mixture and is therefore usually monitored as a simple indicator ofsmog conditions. Photochemical smog can cause severe losses inatmospheric visibility due to its appearance as a dense brown haze. Themixture of chemicals present in smog is extremely irritating to the eyes, nose,throat and lungs, and can cause breathing difficulties, particularly insusceptible people. It also causes deterioration of materials such as rubber,and damages sensitive plants.

2.6. Lead

Lead is one of the group of so-called 'heavy metals' which includes elementssuch as mercury, cadmium and zinc, and is the most prevalent of these as faras air pollution is concerned. The only major source in New Zealand isleaded petrol, with the lead being emitted as finely divided particulate matterin vehicle exhausts. A few industrial sources such as lead smelters and scrapmetal recovery operations could be of local concern.

Lead can cause harm to many human tissues and organs, and especially thenervous system, the kidneys and the cardiovascular system. Young childrenmay be particularly vulnerable to exposures at moderately low levels in theenvironment. As well as direct inhalation, airborne lead can also beimportant as a contributor to human exposures via other routes, such as leadin food.

2.7. Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic gas with the characteristic odour of rotteneggs. In New Zealand we would also associate it with the city of Rotorua, asit is one of the major components of geothermal emissions. The gas is alsoproduced in the anaerobic decomposition of many organic wastes, and is aby-product of pulp and paper manufacture, the tanning industry and meatrendering plants.

The primary health effects of hydrogen sulfide are on the nervous system.Many people are surprised to learn that it is more toxic than hydrogencyanide. At high concentrations it causes paralysis of the vital functions suchas breathing, so that victims of hydrogen sulfide poisoning actually die fromasphyxiation. At low concentrations it can anaesthetise the sensory organs,

so that the absence of odour is not a good warning property with regard todangerous concentrations.

2.8. fluorides

Fluoride emissions are produced in this country from two specific industrialsources; the aluminium smelter in Invercargill and fertiliser worksthroughout the country. In the aluminium smelter, the fluoride is emitted ashydrogen fluoride gas, or aluminium fluoride salts. With fertiliser works thegas is present as either hydrogen fluoride, fluorosilicic acid, or alkali metalsalts.

The main concerns with fluorides relate to their effects on vegetation and/orlivestock. Some horticultural crops, such as grapes, are particularlyvulnerable to fluoride emissions. In other plants the material is concentratedin leafy matter, and can then be a problem for grazing animals such as cowsand sheep. As with humans, small amounts of fluoride in these animals arebeneficial, but at high concentrations the chemical leads to weakening of thebones and teeth.

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3. MONITORING METHODS

A wide variety of methods have been used for air monitoring in this country,some based on international standards and others of purely local design.Obviously, it would have been preferrable for standard methods to have beenused at all times, but this was sometimes not possible. The cost andavailability of equipment was sometimes a factor in this. In others, nostandard method existed at the time it was needed, or the sensitivity of thestandard method was inadequate for the relatively low levels of pofflutionexperienced in most parts of this country. It should also be recognised, thatinternationally there has been enormous change in measurementmethodologies over these last 30 years. Air pollution monitoring was in factstill in its infancy in the 1950s and 60s, throughout the world.

The most significant change in monitoring methods over the last 30 years, hasbeen the shift from manual methods based on filters and/or bubblers, toinstrumental methods, or 'black box' technology. The main advantage ofthese is that they provide real-time data with a high level of sensitivity,compared to the manual methods which give time-averaged results, with onlymoderate to low sensitivity. There are disadvantages, however. Theequipment is expensive, and generally needs to be housed in a temperaturecontrolled enclosure. Data processing and storage requirements are alsovery high.

Instrumental monitors for pollutants such as NOx and SO 2 have been in usein this country since the mid- to late 1970s. However much of the earlierdata only exists in the form of chart records and no attempt has been made toproduce any summaries of the data. Routine instrumental monitoringprogrammes have been operated in both Auckland and Christchurch sinceabout 1987, and with these the data is continuously logged to a computer sothat the results are now much more readily available.

The air pollution monitoring methods that have been used in New Zealandover the last 30 years are summarised below. More detailed descriptions canbe found in the paper by Sims and ThomU, and the review by Graham13.More detailed information on specific monitoring methods is given in anumber of standard texts14'15.

It is also appropriate to comment here on the units commonly used for airpollution measurement. The most common of these are summarised on thefollowing page.

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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Levels of air pollution are commonly reported in 2 different types of units,as follows:

parts per billion (ppb) or parts per million (ppm): this is avolumetric measurement and refers to volumes of the pollutant (gas) perbillion, or million, volumes of air. For example, a concentration of 50 ppmcarbon monoxide is equivalent to 50 millilitres of the gas in 1 millionmillilitres (1 cubic metre) of air.

micrograms per cubic metre (p.g/m3) or milligrams per cubic metre(mg/m3): these are mass measurements and refer to the weight ofpollutant (gas or particles) in a cubic metre of air.

It is important to note that these two types of units are not directlyinterchangeable. Calculations based on the Gas Laws are needed to dothis conversion.

3.1. Particulate Matter

3.1.1. Dust Deposition

Deposition monitoring is carried out by determining the amount of solidmatter collected over an exposed surface in a period of time. The equipmentcommonly used by the Department of Health consisted of a 100-150 mmdiameter glass funnel connected to a 4.5 litre plastic bottle, with both ofthese items held inside a wooden frame. The collectOrs were normallyexposed for periods of up to a month. At the end of this time the sampleswere filtered and the weight of insoluble material determined. The amountof organic matter, such as natural vegetation could also be determined byashing the resulting samples. Results were reported in terms of the weight ofmaterial collected over unit area and in unit time, i.e. mg/m 2/day, or (morerecently) g/m2/30 days.

The Department of Health method was based very loosely on a number ofstandard procedures such those given in BS 1747, part 1, or ASTM D1739-62.The method recommended in the proposed air quality guidelines for NewZealand (refer section 3.10) is a draft ISO standard, with a collector verysimilar to the ASTM one. It should be noted that the results produced bydifferent systems may not be directly comparable, and these are bestinterpreted in a relative sense for one type of collector only.

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3.1.2. Suspended Particulate

Suspended particulate matter is normally monitored by drawing a measuredvolume of air through a suitable filter, which is weighed before and after use.The system used by the Department of Health consisted of a 55 mm glassfibre filter held in a perspex holder under an aluminium shelter. Air wasdrawn through the filter by a pump at a rate of about 50-70 litres/min. Airvolume was measured using a domestic gas meter, and the sampling periodwas normally for seven days. Results were reported as micrograms of dustper cubic metre of air sampled (.g/m3).

The method described here is sometimes referred to as a low volumesampler. It is based on a scaled-down version of the High-Volume (Hi-Vol)air sampler, which is commonly used elsewhere. The reasons for this are nowlargely historical, but were primarily based around equipment costs andservicibility, and relative ease of siting. The systems differ in a number of keyaspects; namely, filter size (55mm dia. vs 250mm x 200mm), air sampling rate(50-75 I/min vs 1.2-1.6m3/min), and sampling period (7 day vs 24 hr). Thelatter point in particular, creates some difficulty in trying to compare theresults with standards based on a 24 hour sampling period.

There is an additional problem with the use of the New Zealand system,which has only come to light in the last few years. It had always beenassumed in the past that the results produced by the local system would bemore or less the same as those from a Hi-Vol unit, but this had never beenchecked out in anything other than a fairly cursory fashion. Recent studieshave now shown that the two systems do in fact differ, with the Hi-Vol unitgiving results that are generally higher than our own, by typically, 25 to 50%.The relationship is variable, however, and it is believed to come aboutbecause of differences in size discrimination, with the Hi-Vol capturing somelarger particles that may be excluded by ours. It is relevant to note thatagreement between the two systems is much better for airborne lead, which isprimarily concentrated in the finer fractions of suspended particulate matter.

This is not to say that the existing New Zealand data is worthless, however.In particular, it provides a valuable resource in terms of comparative dataover a relatively long timeframe. Also, the differences between the twosystems are not so great that one cannot extrapolate from the data to predictwhat results are likely to be produced using the standard system.

The current instrumental monitoring site in Christchurch includes two semi-continuous particulate monitors based on quite different methods ofmeasurement compared to the above. One of these is a B-attenuationmonitor in which the air is drawn through a glass fibre or paper tape, and themass of dust collected is measured by the attenuation of B-rays passedthrough it. The other system is based on nephelometry, ' and measures the

1.,

light scattering of particles present in the air inside a measurement chamber.The results are reported in terms of kilometres of visibility.

3.1.3. Inhalable Particulate

The only size selective monitoring carried out by the Department of Healthhas been done using a Sierra-Anderson dichotomous air sampler. The inleton this has a cut-off of 15 microns rather than 10, as this was the proposedlimit for inhalable particulate at the time the equipment was purchased.

3.1.4. Smoke

The procedure commonly used for smoke monitoring is as given in BritishStandard, BS 1747, part 2. Air is drawn through a filter paper held betweentwo brass blocks, and the smoke stain produced is measured by lightreflectance. The equipment is normally incorporated into a sampling trainfor the measurement of both smoke and sulfur dioxide, with a samplingperiod of 24 hours. One other approach is to use a paper tape sampler, inwhich the tape is automatically advanced at regular intervals, such as onceevery 2 hours. This system has been used quite extensively in Christchurch inthe past to provide information on the diurnal (day/night) variations insmoke levels.

In either of the above systems, the measurement of smoke is based On thevisual properties of this pollutant, ie. light reflectance, and the measurementsare sometimes referred to as a 'soiling index'. The results are converted fromreflectance to jhg/m3 on the basis of a calibration curve included in theBritish Standard. It must be emphasised however, that this conversion issomewhat arbitrary as the relationship between reflectance and mass loadingis known to vary significantly, particularly with regard to location and thetime of year. Thus, the results are best interpreted from site to site, as anindicator only of the relative 'dirtiness' of the smoke. The common practicein New Zealand has been to report the results in terms of smoke units, whichare still taken from the standard calibration curve, but without reference tothe mass units (ie. .&g/m).

3.2. Sulfur Dioxide

Most of the early measurements of sulfur dioxide in this country were basedon a British • Standard, BS 1747, part 1, commonly referred to as the leadcandle method. This was a passive sampling procedure using a porcelaincylinder coated with lead dioxide. Sulfur dioxide (and hydrogen sulfide) wereabsorbed from the air and subsequently analysed as sulfate ion. Samples

14.

were collected on a monthly basis, and the results were reported asmgS03/m2/day.

A large number of these monitors were used throughout the country duringthe 1960s and 70s. The results are not particularly reliable however, with ahigh dependance on climatic conditions, such as wind speed and humidity.They are best interpreted only as an indicator of relative levels of sulfurpollution.

Two manual sampling methods have been used for sulfur dioxide monitoring.Both involve drawing air through a gas 'bubbler' which contains an absorberfor SO2. The most commonly used method is based on British Standard, BS1747 part 3, and uses dilute hydrogen peroxide as the absorber solution. Thequantity of SO2 collected is determined by titration or measurement of thechange in pH. This is sometimes referred to as the Volumetric method.

Obviously this method is not specific for SO2, and the results are sometimesreported as total acidity. Ammonia is a potential interferent, and this wassometimes determined separately to allow adjustment of the SO2 results. Asdiscussed by Sims and Thom, early measurements made with this methodmay have over estimated the amount of SO.

Most of the early measurements of SO 2 in Auckland were made using analternative bubbler procedure known as the West-Gaeke method 14. This isbased on the collection of SO2 as sulfite ion in a solution of potassiumtetrachloromercurate, followed by a colorimetric determination usingpararosaniline. While this method is more specific for SO2, it has a numberof drawbacks, including the use of mercury. As a results, the volumetricmethod was the preferred procedure in most cases.

Two instrumental methods have been used for monitoring SO 2. The first ofthese was based around a flame photometric detector (FPD) which iscommonly used for the analysis of sulfur compounds in gas chromatography.In this detector, air samples are passed through a hydrogen-rich flame. If anysulfur-containing compounds are present a chemical reaction takes placewhich results in the emission of u.v. light. This is detected by aphotomultiplier and converted to an electrical output in terms of ppb of SO2.

A more recent development for instrumental monitoring of SO 2 is thefluorescence monitor which has a number of advantages over the FPDsystem, and especially the absence of any need for hydrogen. Fluorescencemonitors operate on a very simple principle; the measurement of lightemitted by SO2 after it has been irradiated with light of a differentwavelength. Unlike the FPD analyser, the fluorescence system is specific forSO2.

ic


Carbon monoxide has usually been monitored in New Zealand usinginstrumental methods based on non-dispersive infra-red (NDIR) analysers.Portable monitors based on electrochemical sensors are a more recentaddition to this field, but these are more appropriate for short termmeasurements, rather than permanent monitoring programmes.


The most common bubbler procedures for NOx are based on the Griess-llosvay method for the determination of nitrite ion. This involvesdia.zotisation of an aromatic amine in acid solution, followed by coupling ofthe diazo compound with an aromatic amine to form an intensely-colouredazo dye. One of the first applications of this method to the determination ofNO2 in air was reported by B E Saltzman, and is commonly referred to as theSaltzman or Griess-Saltzman method 14. The method as described is specificfor NO2. However NO may also be determined by prior oxidation withacidified permanganate solution.

The Saltzman method was the procedure used for NOx measurements inNew Zealand through to about 1975. One difficulty with the methodhowever, is that the colour formed in the absorber is likely to fade after a fewhours, and thus it is best suited to short-term measurements. In 1975, amodification of the method was adopted, in which the NO2 is absorbed inaqueous triethanolamine solution 16. Colour development is carried out asbefore, but with the addition of the Saltzman reagents at the end of thesampling period. This system was also used with the triethanolamineabsorbed onto pumice.

Instrumental monitors for NOx are based on a principle known as ozonechemilüminescence. This is the emission of light energy that results from thereaction between nitric oxide (NO) and ozone. In the analyser ozone isgenerated by uv irradiation of clean air and is mixed in a reaction chamberwith the sample air. Light from the reaction passes through an optical filterand is detected with a photomultiplier tube. NO 2 is detected after reductionto NO over a molybdenum catalyst. The analyser output is normally in termsof /.Lg/m3 or ppb of NO and NOx.

3.5. Ozone

Most monitoring for ozone in New Zealand has been carried out with Mastoxidant analysers, which operate on an amperometric principle. Ozone is

1

collected in a solution of iodide, with which it reacts to form iodine. This isthen measured as a result of its reaction with hydrogen at an electrodesurface. The analysers respond to all 'oxidants' in the air. Reducing gasescan also interfere with the measurement, and a special pre-filter is used toremove SO2.

A limited amount of ozone monitoring was also carried out using acherniluminesence monitor, which operates on the reaction between ozoneand ethylene gas.

3.6. Lead

Lead in air is measured as a component of particulate matter, by analysis ofportions of the particulate filters for their lead content. With the low volumesystem used in New Zealand, the normal weekly samples were combinedbefore analysis to give a monthly result.

It should be noted that this method does not reflect any contribution to leadin air from volatile organo-lead compounds which may be present due toemissions and/or evaporation of petrol. These have generally been found tomake up less than ten percent of the total lead in air17.


Hydrogen sulfide has been monitored using two methods; paper tapesamplers, or instrumental monitoring using the same analysers as for SO 2. Inthe paper tape system, the paper is impregnated with a chemical such as leadacetate, which gives a brown stain in the presence of H 2S. As with smokemonitoring, the intensity of this stain is measured by light reflectance (ortransmittance). With the instrumental monitors, a direct response is given bythe FPD, but the fluorescence monitor requires a converter to oxidise H2S toso2.

3.8. Fluorides

Two methods have been used for fluoride monitoring, static filters andsuspended particulate monitors using treated filters. (A wet-chemicalinstrumental monitor was also used in the mid-70s, but was found to berather unreliable). The static filters were based on a method originallyreported by Adams18, which used paper filters treated with an alkalineabsorber. This system is used as a passive monitor and as such, the resultsare best interpreted on the basis of relative levels of fluoride in air.

17

In the case of the treated particulate filters, two filters were used in series; anacid one to trap particulate fluoride only, followed by an alkaline one forgaseous fluoride. Samples from these monitors and the passive filters, wereanalysed for fluoride using an ion-selective electrode.

Vegetation analysis has also been used quite extensively for fluoridemonitoring, not so much as an indicator of fluoride in air, but as a measure ofthe impact of this pollutant on plants and trees.

3.9. Site Selection

Site selection is an important part of the design of any air monitoringprogramme. As with the monitoring methods, there were no well establishedsiting criteria when this work first began, other than a few basicrecommendations such as the proximity of air intakes with regard tobuildings and other obstacles. Published criteria for site locations wereavailable from about the mid 1970s, and these have usually been observed inthe more recent work.

As a general rule, most of the monitoring sites used in the Department ofHealth programme were chosen on the basis of convenience and practicality,along with factors such as the proximity to specific sources. Governmentproperties were frequently used, for reasons such as ease of access and sitesecurity. Most of the data reviewed here have been produced from what wemight consider area monitors; ie. sites far enough away from specific sourcesso that they reflect the general air quality over an area of at least 0.5 to 1 kmacross. The exceptions to this are carbon monoxide and to a lesser extent,lead, where the primary interest is in pollutant concentrations close to roads.The sampling points for most monitors have been located at a height ofbetween 1 and 5 metres above the ground.

A full listing of all monitoring sites is given in Appendix 1.

3.10. Air Quality Standards

Much interpretation of air monitoring data is based on a comparison with airquality standards. Historically, the Department of Health results werecompared with criteria set by the World Health Organisation (WHO) or theUS Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In some cases, unofficialguidelines were also adopted by Department of Health staff, where noappropriate standard could be found. These are noted as appropriate in thenext chapter.

The Ministry for the Environment has published a discussion document on aproposed set of air quality guidelines for New Zealand, as part of its

10

responsibilities under the Resource Management Act 19. (The final version ofthis document is expected to be released at the end of June 1994) The basiccriteria are listed in Table 1 below. These have been set on the basis ofhuman health effects in all but two cases; hydrogen sulfide which is based onodour and fluoride for its effects on vegetation.

Table 1: Proposed Air Quality Guidelines for New Zealand

Pollutant

inhalable particulate(PM10)

sulfur dioxide

carbon monoxide

nitrogen dioxide

ozone

Concentration

40 Akglm3120 Akglm3

50 pg/m3125 p.g/m3350 /hg/m3500 jg/m3

10 mg/M330 mg/m3

100 /hg/m3300 j.g/rn3

100 btgIM3150 j.z.g1rn3

1.0 AgIM3

7.0 /hg/m3

0.5 pg/rn30.84 /hg/m3

1.7 /hg/m32.9 Ag/m33.7 pg/m3

Time Period

annual mean24 hr average

annual mean24 hr average1 hr average10 ntin average

8 hr average1 hr average

annual mean1 hr average

8 hr average1 hr average

3 month average

1 hr average

3 month average1 month average7 day average24 hr average12 hr average

lead

hydrogen sulfide

fluoride

19

4. MONITORING RESULTS

The Department of Health air monitoring data is summarised below on thebasis of each pollutant type.

4.1. Deposited Particulate

Dust deposition was monitored by the Department of Health at more than 40sites around the country, with most of this effort being carried out during the1970s. Monitoring locations included Auckland, Waiuku, Meremere, Paeroa,Kawerau, Karamea and Christchurch, with the majority of sites directed atspecific industries. A significant amount of monitoring has also been carriedout more recently by the companies concerned, in the vicinity of gold miningoperations at Waihi and Macraes Flat.

The levels of dust deposition indicated by this monitoring, vary widely, and itis difficult to interpret some of the more extreme results without detailedknowledge of the individual monitoring, programmes. Some generalobservations can be made from the data however, and these are as follows:

(i) from past experience, dust deposition levels in excess of about 4g/m2/30days in the general environment (ie. beyond factory boundaries, etc)could result in complaints from the public. This was the unofficial criteriaadopted by the Department of Health, and is also included in an appendix tothe Ministry for the Environment guidelines.

(ii) background deposition levels in relatively 'clean' environments weregenerally less than about 1 g/m2/30days.

(iii) there were situations, however, where background deposition levelswere markedly higher than this, and sometimes even significantly above the'complaint' level of 4 g/m2/30days. This particularly applied to areas of lowrainfall, such as parts of the eastern side of the South Island, and also inforestry areas. Some farming practices can also generate large amounts ofrelatively localised dust deposition, as can unsealed roads.

(iv) dust deposition in major urban areas not affected by specific dustgenerating activities, was typically around 1 to 3 g/m2/30days.

(v) measurements in polluted environments in the past, were typically in therange of 2 to 10 g/m2/30days, but with individual results as high as 40 to 80g/m2/30days being recorded on specific occasions. These latter resultsalmost certainly related to monitors placed in or near major areas of dustgeneration within work sites.

In

There are insufficient data at any one site to indicate whether there havebeen any significant changes in deposition levels over the last three decades.

4.2. Suspended Particulate

Suspended particulate matter has been measured at more than 80 sitesthroughout the country, with locations in Whangarei, Auckland, Waiuku,Waihi, Huntly, Hamilton, Kawerau, New Plymouth, Hutt Valley, Wellington,Christchurch and Dunedin. Roughly 25% of these sites were in operation forperiods of less than about 2 years, another 50% for 2 to 5 years, and most ofthe remainder for 5 to 15 years. Two sites in Auckland (Penrose and MtAlbert) have been in operation almost continuously since 1963. About halfof the sites could be considered as area monitors, with the remainderdirected at specific industries. Most of the latter are now operated by thecompanies concerned.

Some typical values for the levels of suspended particulate measured undervarious situations in New Zealand are summarised below (7-day averages).It should be noted that these observations are mainly based on more recentmeasurements, made over the last 5 or so years.

(i) background levels of suspended particulate are typically in the range of10 to 20 j.g/m3.

(ii) urban levels in areas unaffected by any specific sources are typically inthe range of 20 to 50 Ag/m3.

(iii) urban levels in areas of significant industrial or commercial activities aretypically in the range of 30 to 60 pg/m3, although occasional excursions up toabout 100 &g/m3 can occur. A notable exception to this is Christchurch,where winter-time levels are typically in the range of 40 to 80 p.g/m 3, withoccasional excursions above 100 Ag/m3.

(iv) levels immediately adjacent to significant industrial sources can betypically in the range of 60 to 100 g/m3, with possible excursions of up to200 &g/m3 or above.

(v) in our experience, results of 120 Ag/m3 or above, may result in significantcomplaints about dust emissions from specific sources. This applies toindividual 7-day averages. The unofficial guideline observed by theDepartment of Health was 60 /hg/m 3 (7-day average).

For the purposes of comparing the above data with 24-hour criteria based onthe Hi-Vol sampler, it is suggested that the New Zealand results bemultiplied by a factor of between 1.5 and 2.

21

Suspended particulate results for a number of sites around the country areillustrated in Figures 1 to 13 in Appendix 2. The results are shown asmonthly averages, which is intended to give a slight smoothing of the datawithout obscuring most of the detail. It should be noted when viewing thesefigures that the scales can vary from one graph to the next, because ofdifferences in the ranges for both the levels of particulate and the time scalescovered. Each figure is labelled with the appropriate site number, furtherdetails of which can be found in Appendix 1. Only those sites of regionalsignificance and with continuous data over 5 or more years have beenincluded in this presentation.

The results illustrated cover a number of different situations, as follows:

Figure Al; site 3:28, Northcote Rd, Auckland - adjacent to a busyintersection in a partly residential, part commercial location on Auckland'sNorth Shore, with significant commuter traffic in the immediate vicinity. Theresults appear to show a slight improvement in average particulate levelsfrom 1983 to 1991.

Figure A2; site 4:13, Mt Albert, Auckland - the monitor is located in themiddle of the (ex-) DSIR campus off Mt Albert Rd. Results reflect thepredominantly residential location. This site and 4:19 have been in operationsince the early days of the Air Pollution Research Committee. Note thereduction in particulate levels from about 1970 onwards.

Figure A3; site 4:19, Penrose, Auckland - the monitor is located at the rear ofthe Penrose Occupational Health Clinic in Great South Rd. Early resultsreflect the industrial location, but have shown a steady improvement sinceabout 1970.

Figure A4; sites 4:50 and 4:64,Queen St, Auckland - Auckland's main streetin the central business district, with the monitors at 1st floor height (ie. abovethe verandahs). Results reflect the moderately dusty conditions that canoccur in a commercial location. Particulate levels at site 50 are generallyhigher than those at site 64, possibly because the former site was closer to amajor intersection. There are no obvious trends in the data although theresults for 1989, 1990 and 1992 are generally lower than in most other years.

Figure AS; sites 4:56 and 4:65, Mt Eden, Auckland - the two laboratory sitesin a partly residential, part commercial location with a moderately high levelof commuter traffic. No obvious changes in average particulate levels overtime.

Figure A6; site 6:32, Whitiora School, Hamilton - residential area on theedge of Hamilton's commercial centre. Moderate commuter traffic in the

22

vicinity. High results from 1985 to 1987 are believed to reflect nearbyroadworks and construction activities, and also obscure any long term trends.

Figure A7; site 12:01, Terrace End School, Palmerston North - results reflectthe residential location with no major roads in the immediate vicinity. Noobvious trends in the data, although the time scale is relatively short.

Figure A8; site 13:01, Riddiford St., Wellington - commercial location in theinner suburb of Newtown. Moderately high vehicle activity nearby. Ifanything, particulate levels may have increased slightly over time, at this site.

Figure A9; site 14:08, Naenae Intermediate School, Lower Hutt - residentiallocation with no major roads in the immediate vicinity. No obvious trends inthe data, but again the time scale is very short.

Figure AlO; site 16:14, Woolston Industrial Health, Christchurch - resultsreflect the industrial locality. There may be a slightly downward trend overthe 9 years of monitoring at this site, although the highest results in 1985 and86 are comparable with those in 1980.

Figure All; site 16:31, Manchester St. Christchurch - inner city locationwithin the central business district. Results are somewhat higher than thosefor Queen St. Auckland, but this possibly reflects the sampler location, 2 to 3metres above the footpath. The results for the period 1989 to 1992 aresignificantly lower than in previous years.

Figure Al2; site 16:33, Victoria St. Christchurch - sampler, towards the rearof the National Radiation Laboratory in an inner city suburb. Moderatecommuter traffic in the vicinity. Results for the period 1988 to 1991 arelower than in previous years, but any trend appears to have been reversed in1992.

Figure A13; site 18:16, Forbury School, Dunedin - residential location inDunedin South, with only light to moderate traffic on nearby roads. Resultsshow an obvious downward trend over the 6 years of monitoring.

It should be apparent from most of these graphs that there is a markedseasonal variation in the particulate levels recorded at most sites, with higherlevels usually recorded during the winter months. This is partly due topoorer atmospheric dispersion conditions during winter and also reflects theseasonal variation in the emissions of some combustion-related pollutants.This variation will be less apparent, and may even be reversed if wind-blowndust is a major contributor to the particulate levels.

An alternative presentation of some of the data is shown in Figures 14, 15 &16. This particular format gives a better illustration of some of the extreme

23

results that can be recorded, and also gives a clear demonstration of thevariations in mean values from year to year. The results for sites 4:19 and16:31 demonstrate once again the improvements in particulate levels thathave occured over the years, in both mean and peak values. This does notappear to have been the case at site 13:01.

The improvement in the levels of suspended particulate matter is remarkablein that it has been observed at a significant number of sites throughout thecountry, in both urban and industrial locations. As can be seen in Figures A2and A3 for example, particulate levels in some parts of Auckland are nowaround half what they were in 1970. The situation in Christchurch is lessclear, but most results over the last five years do appear to be lower than inthe past.

It is interesting to speculate on the causes of this improvement in air quality.Quite clearly, if the changes have occurred throughout the country and inboth residential and industrial locations, then they are not due solely to anyimprovements in the control of individual point sources. The most likelyexplanation is that the improvements are due to changes in the emissionsfrom area sources, such as domestic fires, industrial and commercial fuel use,and motor vehicles. Improvements in the sealing of roads and footpaths mayalso have contributed in some cases. Unfortunately, there is insufficientquantitative data on changes in the emissions from these different sources togive any clear indications as to the most likely explanation.

4.3. Inhalable Particulate (PM10)

The only Department of Health measurements of inhalable particulate inNew Zealand are in fact for PM. This came about because when astandard for fine particulate was first proposed in the early 1980s, it wasoriginally based on a 15 micron cut-off, and was only later reduced to 10micron. The PM15 measurements were made with equipment that is virtuallyidentical to that used for PM 10, other than the difference in sizediscrimination at the sample inlet.

PM15 data collected at 4 sites in Auckland (4:43, 4:56 & 4:64) over the period1983 to 1985, showed a variable proportion of fine particles to totalsuspended particulate, ranging from 20 to 90%, with a mean value of around50 to 70%. The proportion varied from site to site (eg. suburban, inner city,and adjacent to a quarry), and there appears to be a seasonal variation aswell (higher % in winter). These results are not markedly different fromdata reported elsewhere20.

A limited amount of PM13 monitoring has also been carried out inChristchurch in the last few years, particularly over the winter months.

Id

01Unfortunately this work was never written up by the staff involved, and thesepeople are no longer employed by the Department of Health.

4.4. Smoke

Smoke levels have been measured at more than 60 sites over the last 30years, although many of these were short term sites operated for periods ofno more than 6 months to 2 years. About two thirds of all the sites were inChristchurch, with the remainder in areas such as Whangarei, Auckland,Huntly, Dunedin and Invercargill.

As noted previously, the measurement of smoke is based on determinationsof the reflectance of light from 'soiled' filters, and as such is highly dependanton the physical properties of the particles collected, especially particle sizeand colour (or darkness). The results of the measurements are converted tog/m3 by means of a standard calibration curve, but this was originally

derived from the UK and is really only applicable for communities wherecoal smoke from domestic fires is the predominant source. The generalpractice in New Zealand is to use this calibration curve to convert the resultsto a mass basis, but to express the results as Smoke Units, rather than ALglm3.

The results from the New Zealand monitoring can be summarised as follows:

(i) summer smoke levels throughout the country are typically less than 5 to10 Smoke Units

(ii) current winter time smoke levels in areas other than Christchurch, showdaily maxima typically in the range of 30 to 50 Smoke Units, with annualmeans of about 5 to 15

(iii) by comparison, winter time smoke levels in Christchurch, over theperiod 1980 to 1985, showed daily maxima of up to about 200 Smoke Units,with annual means of about 15 to 30. (This type of monitoring wasdiscontinued in Christchurch in 1987, with the commissioning of fullyinstrumental monitoring site).

(iv) Smoke levels at most sites around the country, including Christchurch,have shown significant improvements over the last decade or so.

A limited study of the relationship between Smoke Units and the true massconcentration, was carried out in Auckland and Huntly over the period 1982to 1985. As might have been expected, this showed that the relationship wasquite variable, and was highly dependant on the location of the monitoringsites, and on the time of the year.

Some of the results from smoke monitoring at a selection of sites around thecountry, are summarised in Figures A17 to A23. This data is produced from24-hour measurements, and two parameters are shown, monthly averagesand the maximum daily result in each month. It should be noted once again,that the scales can vary from one graph to the next. Also, descriptions ofmost of the sites have been previously given in Section 4.2. Some points tonote about these graphs are as follows:

Figure A17; site 4:19, Penrose, Auckland - average smoke levels over the last5 years have been slightly lower than in the past, but monthly maxima showno pronounced trends, apart from the very low results. for 1990 and theunusually high values in 1984 and 1986.

Figure A18. site 4:56, Mt Eden, Auckland - no obvious trends over the period1975 to 1983.

Figure A19. site 5:43, Pakuranga, Auckland - residential site in an EastAuckland suburb. Smoke levels are actually higher than those recorded atMt Eden and not much lower than at Penrose. No obvious trends in thedata.

Figure A20; site 16:31, Manchester St, Christchurch - no marked changes inmonthly average smoke levels, but monthly maxima during the 1980s aremarkedly lower than for the previous decade. Note also, the much higherlevels of smoke compared to the Auckland sites shown in the previousfigures.

Figure A21; site 16:33, Victoria St, Christchurch - results from 1982 to 1984are lower than in previous years, but the levels show increases again in 1985and 86. A similar pattern was recorded at site 16:14 over the same timeperiod.

Figure A22; site 16:46, Avonside, Christchurch - apart from the high resultsduring 1975, 1979 and 1980, there are no obvious changes in smoke levels atthis site.

Figure A23; site 18:02, State Insurance Building, Dunedin - smoke levels atthis inner city site have shown a marked improvement over the period 1975to 1988. Similar improvements were observed at site 18:17 in the suburb ofKensington, from 1983 to 1988.

As with particulate matter, most of the above results show the expectedseasonal variations. The situation regarding long term trends is not as clearcut however, with obvious improvements at some sites and no markedchanges at others. The Christchurch sites are of particular interest here, as

FT

the information from different sites is rather conflicting. The situationbecomes a little clearer if we also review the information from additionalsites given in the reports by Pullen and Patterson 10. Some of this data issummarised in Table 2 below, which shows 2-monthly average values forJune/July for a number of different sites.

Table 2: Christchurch Smoke Results (June/July avge, smoke units)

Site 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

16:18, Govt Bldgs16:30, Reserve Bank16:31, Manchester St16:33, Nat. Rad. Lab.16:34, Bealey Ave16:46, Avonside

211 182 104--101

--*167

69--879771-9664

10377-106 120 76

(* 1969 data)

As can be seen from the table, there was a significant improvement inChristchurch smoke levels from 1960 through to about 1975. (It is importantto recognise that this could have been due to reduced levels of particulatematter in the air, but could also be the result of changes in the darkness ofthe smoke.) From 1975 onwards, the results have fluctuated somewhat, but itappears that smoke levels in the mid 1980s were still slightly better than 10years before. All smoke monitoring in Christchurch was discontinued in 1987with the commissioning of fully instrumental monitoring site.

4.5. Sulfur Dioxide

45.1. Sulfonatign

Sulfonation monitoring, or the lead peroxide candle, was the first methodused in this country for the measurement of sulfur dioxide. As commentedpreviously, this method is relatively imprecise, and it is therefore notappropriate to try to analyse the results in any great detail. Sulfonation dataare available for more than 80 sites throughout the country, although thisnumber does not include a significant amount of the early work carried out inboth Auckland and Christchurch. Other locations have included Whangarei,Hamilton, New Plymouth, Napier, Wanganui, Lower Hutt and Nelson. Aswith all of the air monitoring work reported here, all of the sulfonationresults are held by ESR in Auckland and can be made available to interestedparties on request.

A limited amount of sulfonation data is presented in Table 3, which showsannual average results for a number of different sites around the country.

27

These have been selected as representative of general urban areas, includingindustrial, commercial and residential locations, but do not includemonitoring sites around specific industries. All sulfonation monitoring wasdiscontinued in 1979.

Table 3: Sulfonation Results, annual averages, mgSO3/m2/day(i = industrial, c = commercial, r = residential)

Site 1961 1964 1967 1970 1974 1978

2:03, Port area, Whangarei (i)2:07, Kamo, Whangarei (r)3:09, New Lynn, Auckland (i)3:16, Takapuna, Auckland (c)4:13, Mt Albert, Auckland (r)4:19, Penrose, Auckland (i)5:33, Mangere, Auckland (r)6:01, Hamilton (c)10:06, New Plymouth (r)11:04, Wanganui (r)14:02, Gracefield, L Hutt (i)14:04, Petone, L. Hutt (r)16:01, Sydenham, Chch (r)16:18, Govt Bldgs, Chch (c)16:19, Bromley, Chch (r)

-0.03 0.23 0.11-0.21 0.16 0.150.11 0.30 0.33 0.27-0.04 0.21 0.070.01 0.02 0.12 0.040.41 0.64 0.54 0.61-0.36 0.09 0.16---0.06---*0.16---*0.07-0.29 0.22 0.27-0.10 0.16 0.140.70 0.54 0.46 0.300.77 0.56 0.61 . 0.330.33 0.37 0.56 0.45

(* 1971 data)

0.15

0.08 0.020.07 0.010.07 <0.020.64 0.150.06 0.120.10 0.020.140.030.170.210.17 0.080.21 0.13.0.24

The main points to take from this data are the differences in sulfohationlevels between the various locations, and the significant changes insulfonation levels throughout the country over time. The small increases atanumber of sites around 1967 were generally attributed to the use of highsulfur fuel oils, while the subsequent improvements can be related to adecline in the use of both this and coal.

4.5.2. Wet-chemical Methods

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) has been measured at more than 40 sites around thecountry over the last 30 years, using the so-called Volumetric method (seeSection 3.2). Many of these were only operated for periods of about 6months to 2 years, however. About half of all the sites were in Christchurch,with the remainder in Whangarei, Auckland, Huntly, Dunedin andInvercargill.

28

This method of monitoring for SO 2 gives a measurement of 'total acidity' inthe air, usually as a 24-hour average. The results from this work can besummarised as follows:

(1) monitoring near the Whangarei oil refinery in 1987/88 gave results forSO2 with an average of 10 to 15 ,u.g/m3, and maximum daily values of up to50 p.g/m3.

(ii) monitoring in Auckland has mainly been based around 3 sites and theseindicate that SO2 levels have declined significantly over the last 10 or soyears. Prior to about 1980, SO2 levels averaged about 15 to 20 &g/m3, withdaily maxima of up to 75 pg/m3. More recent results have been around 5p.g/m3 or less, with daily maxima of only 20 to 30 Ag/m3.

(iii) in Huntly, SO2 is monitored at 3 sites, with 2 of these being operatedsince 1977. Once again, the levels have declined significantly over the lastdecade, with initial average levels of 10 to 15 Ag/m3 now dropping to 5 to 10

4 tg/m3, and the daily maxima of up to 75 Akglm3 now down to 15 to 20 pg/m3.This monitoring is carried out by ECNZ, and is directed at emissions fromthe Huntly power station. The results are more relevant to the area as awhole however, because of the low use of coal in the station to date.

(iv) a total of 20 or more sites have been used for SO2 monitoring inChristchurch, although about two thirds of these were only operated as short-term sites, usually only over the winter months of each year. All SO2monitoring in Christchurch, using this method, was discontinued in 1987.

As with most other locations, there have been marked improvements in SO2levels in Christchurch over the years. Typical annual average levels in themid 1980s were in the order of 15 to 30 p.g/m3, with maximum daily values inthe range of 50 to 100 gg/m3. In the 1970s, most sites were recording resultsof about double these values.

(NB. refer section 4.5.3 which gives the results of instrumental monitoring forSO2. The levels measured are somewhat lower than those quoted above.)

(v) monitoring in Dunedin was mainly based on two sites, although anadditional six were used for short term studies as well. All SO2 monitoringceased in 1988/89, at which time the results were indicating annual averagelevels of 10 to 20 Ag/m3 with maximum daily values of 35 to 70 pg/m 3. Onceagain, the measurements in this city have shown significant improvementsover time.

(vi) monitoring at two sites in Invercargill in the mid-1980s, indicatedrelatively low levels of SO2, with annual averages of 5 to 10 /.Lg/m3 and dailymaxima of no more than 25 g/m3.

11

10

The changes in sulfur dioxide levels are illustrated for 3 sites in Auckland,Christchurch and Dunedin in Figures A24 to A26. Reductions in theconsumption of coal and fuel oil are the most likely explanation for theimprovements shown.

It will be seen from the above data, that most levels of SO 2 recorded over thelast 10 to 15 years are quite low by comparison with the air quality guidelinesgiven in Section 3.10.

45.3. Instrumental Monitoring

Monitoring for sulfur dioxide in Christchurch is now carried out routinely Outat the main instrumental monitoring site in Packe St (16: 67) which wascommissioned in 1987. The instrument used is a pulsed fluorescencemonitor, and the results recorded are somewhat lower than those found usingthe Volumetric method. This may be due to the changes in methodology, butmay also reflect lower levels of SO2 at the Packe St site. Unfortunately, noparallel measurements were carried out with the two methods prior toceasing the wet-chemical measurements. Nor were any measurements takenusing this method at the Packe St site.

The annual average values recorded for SO2 at the Packe St site from 1988 to1991 were 7, 3, 6 and 5 p.g/m3, which is approximately half the levelsreported between 1982 and 1986 at the nearest wet-chemical site, number16:33. The highest 24-hour average results recorded in 1991 and 1992 were28 and 41 g/m3, respectively. These results are all low by comparison withthe air quality guideline levels of 50 and 125 ALg/m3, for the annual and 24-hour averages respectively.

This is the only instrumental sulfur dioxide monitoring site in New Zealand,apart from some specific industrial programmes (see Section 5).


Carbon monoxide (CO) in ambient air has only ever been monitored on afairly spasmodic basis in this country, up until the last five years. This is nowone of the parameters monitored continuously in Christchurch, at theinstrumental monitoring site in Packe St. A monitoring site was also set up inQueen St, Auckland, towards the end of 1990, and this has operatedcontinuously since that time. Prior to this, most monitoring was usually onlycarried out for periods ranging from several weeks up to about 6 months, atfairly erratic intervals, and in a variety of locations.

01

The first studies of carbon monoxide were carried out in Auckland in themid-1960s, by the Air Pollution Research Committee. The first Departmentof Health measurements were made in Auckland and Christchurch in theearly to mid 1970s, and these indicated that carbon monoxide couldaccumulate to undesirable levels for significant periods of time, in someinner city streets. For example, measurements inside a shop in Queen St,Auckland, during 1974, showed that while the WHO 1-hour guideline of 40mg/m3 was never exceeded, the 8-hour guideline of 10 mg/m 3 was exceededfor about 35% of the time. Similarly, two studies carried out over 10 winterdays each at Bealey Ave in Christchurch, showed maximum hourly levels of36 and 26 mg/m3, and 8-hour maxima of 19 and 15 mg/m 3, in 1971 and 1972respectively. Further monitoring was carried out at this site in 1979 and1980, with much the same results.

Carbon monoxide was also measured in Hamilton on 3 occasions, in 1972/73,1977/78 and 1982/83. In each case the measurements were taken at anumber of kerbside locations in the middle of the city, over the periodDecember to February. The results again indicated that CO levels could bemoderately high on some occasions, with the 8-hour air quality guidelinebeing exceeded for between 26 and 40% of all week days.

The new instrumental site in Christchurch which was commissioned in 1987,is further away from any major roads compared to the sites used previously.As a result, most of the levels recorded are relatively low. Even so, the 8-hour guideline has been exceeded on a number of occasions in each year (eg.12 in 1991 and 17 in 1992.

The new CO site in Auckland, is located in Queen St, but is in a differentposition from that used previously. The site is now further away from any ofthe major intersections, but in addition, traffic flows in and near Queen Stare quite a bit lower than those in the 1970s. The levels of CO now beingrecorded are consequently lower than those in the past, and the WHO 8-hour.guideline has only been exceeded on a few days over the last 3 years.

The above results suggest that there has probably been little change incarbon monoxide levels overall, in most urban areas. There is no reason tobelieve that we should not expect to still find unacceptably highconcentrations in locations with significant traffic congestion. There is a realneed for more extensive monitoring of CO throughout the country, toascertain the current situation regarding ambient levels of this pollutant.

Some recent results from the Queen St site in Auckland are shown in FigureA41. It will be seen from this that there is a significant daily variation, withthe peaks of carbon monoxide corresponding with peak times for vehicularactivity.

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Most monitoring of the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) has been carried out inAuckland and Christchurch, and to a lesser extent, Dunedin. There havebeen two approaches to monitoring; wet-chemical (bubbler) systems, whichgenerally yield a 24-hour average result, and instrumental monitoring, whichgives continuous data. Both methods produce results for nitric oxide (NO)and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), although the primary concern is with the latter,because of its potential health effects. The levels of total NOx are mainly ofinterest in photochemical smog situations.

4.7.1. Wet Chemical Measurements

NOx monitoring using wet-chemical systems was carried out at 5 sites inAuckland over the mid to -late 1970s, at 10 sites in Christchurch, for variableperiods through most of the 1970s and 80s, and at 2 sites in Dunedin in thelate 70s. Most of the sites were located either within or near the centralbusiness districts, or in suburban areas with significant motor vehicle activity.The results can be summarised as follows (Note: all NOx data is quoted interms of NO2 equivalents):

(i) maximum daily values for NOx in Auckland were typically in the range of100 to 300 &g/m3, with annual means of 40 to 60 Ag/m3.

(ii) maximum daily values for NOx in Christchurch ranged from about 200 to500 Ag/m3, with occasional excursions above this limit. Annual means werein the range of 50 to 100 Ag/m3 in most locations.

(iii) maximum daily values for NOx in Dunedin were typically in the range of150 to 300 pg/m3, with annual means of 50 to 60 .&g/m3.

(iv) the ratio of NO to NO2 in the above data was normally in the range ofabout 1:1 to 3:1. In other words, NO2 normally accounted for between 25and 50% of the total NOx. The main factor here is proximity to sources ofNOx; the ratio tends to drop with increasing distance, as NO is converted toNO2 in the atmosphere.

Most of the above data indicates only moderate levels of NO 2, compared tothe air quality guidelines. The results for two sites in Christchurch, 16:14 and16:31, are shown in Figures A27 to A30. These indicate the usual seasonalvariations, with the highest results being recorded in winter. It will also beseen that there were no marked changes in NOx levels throughout the periodof monitoring. This observation applies to sites throughout the country.

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4.7.2. Instrumental Monitoring

Instrumental monitoring for NOx has been carried out in a fairly sporadicfashion, from the mid to late 1970s, although there are now two permanentsites operating in Auckland and one in Christchurch. Overall, the totalnumber of sites that have been used (3 or 4 in each city) is lower than for thewet-chemical method.

Generally speaking, the instrumental data indicates similar daily and annualconcentrations to the wet-chemical information already given above. Forexample, the annual average levels recorded at sites 4:23 and 4:65 were 82and 24 pg/m3 in 1991, and 112 and 34 ;Lg/m3 in 1992, respectively. Thelevels recorded at site 4:23 in Penrose, are higher than those recorded in thepast at site 4:19, also in Penrose, but this is readily explained by the fact thatsite 4:23 is considerably closer to the southern motorway. In Christchurch,the annual average levels of NOx recorded at Packe St. were 43, 48 and 38pg/m3, for 1989, 1990 and 1991, respectively.

A significant advantage of the instrumental monitors is the additionalinformation that they provide on short term variations in NOxconcentrations. Two daily peaks are usually observed, one during themorning 'rush hours' and a second in the evening. This latter peak can alsoextend well into the night however, especially in Christchurch. The intensityof these peaks varies from day to day in accordance with changes inmeteorological conditions, but they can at times be significantly high. Forexample, the maximum hourly result for NO2 recorded at site 4:23 in 1992was 193 &g/m3, with a corresponding NOx level of nearly 1400 pg/m3.Similarly in Christchurch, the maximum hourly levels of NO2 at Packe Stduring 1992 were above 100 Ag/m3 for more than 20 days of the year, withcorresponding NOx levels of up to 1100 Ag/m3. These NO2 results are stillwell below the 1-hour guideline of 300 pg/m3, but the high levels of totalNOx indicate significant potential for the additional formation of NO2.

It is interesting to note that the ratio of NO:NO2 indicated by theinstrumental monitoring is markedly higher during peak measurements, thanfor the wet-chemical data given above. Values of 10:1 and higher, are quitetypical for the instrumental measurements during these peaks, although thelong-term ratio is still around 3:1 or lower.

It should also be noted here that, as with other polutants, the resultsproduced can be highly site dependant. It is therefore important to maintainlong-term continuity within any air monitoring programme, and any changesin monitoring site locations should not be undertaken without good reason.

33

Some recent results from the Penrose site in Auckland are shown in FigureA42. It will be seen from this that there is a significant daily variation, withthe peaks of NOx corresponding with peak times for vehicular activity.

4.8. Ozone and Other PhotochemicalOxidahts

Most monitoring for ozone and/or photochemical oxidants has been carriedout in Auckland, as this is probably the only region with sufficient numbersand densities of the major emission sources (motor vehicles especially) forthis to be a potential problem. A limited amount of monitoring has also beencarried out in Christchurch. This matter received particular attention in thelate 1970s and early 80s, as a result of proposals to build a number of largepower stations in and around the Auckland area. Most of the monitoring wascarried out in joint studies by the Department of Health, NZ Met. Serviceand what was then the NZ Electricity Department. The results can besummarised as follows:

(i) there is a natural background level of ozone in ambient air.Measurements in various locations in New Zealand indicate that this isnormally in the range of 0 to 30 ppb (0-65 j g/m3).

(ii) periods of elevated levels of oxidants were observed in Auckland on 5 to10 days of each year, during the months of summer and early autumn. These'incidents' were generally in the range of 40 to 80 ppb (80 to 160 pg/m 3), andusually occurred over periods of 2 to 3 hours in the early to mid-afternoon.

(iii) the annual Christchurch air pollution reports for 1974-76 and 1978,indicate that elevated levels of oxidants were also recorded in that city duringthe summer months. No specific results are given,, however.

The most detailed investigations of photochemical smog in Auckland werecarried out by NZ Electricity Department during 1979 and 1980, as reportedby Brassell21. Generally, the work indicates that while there was thepotential for photochemical smog to occur, this was only observed to alimited extent.

There has been no monitoring carried out for photochemical smog formationin New Zealand since the 1980 studies. This was partly because of thepractical difficulties and costs involved in such work, and also because of alack of any evidence to indicate a smog problem. Further periodicmonitoring could well be justified however to ensure that the situation doesnot slowly deteriorate over time. The mass emissions of the precursors (NOxand hydrocarbons) have almost certainly increased since this work wascarried out.

4.9. Lead

Particulate lead has been monitored at more than 25 locations throughoutthe country, with sites in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, ButtValley, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Two of these sites (MtAlbert and Penrose in Auckland) have been in operation since 1961, whilemany of the others have run for periods of 5 to 10 years. The monitoringsites cover a variety of locations, including suburban, inner city and alongsidemajor motorways, with most of them directed at observing the effects ofmotor vehicle emissions.

Prior to 1986, lead levels in most urban areas were typically in the range of0.1 to 1.0 1.Lg/m3 (1-month averages). In areas of high traffic densities orsignificant congestion the levels were generally higher than this, with valuesat times in excess of 2 to 3 Ag/m3. Since that time however, the levels havedropped significantly, as the results of changes in the lead content of petrol.

The first reductions of lead in petrol occurred in 1986, with the completion ofthe oil refinery expansion at Marsden Point. In July 1986 the lead content ofSuper (96 octane) petrol was reduced from 0.84 to 0.45 grams of lead perlitre. In January of the following year, lead-free 91 was introduced, to takethe place of Regular petrol, which had also been leaded at the same rate asSuper.

Of these changes the first had by far the greatest immediate effect. Prior tothe introduction of Lead-free 91, Regular petrol accounted for only about7% of the total market. This level in fact fell to 4% immediately after thechange, presumably as a result of inadequate information and publicity as towhich vehicles could be operated satisfactorily on the new fuel. From thattime, recovery was initially slow, but in recent years we have seen Lead-free91 move towards capturing an ever-increasing share of the total petrolmarket. This improvement can probably be attributed to increasing effortson the part of the oil companies to promote unleaded petrol, the growth of'green consumerism', and the introduction of a preferential tax on leadedpetrol at the beginning of 1991. The proportion of vehicles intended tooperate solely on lead-free petrol is also believed to have increased.

The effect of the reductions in the lead content of petrol on the levels of leadin air are illustrated in Figures A31 to A40, for a number of sites throughoutthe country. Descriptions of all of these sites were given in Section 42. Thedata is presented as 3-monthly running averages for comparison against anair quality guideline of 1.0 gg/m3 (3-monthly average).

There are two main points to note in each of the figures. Firstly, it will beseen that the data shows the usual seasonal variation, with the highest results

Li

being recorded in mid-winter. The second major feature is the markedreductions in air lead levels from 1986 to 1987. In the original data this effectcould be detected by about October 1986, or three months after the firstreduction in the lead content of petrol. The delay can probably be attributedto a lag in fully purging the petrol distribution system of the older high leadsupplies. The average reduction in air lead levels for mid-1987 compared to1986, was around 40%, which is slightly less than the overall reduction of leadconsumption in petrol that had occurred over that time. A continuingimprovement can be seen in more recent times, as the result of increasingsales of lead-free 91.


As might be expected, most monitoring of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has beendirected at the geothermal areas in the central North Island. Monitoring inRotorua was carried out by the Department of Health on various occasionsduring the 1970s, and this indicated that levels within the geothermal area,including the central business district, could be up to 1 mg/m3 or above. Themost reliable data, from a 3-month monitoring exercise in 1978, indicated amedian concentration of about 30 Jhg/m3, with 35% of the results in excess of70/hg/rn3, and 10% above 400 /hg/m3. Unfortunately, this work was neverpublished. Some earlier measurements taken using the less reliable paper-tape technology were reported in a paper by Douglas and Thom. Therehas been no further monitoring in Rotorua since this time.

4.11. Fluoride

Most fluoride monitoring carried out by the Department of Health has beendirected at the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, and at a number offertiliser works throughout the country. Much of this effort was based onmeasurements of fluoride in vegetation, or passive monitoring using treatedfilters, as outlined in Section 3.8. The data are therefore mainly of use in asurvey mode, and can only be related to air concentrations of fluoride byindirect means. Measurements using the passive filters were carried out atover 40 sites, in Invercargill, Dunedin, Christchurch and Wanganui. Theresults indicated a relatively low level of impact from the aluminum smelter,although somewhat higher levels were recorded near fertiliser works in someof the other locations.

The only direct measurements of fluoride in air (by the Department ofHealth) were made in the early 1970s at Tiwai Point. These were based onweekly samples, and the fluoride concentrations were generally less than 0.1/hg/m3, with occasional excursions above this level. None of the results wereindicative of problems due to fluoride emissions from the aluminium smelter.

These results are rather dated however, and there has been a Significantexpansion of the smelter since that time. Most of the fluoride monitoring inthis area over the last 2 decades, has been carried out by NZ AluminiumSmelters Ltd itself, with results being reported on a regular basis to theDepartment of Health.

It is not really appropriate for the results of any of the fluoride monitoring tobe presented in any detail here. As noted previously, all of themeasurements were directed at specific industries and the results really needto be interpreted in conjunction with other information relating to thoseplants. Much of this information, and some of the monitoring data, are givenin the various annual reports produced by the Department of Health's airpollution control group.

5. PROGRAMME SUMMARIES

The air pollution monitoring carried out in New Zealand over the last 30years has generated an enormous amount of data, and it is quite impracticalto present any more than a general summary here. The notes given in thepreceding chapter have attempted to provide an overview of the extent andtype of measurements carried out on each of the pollutants, along with ananalysis of some of the results produced. This section is concerned with asummary of the different monitoring programmes carried out in differentparts of the country, and the reasons for some of these. Further informationon the background for this work can be found in the annual reports of theDepartment of Health's air pollution control group. Unfortunately theproduction of these reports ceased in 1984, and any more recent informationwill generally only be found on the relevant Health Department files.

It is not intended to present any more detail on the results from the variousmonitoring programmes, other than what has already been given above.Most of the detailed data for specific studies is held by ESR in Auckland andcan generally be made available on request. The full extent of the data hasbeen summarised in a report by Jones and Narsey.

The notes presented below are given on a regional basis, using the currentregional council boundaries. Within each regional summary, informationregarding individual pollutants is given in the same order (more or less) asused in the previous sections, followed by information on industry-specificprogrammes.

5.1. Northland

Sulfonation - a total of 33 sites were used between 1961 and 1977, althoughnot all sites were concurrent. Much of the monitoring was directed at the oilrefinery at Marsden Point, construction of which started in 1962. Othermonitors were directed at the Marsden A power station, the port industrialarea, and the residential area of Karno.

Carbon Monoxide - CO monitoring was carried out in the middle ofangarei for about 1 week in December 1978, and in the suburb of Kamo

in 1990.

Oil Refinery - suspended particulate was monitored at two sites in 1978 and1979, prior to the refinery expansion. Further measurements of particulatematter and smoke/sulfur dioxide were taken at 5 sites in 1987 and 1988, inresponse to public complaints. Instrumental monitoring for sulfur dioxidewas also carried out in the Whangarei Heads area during 1988 and 1989.Three continuous monitors for sulfur dioxide were installed by the companyin 1989 and have operated ever since.

IR

Marsden A Power Station - the only specific monitoring of this source was aninstrumental programme for SO 2 carried out by NZ Electricity Departmentduring 1975 and 1976. (Some monitoring was also carried out in 1992 by theNorthland Regional Council).

5.2. Auckland

(Note: Much of the early work in Auckland is described in some detail in theannual reports of the Air Pollution Research Committee6 and has not beenincluded in the notes below.)

Dust Deposition - measurements at one or both of the two laboratory sites(4:48 and 4:56) were carried out between 1971 and 1979. Sites at Mt Albert,Penrose, and 4 sites in Onehunga were also monitored in 1978/79. (see alsospecific industries below)

Suspended Particulate Matter - at least 17 sites have been used in Aucklandfor routine monitoring of this pollutant. Eight of these sites were inoperation for periods of 5 years or more, and the results for seven of thesewere summarised in Figures Al to A5. The eighth major site was the originallaboratory in Symonds St (4:48). The short-term sites have includedlocations such as Riverhead (1964-67), Newton (1980), Pt Chevalier (1981-82), Newmarket (1986-91), Ellerslie (1984-85), Mangere (1965) and Otara(1985). (see also specific industries below)

Sulfonation - a total of 20 sites were used in Auckland between 1963 and1979, with an additional 49 sites used by the AAPRC from 1960 to 1962.Locations covered included the Manukau Harbour, the industrial areas ofOnehunga, Penrose, Mangere and New Lynn, NZ Steel, the Otara powerstation, Chelsea Sugar Co., the inner city area and a variety of residentiallocations.

Daily Sampling - this term was used to describe the programme of daily (24-hour) measurements of smoke, sulfur dioxide and NOx. Three sites weremainly used by the Department of Health, the Penrose Health Clinic, and thetwo laboratory sites, 4:48 and 4:56. Measurements at site 4:48 were originallyincluded in the early work of the AAPRC, and ran through to 1975.Monitoring at the Fenton St laboratory covered the period 1975 to 1983,while the programme started at Penrose in 1973 is still running today. NOxmeasurements were only included in this programme through to 1979.

WHO GEMS Programme - this was based on the monitoring for smoke andsufur dioxide at the Penrose and Fenton St sites, with data being reported toWHO from 1976 onwards. An additional site at Elm Park School inPakuranga was included as a 'residential' location from 1978 to 1983. The

I

39

results from instrumental NOx monitoring at Penrose and Mt Eden have alsobeen reported to WHO since 1991, and data for CO and lead will beincluded in the programme from 1993.

Carbon Monoxide - the only major studies of CO in Auckland have beencarried out in Queen St. Monitoring at site 4:50 was carried out during 1974and 75, while more recently a permanent monitoring site was established atsite 4:69 in 1990, and has operated ever since. Other locations, usually onlymonitored for a few weeks at a time, have included Pt Chevalier (1976),Takapuna (1976) and Queen St again in 1978.

NOx - wet chemical monitoring for NOx was covered by the notes on dailysampling, above. Instrumental monitoring for NOx was carried out at site4:56 from 1978 to 1983. Monitoring at Penrose (4:23) was started in 1986,and at the Kelly St (4:65) laboratory in 1990.

Oxidants - most Department of Health monitoring for oxidants was carriedout from 1975 to 1978 using the Fenton St laboratory and a site at MusickPoint. Details of the more intensive programme carried out by NZElectricityare even in the paper by Brasell21.

Lead - this has been measured at most of the sites listed above for suspendedparticulate monitoring. The results for most of the key sites in thisprogramme were sumarised in Figures A31 to A34.

NZ Steel - particulate monitoring in the vicinity of the steel mill was firststarted in 1966, 2 years before commissioning of the plant. Dust depositionlevels have been monitored at 6 sites and suspended particulate at 12 sitesaround the mill. The programme was initially carried out as a joint effortbetween the Department of Health and NZ Steel, but has been operatedsolely by the company since 1987.

Winstone's Quarry - suspended particulate has been monitored at 3 sitesaround this Mt Wellington quarry, since 1975.

Henderson and Pollard - dust deposition monitoring was carried out aroundthis Mt Eden timber mill from 1974 to 1977.

::53 Waikatö':.

Dust deposition - monitoring was carried out at 3 sites in Paeroa during1975/76, mainly because of problems with a local dairy factory.

Suspended particulate matter and lead - these two pollutants have beenmonitored at Whitiora School in Hamilton since 1983, as part of a national

A t

survey of lead in air. Results from this work are summarised in Figures A6and MS. Monitoring for suspended particulate matter was also carried outat two other locations in the past, Putaruru in 1965/66 and Te Kuiti in1986/87.

Sulfonation -2 sites were used in the middle of Hamilton, from 1967 to 1979.

Carbon monoxide - this pollutant was monitored in Hamilton on 3 occasions,1972/73, 1977/78 and 1982/83, at a number of inner city locations.

Meremere power station - suspended particulate was monitored at 2 sites,from 1976 to 1988. Dust deposition was also measured at up to 8 sites, from1971 to 1975. Most of this work was carried out by the Station staff.

Huntly power station - an extensive monitoring programme was first startedin Huntly in 1978, prior to the commissioning of the power station, and hasbeen operating ever since. Most of the work has been carried out by theStation staff, but with some initial support and on-going quality assurancefrom Department of Health (and latterly DSIR) personnel. A total of 4 siteshave been used for monitoring smoke and sulfur dioxide, and 8 sites forsuspended particulate matter.

Waihi Gold Mining Co - a background dust monitoring programme was firststarted in Waihi in 1982, and has continued throughout the various stages ofthe development of the mine. The current programme is based on 15 sites, 8of which were used for suspended particulate and 14 for dust deposition. Allof this work has been carried out by the mining company, but with occasionalchecks for quality assurance by the Department of Health and/or DSIR.

5.4. Bay of Plenty

Hydrogen sulfide - monitoring in Rotorua for H 2S was summarised inSection 4.10.

Tasman Pulp & Paper Co - a number of monitoring programmes have beenundertaken in Kawerau, in the vicinity of the mill. Instrumental monitoringfor reduced sulfur gases was carried out in 1975. Dust depositionmeasurements were made at 4 sites between 1974 and 1979. Suspendedparticulate and airborne sulfate were monitored at two sites from 1977 to1980. Monitoring for chlorine and/or total oxidants was carried out in 1990.An extensive programme of measurements has also been carried out over thelast two years as a joint effort between the Regional Council and thecompany.

Al

Ohaaki power station - instrumental monitors for hydrogen sulfide wereinstalled in the vicinity of this power station as one of the conditions of itsClean Air Licence. These are operated and maintained by ECNZ, althoughsome quality assurance checks were carried out in the past by DSIR.

5.5. Gisborne

No air monitoring has ever been carried out by the Department of Health inthis area. The Gisborne District Council has recently embarked on aregional monitoring programme however, and this is expected to continueover the next few years.

5.6. Taranaki

Suspended particulate - this was monitored at 2 sites in New Plymouth from1973 to 1977. Measurements of background particulate concentrations werealso taken in the Kapuni area between 1980 and 1982, prior to theconstruction of an ammonia/urea plant. The results from this work werereported by Pilgrim et a13.

Sulfonation - a programme using lead candles was carried out in NewPlymouth from 1971 to 1976.

Fluoride - static filters were used at 5 sites in New Plymouth between 1981and 1983, for monitoring fluoride emissions from a fertiliser works.

New Plymouth power station - the early sulfonation and suspendedparticulate programmes from the mid-1970s noted above, were prompted bythe proposal to build a power station in New Plymouth, but are listedseparately as they provide useful information on a regional basis. It wasoriginally planned for the power station to be coal fired, but these plans werechanged during construction because of the discovery of the Maui gas field.The station chimney was therefore somewhat over-designed, as it wasoriginally intended for the control of SO2 emissions from the sulfur in coal.In addition to the above monitoring, measurements of smoke and sulfurdioxide were carried out during commissioning of the station, but our recordsof this work are incomplete.

5.7. Wanganui/Manawatu

Suspended particulate and lead - these pollutants were monitored from 1984to 1988 at a site in Palmerston North, as part of a national survey of lead inair.

42

Sulfonation - 6 sites were operated in Wanganui from 1970 to 1978, as ageneral survey of air quality in that city.

Sufur dioxide, NOx and fluoride - according to the 1970 report of the . ChiefChemical Inspector, a survey of these pollutants was carried out inWanganui over a 12-month period during 1969/70, and the results were all'low'. We have no records of the results from this work however.

Fluoride - monitoring using static filters was carried out in the vicinity of afertiliser works during 1984/85.

5.8. Hawkes Bay

Sulfonation - 6 sites were used for sulfonation monitoring from 1976 to 1979,mainly in the vicinity of the Whirinaki pulp mill.

5.9. Wellington

Suspended particulate matter and lead - these pollutants were monitored at 2sites in the Wellington region, as part of a national survey of lead in air. Onesite in Naenae was operated from 1983 to 1988, while the other site inNewtown was also started in 1983 and is still operating today. The resultsfrom this work were summarised in Figures A8, A9 and A36.

Sulfonation, smoke and SO2 - most air pollution monitoring in theWellington region has been carried out in the Hutt Valley, where winter-timepollution in the 1960s and 70s was a cause for some concern. Sulfonationmeasurements were carried out at 7 sites from 1963 to 1977. Smoke andsulfur dioxide were also monitored at 4 sites from 1963 to 1966, and againduring 1977. The later study also included a few measurements of lead.Most of this work was carried out by staff of the Upper Hutt City Council.

Carbon monoxide - an investigation into the concentrations of this gas, andother pollutants such as lead, were carried out in the Mt Victoria tunnel in1981/82, as reported by Pilgrim and Nicol27.

5.10. Nelson/Malborough

Smoke - a number of sites in Richmond (4) and Blenheim (2) have been usedin the past for winter-time smoke surveys. This work was carried out by thelocal councils and we have no information regarding the results.

Al:

5.11. West Coast

Dust deposition - this was monitored at 8 sites in Karamea from 1975 to1977, in response to fallout problems from a local dairy factory.

Sulfonation -3 lead candle sites were used in the Westport area from 1975 to1977, mainly in relation to SO2 emissions from a coal mine.

5.12. Canterbury

Dust deposition - this was monitored at 10 sites in Christchurch between 1975and 1977, as part of the general monitoring of urban air quality. It was alsomonitored at 5 sites in Oamaru during 1978, in response to fallout problemsfrom a local factory.

Suspended particulate matter - at least 10 sites have been used inChristchurch over the last 30 years for monitoring suspended particulate.The results for the longest running sites were summarised in Figures AlO toAl2. Other sites have been located in Sydenham, Riccarton, Hornby,Wigram, Avonside and the inner city area. Three sites are currently stilloperating; Manchester St (16:31), the National Radiation laboratory (16:33),and Packe St (16:67).

Sulfonation - a total of 18 sites were used for lead candle monitoring by theDepartment of Health from about 1970 onwards. Most of these were pickedup from the earlier programme started by the DSIR. The sites covered avariety of locations throughout the city, including the central business district,and most inner suburbs. All sulfonation monitoring ceased in 1979.

Daily Sampling - the sites used for daily (24-hour) monitoring of smoke,sulfur dioxide and NOx have varied significantly over the last 30 years,although some attempts were made to ensure reasonable continuity at least,between a group of about 6 main sites. These were Government Buildings(16:18), the Reserve Bank building (16:30), Bealey Avenue (16:34),Manchester St (16:31), Avonside (16:46) and the National Radiation Lab.(16:33). More or less continuous monitoring has been carried out at up to 4of these sites at any one time, since about 1969.

In addition to the above routine programme, some more intensive exerciseswere carried out at additional sites in 1975/76, and 1981. Full details of allof this work are given the annual reports produced by the regional airpollution control group10.

WHO GEMS - 3 sites were included in the GEMS programme, starting in1976; Woolston Health Clinic (16:14), National Radiation Lab, (16:33) and

AA

Avonside (16:46). Monitoring for smoke and sulfur dioxide was

discontinued at all of these sites in 1987, and the results from Packe St(16:67) have been reported to WHO since that time. For further informationon this programmes refer to the notes given in Section 52 above.

Instrumental monitoring for SO2 and NOx - this was carried out at sites 16:33

and 16:34 in a fairly sporadic fashion from about 1978 to 1984. There is brief

reference to some of the results in the reports by Pullen et a110. Information

from the more recent measurements at PacktSt was summarised in Sections

4.5.3 and 4.72.

Carbon monoxide - information onChristchurch was given in Section 4.6.

the monitoring of this pollutant in

Lead - this has been monitored at 7 sites in Christchurch for varying periodsof time. Results from the longest running sites were presented in Figures

A37 to A39.Fluoride -monitoring using static filters was carried out at up to 5 sites in thevicinity of a fertiliser works from 1972 to 1991.

5.13. Otago

Suspended particulate and lead - these pollutants were monitored from 1984to 1989 at a site in Dunedin, as part of a national survey of lead in air. Theresults were summarised in Figures A13 and A40.

Smoke and SO2 - 8 sites were used in Dunedin for these pollutants. One ofthese sites was in operation between 1975 and 1987 as shown in Figure A23,and another from 1985 to 1989. Six others were used in a survey of the urbanarea from 1975 to 1977.

Oxides of nitrogen - 2 sites were used for NO* measurements between 1976

and 1979.

Fluoride - monitoring using static filters was carried out at 5 sites in the

vicinity of a fertiliser works from 1975 to 1991.

5.14. Southland

Smoke and sulfur dioxide - levels of these pollutants have both beenmonitored from time to time in the urban areas of Invercargill and Bluff.The only records we have show results for 1983 and 1985, but there may be

45

other older results missing from the database. An annual winter programmewas started in 1992 by the Southland Regional Council.

Fluoride - monitoring using static filters has been carried out at 19 sites inthe vicinity of the aluminium smelter since 1971. Funding from theDepartnient of Health ceased in 1992, but the programme has beencontinued as a joint effort between the Regional Council and NZ Aluminium.Smelters. Vegetation samples have also been collected at more than 30 sites,in a quarterly sampling programme covering the same period. Pasturesamples have also been collected from 4 test plots, since about 1984.

It should be noted that the work reported here is only part of a much widerenvironmental monitoring programme,which was set up around the smelterin the early 1970s. This covered a variety of different aspects including waterquality, effects on local wildlife and plants, and the monitoring of farmanimals. The work was coordinated by a committee made up ofrepresentatives from numerous groups, including the Department of Health,.MAF, DSIR, the Catchment Board and other local authorities, and NZAS.

46

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

It should be apparent from the information presented in this report, thatthere has been a substantial amount of effort directed at air pollutionmonitoring in New Zealand over a period of nearly 40 years. The firstsignificant studies into urban air quality were undertaken at a local level inresponse to specific local problems. There was of course significant supportfor this work from government agencies such as DSIR. However the earlywork lead quite quickly to a recognition of the need for some more officialinvolvement by central government, a task which fell to the Department ofHealth as part of its responsibilities under the Health Act. This role hascontinued for the last 30 years, and the information given here represents justone part of the total effort involved.

There have been some obvious improvements in air quality over this time,although it is sometimes not clear how much of this was due to regulatoryactions and how much to other factors. Sulfur dioxide levels around thecountry have improved markedly over the years, particularly so inChristchurch where the concentrations measured in the 1960s and 70s wereunacceptably high. Similarly, there has been a significant improvement in thelevels of suspended particulate matter at many sites around the country,although this remains an area of concern for Christchurch in the middle ofwinter. The results for lead in air have shown the most clear cut changes, asa result of the reductions in lead content of petrol.

If we turn our attention to other motor vehicle-derived pollutants however,the situation is not so good. For both carbon monoxide and the oxides ofnitrogen, there is no indication that the situation has changed at all over thelast 20 years. Carbon monoxide levels are unacceptably high in some innercity locations and the levels of oxides of nitrogen are also significant,although there is no immediate cause for alarm. We have not yetexperienced the levels of photochemical smog so typical of some citiesoverseas, but the indications of the potential for this have been seen. Quiteclearly there is no cause for complacency, as far as motor vehicle pollutantsare concerned.

Perhaps the bigest shortcoming in the data reported here, is that there hasbeen no corresponding monitoring of changes in the emissions of airpollutants. Some attempts have been made to compile this sort of data, inChristchurch especially, but these have been limited by a lack of informationon specific aspects (eg. wood comsumption for home heating) and a lack ofvalid emission factors for most sources. The absence of good emissions datamakes it impossible to identify the exact causes for most of the changes in airquality that have occured over this time.

47

It might also be noted that some of the data suffers from a lack of continuity,either in the location of monitoring sites or in measurement methodologies.There are significant gaps in some of the data where sites and/or methodshave been changed without any attempt being made to establish anycomparative information.

Notwithstanding the above comments, the work carried out over the last 30years has produced a valuable information resource on urban air quality inNew Zealand. Much of the information relates to Auckland andChristchurch, but there is sufficient data from other locations to give areasonably good indication of the air quality that might be expected in mostparts of the country.

As noted in the introduction, responsibilities for the management of airquality in New Zealand have now been passed to regional councils. This hasnot meant the end of Department of Health involvement in air monitoringhowever, as it has an on-going committment to supporting those sites in theWHO GEMS programme. This should go some way at least, to ensuring thatthere is continuing surveillance of urban air quality at a national level. It isimportant however, that regional councils recognise the need for furtherefforts on their part, to add to and extend the existing data base. Motorvehicle emissions are a particular concern at present, but it is important thatother pollutants such as sulfur dioxide are revisited from time to time, toensure that the currently low levels are maintained.

It is pleasing to note that the need for air monitoring is being recognised byregional councils. ESR is currently involved in on-going programmes withthe Auckland, Waikato and Canterbury Regional Councils. A number ofshort term studies have also been undertaken in Northland, Bay of Plenty,Gisborne, Hawkes Bay, Wellington, West Coast, Dunedin and Southland.

48

REFERENCES

1

Sparrow, C 3; A Survey of the N.Z. Air Pollution Literature and aBibliography. Public Health, 83 (2), p 25-33, 1968.

Wilkinson, L; The Air Pollution Problem in Christchurch, NewZealand. NZ J. Sci., 2, p 182-195, 1959.

3 Air Pollution. Report of the Air Pollution Advisory Committee,Christchurch Regional Planning Authority. DSIR Information Series,no.55, 1966.

4 Report of Commission of Inquiry into Certain Alleged Nuisances inDistricts Within or Contiguous to the South Auckland MetroplitanArea (Fumes Inquiry). Appendix J (H31A), NZ House ofRepresentatives, Wellington, 1955.

5

Sullivan, 3 L; An Investigation of Air Pollution Problems in the SouthAuckland Area. Government Printer, Wellington, 1957.

Annual Reports. Auckland Air Pollution Research Committee, 1960 -1973.

7Sparrow, 3, Skam, A W and Thom, N G; The Growth and Work ofthe Auckland Air Pollution Research Committee. Clean Air, 3, p 3-12, 1969.

8 Graham, B W L and Thorn. N G; Air Quality in Auckland - A Reviewof the Work of the Auckland Air Pollution Research Committee.Chemistry in New Zealand, 44, p 18-20, 1980.

9Air Pollution. NZ Board of Health Report Series, no. 15, 1970.

10Pullen, DR (and/or Paterson. R M), Air Pollution Survey,Christchurch, 1969 (et seq - 1981).Department of Health,Christchurch.

11eg. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. World Health OrganisationRegional Publications, Copenhagen, European Series no. 23, 1987.

12 Sims, R J and Thom, N G; A Review of the Techniques Used for AirPollution Monitoring in New Zealand, in Symposium on Air PollutionAnalysis. Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand (VictoriaBranch), Melbourne, p 55-64, 1977.

49

13 Graham., B W L; Air Pollution Monitoring, in Chemical Processes inNew Zealand, Vol. II (eds. Whiting, R and Packer, J E). NewZealand Institute of Chemistry, Auckland, p 107-117, 1989.14

Lodge, J P (ed.); Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis, 3rd edn.Lewis, Michigan, 1989.

15Selected Methods of Measuring Air Pollutants. WHO OffsetPublication No. 24, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1976.16 Levaggi, D A, Siu, W and Feldstein, M; A New Method forMeasuring Average 24-Hour Nitrogen Dioxide Concentrations in the

Atmosphere J Air Polin. Control Assn., 23, p 30-33, 1973.17 De Jonghe, W R A and Adams, F C; Measurements of Organic LeadJ in Air. Talanta, 29, p 1057-1067, 1982.18Adams, D F; A Quantitative Study of the Limed Filter PaperTechnique for Fluorine Air Pollution Studies. mt. J Air and WaterPolln., 4, p 247-255, 1961.

19Air Quality Guidelines; A Discussion Paper on Proposed Air QualityGuidelines for New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment,Wellington, 1992.

20 Trijonjs, J; Development and Application of Methods for EstimatingInhalable and Fine Particle Concentrations from Routine Hi-VolData. Atmospheric Environment, 17, p 999-1008, 1983.21

Brasell, M R; Photochemical Oxidant Formation in the AucklandRegion. Clean Air, 16, p 4-10, 1982.

22 Thom, N G and Douglas, R T; A Study of Hydrogen Sulphide Levelsin the Geothermal Areas of Rotorua, New Zealand, in Proc. 4th mt.Clean Air Congress Japanese Union of Air Pollution PreventionAsssociations Tokyo, p 565-56 1, 1977.23Annual Reports of the Principal Air Pollution ControlDeparf ent of Health, Wellington, no. 21, 1980.

Officer,(also no. 20, 1984,

no. 19, 1982 and no. 18, 1980. Reports no 15 to 17 were published asthe Annual Reports of the Chief Air Pollution Control Officer (1975-1977) and nos. 1 to 14 were published as the Annual Reports of theChief Chemical Inspector (1959-1974)).

-1

50

24Jones, M T and Narsey, H; New Zealand Air Pollution MonitoringDatabase. NECAL Report S91/948, DSIR Chemistry, Auckland,1991.

25 Pilgrim, R C, Roser, B P and Wilson, J G; Suspended ParticulateMatter: Kapuni, South Taranaki. Department of Health, Wellington,Report No. APC-W 10, 1982.

26O'Sullivan, A T; Air Pollution Monitoring in Upper Hutt: Winter1977. Upper Hutt City Corporation, 1977.

27 Pilgrim, R C and Nicol, E R; Emissions from Motor Vehicles: MtVictoria Tunnel, Wellington. Department of Health, Wellington,Report No. APC-W 7, 1982.

51

APPENDIX 1: Monitoring Sites

The list below gives brief details of all the monitoring sites that have beenused at some time over the last 30 years. The site numbering system wasbased on the old District Offices of the Department of Health, and these arethe basis for the area notations given below. Most are readily converted tothe present regional council boundaries.

Within each Health District, site numbers were issued either consecutively orin batches for specific programmes. The map references given relate to thenow defunct NZ Map Series No.1 (NZMS 1). Given the historical nature ofmany of these sites, the effort involved in updating to one of the new metricmap series was never justified. It would be important for a new sitenumbering system to be adopted in any future work however.

Site No.Map Ref.Description

N24 006 818North Beach, RuakakaN24 996 832Marsden BayN20 848 949Port Rd, WhangareiN24 009 845Reotahi BayN20 864 953MacKays Rd, OnerahiN20 869 940George Point, OnerahiN20 814 026Ogle Crescent, KamoN20 808 032Springs Flat, Kamo

N24 689 779Marsden Point RdN24 972 747Gilberds Beach RdN24 974 801Marsden PointN24 011 853Reotahi

WHANGARE!02:0102:0202:0302:0402:0502:0602:0702:08

02:1002:1102:1202:13

02:1602:1702:1802:1902:2002:2102:2202:2302:2402:2502:2602:27

N24 053 823N24 030 849N24 980 785N24 039 846N24 022845N20 958 902N24 998 895N24 011 885N24 015 868N24 009 846N24 046 837N24 045 817

Litt, Urquharts BayWhangarei Heads SchoolMarsden Point Power StationSeymour, TaurikuraJ. Glenn, Little Munro BaySolomon PointMunro BayUrquharts BayMcLeod BayReotahi BayGravate, Whangarei HeadsSands, Whangarei Heads

52

02:2802:2902:3002:3102:3202:3302:3402:3502:3602:3702:3802:3902:4002:4102:4202:4302:44

TAKAPTJNA03:0103:0203:0303:0403:0503:0603:0703:0803:0903:1003:1103:1203:1303:1403:1503:1603:1703:1803:1903:2003:2103:2203:2303:2403:2503:2603:27

N24 062 825N24 081829N24 042 850N24 060 854N24 040 878N24 927 834N24 957 816N24 949 783N24 961845N24 965 778N24 968 789N24 981 836N24 981 836N24 972 748N24 933 787N24 990 825N24 957 716

N37 088 773N42 163 614N42 237 653N42 159 590N42 168 570N42 269 655N42 197 582N42 320 639N42 209 535N41 954 625N42 148 680N42 329 635N42 252 642N42 250 649N42 237 653N42 292 682N42 231 638N42 221 667N42 190 491N42 228664N42 153 482N42 275 716N42 250533N41 065 695N42 132 666N38 240 736N38 290 880

Greig, Whangarei HeadsMcRae, Whangarei HeadsJagger, Whangarei HeadsW.C.E. Robinson, Whangarei HeadsA.E. Robinson, Whangarei HeadsPirihi, RuakakaMcCully, RuakakaM. Murray, RuakakaCairn, RuakakaPeter Snell HighwayBailer JnrPascoe, RuakakaFarnham, RuakakaGilberds Beach RdFlygers RdHardies DepotDoctors Hill

RiverheadMasseyBirkenheadGlen EdenHenderson Primary SchoolNorthcoteNorthern MotorwayDevonportNew LynnMuriwaiWhenuapaiNorth HeadTizard Rd, BirkenheadPalmerston Rd, BirkenheadBorough Council, BirkenheadStrand Bowling ClubKauri PtBirkdale SchoolWood BayVerbena Rd, BirkdaleHuia Rd, TitirangiBraemar Rd, TitirangiLynmallNobios VineyardSpeddings Rd, WhenuapaiMOW land, off Rosedale Rd, AlbanyMatakatia Bay, Whangaparaoa

53

/

03:28

N42 266 675

N Shore Postal Sorting Centre,Northcote

N42 251610N42 274 616N42 182 561N42229 580N42 279 583N42 304 613N42 246 559N42 272 543N42 318 588N42 348 577N42382 604N42 319 539N42 337 536N42 372 550N42 386 578N42 344 534N42 333 538

Bayfleld SchoolFreeman' s BayNZED Substation, GlendenePt ChevalierDental Training SchoolMechanics BayMt Albert Rd, DSIR Plant ResearchThree KingsVictoria Ave SchoolMeadowbankSt HeliersOranga Primary SchoolPenrose Industrial Health ClinicPan.mureTamaki CollegeBailey Rd Primary School r..NZED substation, Penrose

AUCKLAND04:0604:0704:0904:1004:1104:1204:1304:1404:1504:1604:1704:1804:1904:2004:2104:2204:23

NewmarketWestfield NorthWestfield SouthGoodman P1, Te Papapa

Onehunga B.C. transfer stationTe Papapa, Pikes PtHillsboroughCommissariat RdWestfield IslandShore Rd, RemñeraGollan Rd, Mt WellingtonMerton Rd, Mt WellingtonLunn Ave, WinstonesWest Tamaki RdMasonic VillageThree Kings block plantMt Roskill Borough depotEnvironmental Lab, Symonds StAiredale StQueen St: Cruickshank-MillerSeaman's MissionNZFF, Te PapapaOnehunga W.M. Bowling Club

04:3004:3104:3204:33

04:3504:3604:3704:3804:3904:4004:4104:4204:4304:4404:4504:4604:4704:4804:4904:5004:5104:5204:53

N42 297 588N42 358 510N42 349 503N42 322 521

N42 321 516N42 328 518N42 280 514N42 345 534N42 338 501N42 308 590N42 358 556N42 357 566N42 348 558N42 369 586N42 286 526N42 277 541N42 276 535N42 283 588N42 283 603N42 284 607N42 297 610N42 321521N42 312 515

54

04:54N42 314 518

04:55N42 269 588

04:56N42 275 583

04:57N42 283 583

04:58N42 282 583

04:59N42 279 580

04:60N42 280 579

04:61N42 281 57904:62N42 280 58304:63N42 234 58104:64N42 283 608

04:65N42 278 580

04:66N42324 551

04:67N42327 54704:68N42 287 584

04:69N42284 610

SOUTH AUCKLAND

05:01N47 265 173

05:02N47 249 180

05:03N47 255 184

05:04N47256 192

05:05N47 252 199

05:06N47 249 142

05:07N47 381 179

05:08N47 255 179

05:09N47 255 178

05:10N47 254 206

05:11N47258 197

05:12N47 288 124

05:13N47247 169

05:14N47 249 172

05:15N47258 181

05:16N47246 172

05:17N47 300 313

05:19N47 508 366

05:20N42 351495

05:21N42 351455

05:22N42 308 500

05:23N42 353 49505:24N42457 557

05:25N42 296 486

05:26N42 391484

Church StWaima St: Newton Community hailFenton St: Environmental LaboratoryC.A.C., Normanby RdCAC., Enfield StGriffiths, Mt Eden RdPye, Mt Eden RdMETS, Normanby RdSummers, Mt Eden RdN.W. Motorway, Pt ChevalierQueen St: CML buildingNECAL Laboratory, 17 Kelly St,Mt EdenS. Motorway (Tecoma St): MOT,Ellerslie109 Main Highway, EllerslieSt Peters CollegeSouvenir Shop, 178 Queen Street

ReservoirWest RdJones' BarnJones' BoundaryBellinghamSandspitGronin RdC.I. HutHayes RdMcGregorSchilderReynoldsWoodsNeedles, Wharf RdGlenbrook Beach RdSteel Mill SiteSeagrove

Papakura Detention CentreSaleyards RdHokianga StMangere, CrawfordOtahuhu, old fire stationHowick, Borough OfficeMangere WestOtara, F.M.R.A.

55

05:2705:2805:2905:3005:3105:3205:3305:3405:3505:3605:3705:3805:3905:4005:4105:4205:4305:44

05:4605:4705:4805:49

HAMILTON06:0106:02

06:0606:0706:0806:0906:1006:1106:1206:1306:1406:1506:1606:1706:1806:1906:2006:2106:2206:23

N42 370 451N42 413 403N47 460 348N42. 366 506N42 380 536N42 400 535N42 325 479N42 317 497N42 379 517N42 399 474N42 369 475N42 399 437N42 395 427N42395 445N42 326 404N42 416 609N42 407 533N42 395 456

N52 585 036N52 585 038N52 587 047N52 581 045N52 611048N56 662 733N56 660 738N52 581 039N52 585 036N52 587 039N52586 045N52582 045N52 573 053N52 584 038N52 583 050N75 278 142N52 588 032N52 559 043

Papatoetoe, C.C. buildingManurewa, B.C. buildingPapakura CollegeOtahuhu CreekTamald RiverUdys Rd, PakurangaRobertson Rd., FavonaMona Rd, MangerePanama Rd, OtahuhuHills Rd, OtaraGrange Rd, PapatoetoeWin-hallPlunket Ave, WinPuhinuhi School, WinMangere AirportMusick PtElm Park School, Pakuranga35 Sandbrook Ave, Otara

33 Te Wheoro St, MeremereMeremere School•Bulk storeGt South Rd MeremereTe KauwhataAlexander St, HuntlyCobham Drive, Huntly12 Te Puea Ave, Meremere16 Te Wheoro St., MeremereSchool field, MeremereFischer compoundNorth of Meremere stationLogan's farm, Morrison's RdMaori pa, MeremereSchreur's farmPutaruruSpringhill Rd, MeremerePukekawa

N47 228 168Boundary Rd East, WaipipiN47 265 175Watkins, Kahawa RdN47 256 138Kowhai Place, WaiukuN47 225 184Wall's, Waipipi Wharf Rd

N65 791 468National Insurance buildingN65 764 484Maeroa reservoir

56

06:24N52 575 069Orams Rd, Mercer

06:25N53 163 966MOW, Paeroa

06:26N53 153 968Junction Rd, Paeroa

06:27N53 158 967Lee Ave, Paeroa

N83 693 798Te KUitiN65 778 480Whitiora school, Hamilton WestN65 792 468Waikato Times, Victoria StN65 790 471Woolworths, Victoria StN65 788 472Radio Rhema, cnr Ward/Victoria StN65 787 474NZCDC, cnr Victoria/London StN65 775 470123 Commerce St, Frankton

N56 679 769NZED hostel, HuntlyN56 692 754McGillvary Rd, KimihiaN56 670 747Huntly town hailN56 659 738Huntly West (NZED substation)N56 661 769Huntly power stationN56 669 746Huntly post officeN52 727 819Spencers Rd, OhinewaiN56 663 767Power station - north-eastern boundaryN56 658 763Power station - southern boundary.N56 657 767Power station - northern boundaryN56 685 790Ralphs Rd, KimihiaN56 669 746Huntly Central

06:3106:3206:3306:3406:3506:3606:37

06:4106:4206:4306:4406:4506:4606:4706:4806:4906:5006:5 106:52

Torren's Farm - Golden ValleyMathers - Golden ValleyGrey St/Boundary Rd junctionWaihi East primary, Gladstone RdPye Research, Barry RdMet station, Haszard StPye Electronics, Martha StWaihi College, Rata StWaihi Hospital, Toomey StJunction Rd, WaihiSteeles Farm - Golden ValleySmiths Farm - Trig RoadMorrisons Farm - Trig RoadWaihi Gold Co Orchard, Fisher Road,WaibiMcHardy's Farm, Tauranga Road,Waihi

06:5906:6006:6106:6206:6306:6406:6506:6606:6706:6806:6906:7006:7106:72

06:73

N53 363 959N53 355 959N53 339 961N53 344 959N53 337 956N53 331 949N53 329 952N53 321 955N53 316 947N53 335 958N53 374 951N53 373 929N53 366 926N53 357 933

N53 342 939

ROTORUA

57

Telephone Exchange buildingDAPCO office, Hinemoa StLockwoods, Russell Rd

07:01N76 719 042

07:02N76 372 004

07:03N76 700 064

N77 181 135Kawerau aerodrome

N77 163 109Kawerau B.C. depot

N77 173 110NZED substation, Kawerau

N77 153 099Roof Kawerau B.C.

N77 170 151Oxidation ponds

N77 187 157Onepu Springs Rd

N77 185 131Kawerau railway station

N77 162 103Kawerau fire station

N77 153 097Tasman House

N77 143 102Bell St

N77 156 084Porritt DrN77 145 084River RdN77 165 110Mill water reservoir

07:1107:1207:1307:1407:1507:1607:17

07:2107:2207:2307:2407:2507:26

NAPIER09:0109:0209:0309:0409:0509:0609:0709:08

N124 312400N124 307.523N124 303 522N124 309526N140 852 892N140 851 887N140 865 884N124 309526

HoltsWhjrjnakjNthWhirinaici SthMill admin blockRobert Buchanan'sU.E.B. mill siteJohn BuchananWhirjnajçj

NEW PLYMOUTH

10:01N108 618 904

10:02N108 628 885

10:03N108 629 911

10:04N109 658 903

10:05N108 571 750

10:06N109 695 928

10:07N109 651 919

10:08N109 651 916

10:09N 109 688 927

10:10N109 685 927

10:11N109 688 929

10:12N109 685 925

10:13N109 688 927

Microwave stationDuncan & DaviesDevon Intermediate schoolNew Plymouth C.C.Rhododendron Trust, PukeitiP&T depot, Katere RdD.Q. Gill St-Ljardet StD.O. Liardet StToledo Engineering, Katere RdMOWD depot, Devon RdFirth Indust., cnr Devon/Katere RdsRailway depot, Smart RdToledo Eng., south boundary fence

WANGANTJI

58

NELSON15:0115:0215:0315:0415:0515:0615:0715:0815:0915:10

15:11

S24 102 717S24 233 772S24 008 729S12 337 576S12 337 574S12 338 576S12 338 573S12 336 575S12 336 574S12 337 578

S12 338 578

Anzac ParadeTrafalgar P1, D.O.GonvilleSt John's HillWanganui EastLondon StQueen StAramoho kindergarten54 Oakland AvenueBrunswick RdEducation Board, Gibson StField St14 Brunswick Rd

Terrace End School, Ruahine St

M.E.D. substation, Riddiford St,Newtown

11:01

N138 594 898

11:02

N138 583 858

11:03

N138 560 851

11:04

N138 568 880

11:05

N138 589 877

11:06

N138 582 893

11:07

N138 586 901

11:08

N138 590 902

11:09

N138 570 888

11:10

N138 582 907

11:11

N138 586 900

11:12

N138 589 904

11:13

N138 589 900

PALMERSTON NORTH

12:01N149 118 364

WELLINGTON

13:01N164 338 192

NaenaeD.S.I.R., GracefieldKnights Rd, Lower HuttPetone OHC yardSeaviewPt HowardD.O., Lower HuttDental clinic, Naenae Intermediateschool

HUTT VALLEY14:01

N160 484 317

14:02

N164 463 279

14:03

N160 454 311

14:04

N164 423 297

14:05

N164 454 274

14:06

N164 457 262

14:07

N160 451312

14:08

N160 489 328

Substation, WestportNZED substation, WaimangaroaNZED substation, Cape FoulwindGourley home, KaraineaGourley farm, KarameaGourley milkshed, KarameaGourley barn, KarameaWilliams house, KarameaDairy factory, KarameaHawes farm opp Williams house,KarameaHawes farm opp Gourley house,Karamea

59

15:12S24 347 847

15:13S24 357 851

15:14S24403890

15:15S24391869

15:16S24387882

15:17S24382872

15:20S68 337 923

15:21S68 329 919

15:22S68 295 902

15:23S20 545 215

15:26S28 245 986

15:27S28 243 977

CHRISTCHURCH16:01S84002538

16:02S84988531

16:03S84 979 54716:04S84 99556216:05S84 96856116:06S84953561

16:07S84 93355216:08S84 909 54716:09S84 965 582

16:10S84992583

16:11S84028588

16:12S84 03756416:13S84 083 59316:14S84 043 529

16:15S84 017 54816:16S84023561

16:17S84008563

16:18S84005561

16:19S84 06356816:20S76924614

16:21S84020517

16:22S84 95957316:23S84 95857316:24S84961569

16:25S84 980 608

16:26S84919548

16:27S84912548

16:28S84 905 54516:29S84921554

16:30S84006 559

Mangatini mineTurn off, Mangatini mineOverlooking Ngakawau GorgeRepo flats, SE slopeRepo flats, N slopeRepo flats, SW side

Council officesVanguard StQuarantine RdRichmond Borough Council offices

Dept of Health, Kinross St, Blenheim106 Scott St, Blenheim

Sydenham - C.C. yardSpreydon - C.C. yardNZED substation, AddingtonBotanic GardensRiccarton Borough yardUpper Riccarton, Auburn AveSockburn Paparua C.C. workshopHornby - C.E.P.B. yardFendalton Waimairi C.C. yardSt Albans - C.C. yard, Office RdShirley - Windsor houseLinwood Nth. - C.C. yard, Worcester StNew Brighton - C.C. yard, Shaw AveWoolston - Industrial Health ClinicFalsgrave St, Transport BoardLinwood - Library, Worcester StMED, Manchester StGovernment buildings, Worcester StBromley sewerage treatment plantHarewood - ChCh airportHuntsbury, Aotea Tce11am, Creyke Rd11am, School of Engineering11am, Clyde RdPapanui - High school291 Main Sth Rd, Hornby357 Main Sth Rd, HornbyHornby, industrial health clinicHornby, Waterloo RdReserve Bank building, Hereford St

16:3116:3216:3316:3416:3516:3616:3716:3816:3916:4016:4116:4216:4316:4416:4516:4616:4716:4816:4916:5016:5116:5216:53

16:5416:5516:5616:5716:5816:5916:6016:6116:6216:6316:6416:6516:6616:67

TIMARU17:0117:0217:0317:0417:05

S84 007 560S84005 560S84999571S84 007 573S84 925 542S84007583S84029 570S84 005589S84010 595S84 902568S84005523S84058 560S76 971 617S84986 590584 030 547S84030 567584 022 529S84017 550S94017 547S84015551S84019 550584 018 546S84 013 545

S84018519S84971 578S84 965538S83 870 430S84 969564S84012531S76 963 843S76 017 741S76 022 745S76 042 746S76 969 836S76 969 831S84013 563S84012 577

S137 553 675S137 552 674S137 555 677S137 555 678S137 547 676

Mass X-ray, Manchester StHereford St, Colombo St cnrNational Radiation LaboratoryBealey Ave - dental schoolWigram, control towerSt Albans, Cornwall StAvonside, Cowlishaw StSt Albans, English ParkMairehau - C.C. yard, Westminster StHornby NZED substationBeckenham, C.C. yardBromley, NZED substationPapanui, NZED substationSt Andrews College, MerivaleLinwood, Edmonds factoryAvonside, England StBeckford RdMoorhouse MotorsFeltex, Falsgrave StBus depot, Moorhouse AveDave Baker Motors, Moorhouse AveGibbon Edward & Co, Lismore StO'Connell Mackay Motors,Waltham RdHuntsbuiy AveGlandovey Rd, FendaltonSunny Side HospitalLincoln CollegeDeans BushBeckenham, Croydon St20 Seddon St, RangioraOtaki St, KaiapoiHilton St, KaiapoiKalntia P1, Kaiapoi160 King St, Rangiora52 King St, RangioraChristchurch East School, Barbados StMED Packe Street

Weaver St, OamaruOrwell St, OamaruFoyle St, OamaruLynn St, OamaruClyde St, Oamaru

61

DUNEDIN18:0118:0218:0318:0418:0518:0618:0718:0818:0918:1018:1118:1218:1318:1418:1518:16

S164 153 710S164 152711S164 177 747S164 124 672S163 024 708S172 698 409S179514261S164 189 726S164 186 724S164 186 725.S164185723S164 192 726S164 146 679S164 191 727S164 151 711S164 153 685

18:17S164157696

D.O., Crawford StD.O., State Insurance buildingNE Valley Primary schoolCorstorphine schoolMosgiel B.C. yardMiltonBalciuthaReid's residence, Ravensboume RdGrey's residence, Ravensboe RdPritchard's res., Ravensboe RdBrinsdon, Ravensboe RdPaterson, Ravensboe RdKings High schoolNicolic, Ocean View TceD.O., Sievwrights buildingForbury school, Oxford St,Sth Dunedin

Foreshore Clinic, Orari St, KensingtonINVERCARGILL

19:01S182 376 898

19:02S182352768

19:03S182 353 78519:04S1823138

19:05S182405919

19:06S182388 853

19:07S182 427 836

19:08S182 485 824

19:09S182361777

19:10S182 635 833

19:11S182 540 863

19:12S182517878

19:13S1824709

19:14S182383918

19:15S182385922

19:16S182394 797

19:17S182 394 799

19:18S182 390 794

19:19S182420823

19:20S182413797

19:21S182407802

19:22S182 430 794

19:23S182 439 792

19:24S182451791

19:25S182 462 791

62

Awarua radio stationBluff HillBluff B.C. yardGreenhills, Hoskins residenceWaverley FarmDuck Creek BridgeAwarua BeachTiwaj Access RdWilliams residence, BluffNicholls farm, WaitunaMoffat RdMarshalls RdMasseys Tramway RdSouphosco no. 4 crossover beltSouphosco boundary/Main RdNZAS potline no. 1 "a" bayNZAS potline no. 1 'b" bayNZAS Environmental LaboratoryTiwaj PeninsulaNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farm

19:2619:2719:2819:2919:3019:3119:3219:3319:34

19:5119:5219:5319:5419:5519:5619:5719:58

S182 471 791S182 480 790S182 490 788S182 501 788S182 515 789

S177 360 020S182 352 998S177 348 013S177 349 016S177 354 013S177 362 008S169319337S178 768 133

NZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmNZAS farmC Dyer, Waituna Lagoon RoadA Henderson, Marshall RoadA Buddle, Awasna Bay RoadD Watson, Hall Road

Water TowerBiggar StMenzies buildingDee St/Spey StCivic Administration buildingSouthland Girls' HighWinton B.C.Wyndham, Balaclava St

63

APPENDIX 2: Graphical Summaries of Monitoring Results

65

Concentration (jig/m3)

E

• -

C.)

0(U)

100

01963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991

YearsFigure A2 : Total Suspended Particulates Monthly AverageSite 4:13, Mt Albert, Auckland

S.

eD

-t

-

'•Cl)

-t-.

C

-t

C.'

C.'

C.'

-t—1

00

00

00

00

00


C.'

©

GQ

15-

(D

C

Ab


C#'i

Ui

..

'a

CID

-t

'a

=

=

Cm

-t

Ui

taD

taD

00

=

taD

00

00Ui

—00

OrQet

Ui

—

If

i

I

;I I

IIII •IV '

E

:t

0.—

I-

U0

L)

50

FEiIIl

Site4:56 ---- Site4:65

'II,'IIII II I

I.'I Ip.

i_/1 1y I,

IlbIj!\,IY

'1/' \ f\,V

0197319751977197919811983

YearsFigure A5 : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 4:56 and 4:65, Mt Eden, Auckland

1985198719891991

Monthly Average

O s-1983

e,)E

0• —

0

Cfs

CUCd

U

50

/

100

1984198519861987 1988Years

Figure A6 : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 6:32, Whitiora, Hamilton West

1989199019911992

Monthly Average

100

E

Ii

0U

50

011983

19841985198619871988Years

Figure A7 : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 12:01, Rushine Street, Palmerston North

1989199019911992

Monthly Average

E

50

100

01983

198419851986198719881989199019911992Years

Figure A8 : Total Suspended Particulates Monthly AverageSite 13:01, Newtown, Wellington

01983 198419851986198719881989199019911992

YearsFigure A9 : Total Suspended Particulates Monthly AverageSite 14:08, Naenae, Lower Hutt

E

0• -

0U

100

Concentration (jxg/m3)

cI-S•fD—5C\eD

C-

-- _-. -

S5-S

00

00

00

00

00

00

—00

OL_1973 197519771979198119831985

Years

200

Figure All : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch

198719891991

Monthly Average

E

0• -

1

C.)CU

0U

100

E

0• -

U0

(U)

100

200

1973

197519771979198119831985 1987 19891991Years

Figure Al2 : Total Suspended Particulates Monthly AverageSite 16:33, Victoria Street, Christchurch

0

Ob

• -ClI-

0L)

50

100

OL_1983 1991 19921984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

YearsFigure A13 : Total Suspended Particulates

Monthly AverageSite 18:16, Oxford Street, Dunedin South

E

• -

U0c)

200

100

300 I

99%

90%

Mean

Li 10%

0 ^=1963

1967197119751979

198319871991

Years

Figure A14 : Total Suspended ParticulatesPercentile Plot (less than values)Site 4:19, Penrose, Auckland

300

90%

D Mean

10%

j100

110 19631965196719691971197319751977

YearsFigure A14a : Total Suspended ParticulatesPercentile Plot (less than values)Site 4:19, Penrose, Auckland

rq)E

50

99%

90%

Mean

10%

I11101 ioi199199019911992

YearsFigure A15 : Total Suspended ParticulatesPercentile Plot (less than values)Site 13:01, Naenae, Wellington

ri

01978198019821984 1986198819901992

Percentile Plot (less than values)Figure A14b : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 4:19, Penrose, Auckland

rH 90%

J Mean

10%

Years

300

[EllFm^

1)EbIJ

0• -

U0

200

100

300

99%

90%

Mean

lE 10%

0IIIi977

IIII I19731975 197919811983

YearsFigure A16 : Total Suspended ParticulatesSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch

1985198719891991

Percentile Plot (less than values)

rIDC,)

• —

cl

U

0U

100

200Monthly Average - - - - Maxima

019731975

.1

IiI'Ii'II'IIII'II,IIII

'III

II It,,I

I' 1

itt'IIII IIII II'I1i,IIIIIIIIIt^l

1977 197919811983Years

II1IIII I IjI -

IIIIIjII , IgI

vj-'

II

II,

H

'It/iI'

IIgIIV\, t\ ::i:/\ '

'U

I''I'I'I,I

'IIII

IlI

I,I'l'I

I"III

IIIIItIII

1985 1987 1989 1991

Figure A17: Smoke Monthly Average and MaximaSite 04:19, Penrose, Auckland

1% II III 1I III III III IIII IIII/III

I II i II III IIjI II' I

rJ)ci)

0• - 50

U0

L)

Monthly Average - - - - Maxima

100

'I

ft iIII IIi II itg4 I

'ISIIII

,/rA\\

/lI AI II 55 ItI I IlI II II I

I S I'I I II'

S I IIII

J1t/1ihi,\iJ\\1'>i\0'-1975

19761977 19781979 1980 19811982 19831984Years

Figure A18: Smoke Monthly Average and MaximaSite 04:56 9 Mt Eden, Auckland

C,)C,)

0—

VU0

ci)


50

I'( I Il

, Ic'

Il'I I

1.1 I III II i s ii

'I II\II 'I

iI I (tI I

I1

itI I

1 I\\\OL_1975

19761977 19781979 1980 19811982 1983 1984Years

Figure A19 : Smoke Monthly Average and MaximaSite 05:43, Pakuranga, Auckland

IIIIIIII

IIII ,II I

III S lI IIII IIIII

IIIII IiII

I IIIItI IIII I I

IIII II it

111:II III1III i

tl

rIDrID

0• -

V

0U

I

1

'II'

II

II

'III

IIIt'I

I


IIIt1

011972

II

I I IlIIIIIIII

4 I IIII IIIIItII'iI4I

IIIIgIIIIIISI

Ii IIIi

IISIt IIII 1IIIIIIIi•I I II

IiIII II IIIIII 11I IIIIII IIIII tIIiIIIIII

IIIII'i

IA

'\\!/\\i \

•I I

/ 'Ij

I!

/1J

198419861988199019741976197819801982Years

Figure A20 : Smoke Monthly Average and MaximaSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch

••

Concentration (BSSU)

-------------- I -------

-------------------------••'.........: ••....• :•••

-------------------------------- -

-

> .-------------------

0

s:.

CD

I

Figure A22: Smoke Monthly Average and MaximaSite 16:46, Avonside, Christchurch

19751977197919811983Years

600

E1$II]

01973 1985198719891991

rIDrID

400$-i

U

0L)200


200

iiTiI

IiiiIiI luiIitillii

Ti

I

I'1Til

I

iiIL\l iiIi

Iit\

I ,N , SI

f)\'

Cl)Cl)

• - 100I.i

VI

L)

OL_..

197319751977197919811983Years

Figure A23: SmokeSite 18:02, Dunedin

1985198719891991

Monthly Average and Maxima

Figure A24: Sulfur dioxideSite 04:19, Penrose, Auckland


19751977 197919811983Years

1985 1987 19891991

100

01973

E

0• -

0L)

50

lIpIvI,

E200

U 10iiitp1ii

Aitit

IiP

IiI

II


SiIIiI-III

pIIII'IlI'tPpI

I'IIlit

II -IiIiI 'I

IpP IpsII pP

!ii

I\/\

"II II1i

P pP IIIIjPipI

'PlIt' IIIp1P

P i't5/

,AP

0L_1973197519771979198119831985198719891991

YearsFigure A25: Sulfur dioxide Monthly Average and MaximaSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch

it llI

SiIt

VliI I

II

IIll

I1i SIg,

Ig11

ii

It.,l I IIIIpIi

\AP

E

• -Cl

cuC.)

0U


200

AIIj

I :II

tp

ilitllt

I;IItt

'IiiiiI'

Ii,iIp

PpIt,

ii

IItI, 'Ip fit

PpIlI

IIII,

'' Il

I I

t!IIIp.1li it IIj,

SpI!tiP

Iit4Itl\I1.1 5IS'I

IIl,p

A

ØL_1973

197519771979198119831985

198719891991Years

Figure A26: Sulfur dioxide Monthly Average and MaximaSite 18:02, Dunedin

Ii

II'I

I'

I'

IISIIIIIIIIII III'I

A NI

IS

300


I'

itI II

I iiI IS

(ISS ,

200

0• -

U0U

0' I

1978197919801981198219831984198519861987Years

Figure A27 : Nitric oxide Monthly Average and MaximaSite 16:14, Woolston, Christchurch

E

• -clI-I

U0

IIIiJ

Figure A28: Nitrogen dioxideSite 16:14, Woolston, Christchurch


197919801981198219831984198519861987Years

200

fr

AAIt

iiItItIt

III.IIpt

t IIS. I I

It

IIl

I'ItIII

II

V'j\

800


t II I

I I

II I.

ISI I

II I

II III I

II I

IIp I

I t :14 II

It It IIIi

IIItt t II ItII I,I t It IIIp II

I i 15 I

II I II'• III.I I I II II

I III1 pII

p1

1 Ip11l1I ,pP I I'Ialp

I pIIII I pI II pI S I

I I I

I I p1

I I5,

600

E

• —a-

0

200

OL_1973

19751977197919811983

1985198719891991Years

Figure A29 : Nitric oxide Monthly Average and MaximaSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch

E

• -

C.?

0

100

Monthly Average and MaximaFigure A30: Nitrogen dioxideSite 16:31, Manchester Street, Christcliurcl.

197519771979198119831985198719891991Years

200

01973

4

3

E

0.-cl

tj0

1

OL_1983

19841985198619871988

198919901991199Years

Figure A31 : Lead

3 Monthly Running AverageSite 3:28, Northcote, Auckland

4

S1te4:13Site4:19

itIiIi VIIjII I ft i

itIi\ii;II,II

V

^Alf I A,-" 1j

IIgIiii'jIi,IIgIIin ,• I'

,,,,

litI'I II

j'V% 11,

\'i'It'

I. '/

3

f)

E

• -

1

U

C(U)

1

1 'I

• It

'A

/Ii

I,

itIlA

(I IjlIl'It

/ IV II'it

'' tt II\

1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991Years

Figure A32: Lead 3 Monthly Running AverageSite 4:13 and 4:19, Mt Albert and Penrose, Auckland

Figure A33: Lead 3 Monthly Running AverageSite 4:50 and 4:64, Queen Street, Auckland

197519771979198119831985Years

3

4

01973 198719891991

bF

0• -

I-

U0

L)1

4Site4:56Site4:65

3

U

I'I\

IS_.,

/ S

J

'\S!S S,j\5i'l

OL_1973

197519771979198119831985

198719891991Years

Figure A34 : Lead 3 Monthly Running Average

Site 4:56 and 4:65, Mt Eden, Auckland

8

0

0.)C.?

0L)

Site 6:32, Whitiora, Hamilton Site 12:0 1, Rnshine,Pahnerston North

3

E

0• -

U0U

1

1983

198419851986

19871988

1989199019911992Years

Figure A35: Lead 3 Monthly Running AverageSite 6:32 and 12:01, Hamilton and Palmerston North

4

Site 13:01, Newtown, Wellington - - - - Site 14:08, Naenae, Lower Hutt

3

1983198419851986198719881989

199019911992Years

E

0• -ClI.

0c)

Figure A36 : Lead

3 Monthly Running AverageSite 13:01 and 14:08, Wellington and Lower Hutt

OL_1980 198119821983198419851986

Years198719881989

3 Monthly Running AverageFigure A37: LeadSite 16:14, Woolston, Christchurch

1

E

0• -

U0

Tl

E

C• -

C's

2C

U

1973

197519771979198119831985

198719891991Years

Figure A38: Lead 3 Monthly Running Average

Site 16:31, Manchester Street, Christchurch


—5

-t

5eD

'a

S

S

fit

-

ccJl

-

QrQ

S

eD

Figure A40 : Lead 3 Monthly Running AverageSite 18:16, Oxford Street, Dunedin South

198419851986198719881989199019911992Years

3

E

• -Cl

CJ

0L)

1

21-Apr26-Apr01-May16-AprDate

06-Apr11-Apr

30

25

10U

5

001-Apr

Figure A41 : Carbon monoxide 1 Hour Moving AverageSite 4:69, Queen Street, Auckland

E

0

0U

250

200

150

100

06-Apr11-Apr 16-AprDate

21-Apr26-Apr01-May

350

400

001-Apr

50

300

Figure A42 : Nitrogen dioxide 1 Hour Moving AverageSite 4:65, Mt Eden, Auckland

Documents

AIR POLLUTION MONITORING IN NEW ZEALAND 1960-1992