AlexFrancois 2011 JHL1-2 Social-Ecology Vanuatu[1]

7/28/2019 AlexFrancois 2011 JHL1-2 Social-Ecology Vanuatu[1]

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Journal of Historical Linguistics 1:2 (2011), 175246. doi 10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fraissn 22102116 / e-issn 2210-2124 Jh Bjam Publhg Cmpay

Social ecology and language history inthe northern Vanuatu linkage

A tal f vrgc a cvrgc*

Alxar FraLagu t Cvlat Trat Oral (Lact-CNRS) &

Autrala Natal Uvrty

tuy crb a xpla th parax f rlat laguag c-tact that hw g f bth lgutc vrgc a cvrgc. Svttct laguag ar pk th rthrmt la f Vauatu. clly rlat Ocac laguag hav vlv frm a arlr alct twrk,by prgrv vrcat. Ivat actg wr frm mtly uchag a lxcal rplacmt hav uually pra ly hrt tac

acr th twrk; thr accumulat vr tm ha rult lgutc frag-mtat, a ach patally-achr cmmuty vlp t w tctv

vcabulary. Hwvr, whl laguag fllw a trg tcy t vrg th frm f thr wr, thy al xhbt a hgh gr f mrphm thrlgutc tructur, a th rgazat f thr grammar a lxc. tructural hmgty, typcally maft by th prfct tralatabltyf ctruct acr laguag, rct th trat f mutual ctact amultlgualm whch th mall cmmut hav fllw thrughut thrhtry. Whl wr frm ar prcv a mblmatc f plac a u t

mallr cal crcl, lgutc tructur ar l fr t u acr muchbrar twrk. Ultmatly, th ct f vrgc a cvrgc ar th rult, vr tm, f th tw tct frm f hrztal u.

Keywords: laguag chag, laguag ctact, aral u, tructuralbrrwg, lxcal rplacmt, lgutc vrcat, htrcal alctlgy,Mlaa

1. Sister languages in contact: Divergence or convergence?

prt tuy xam th prc f vrgc a cvrgc whchcharactrz th htrcal vlut f a grup f clly rlat laguag pk


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176 Alxar Fra

rthr Vauatu. I wll argu that th tw cctg tc prat rt ara f th laguag ytm: vrgc typcally act wr

os, whra cvrgc mtly tak plac btw lgutc ses.I wll prp t acat th twfl vlut wth tw clgutc factrplayg a majr rl th rg: cal grup mblmatcty, a laguag c-tact.

1.1 Dvrgc a cvrgc btw laguag

rctruct f htrcal rlathp btw laguag pttally -vlv tw typ f prc: prc f vrgc, whrby laguag bcm

l mlar vr tm; a prc f cvrgc, whrby laguag bcmmr a mr mlar.

Lgutc vrgc a cvrgc ar typcally brv rt c-txt, vlvg rt t f laguag. Fr xampl, wth a gv laguagfamly, th prc whrby a prt-laguag plt t a umbr f catlaguag tally ccv f a a prc f vrgc (Bg 9).If gtcally rlat laguag hav lg b parat frm athr, thrcmpar wll hghlght th varu prc whch hav ma thm rt,

a ach cat wt thrugh t w lgutc vat.Cvrly, rarch laguag ctact mtrat hw multlgual

pakr t t mak thr laguag mr a mr mlar vr tm. tryth tl f cvrgc. majrty f tu laguag ctact -

vlv laguag whch ar gtcally vr; th gtc vrty m-phaz a a typcal grt th brvat f ctact phma, .g., th t f lgutc ara: A lgutc ara grally tak t b a g-graphcally lmt ara clug laguagfrom two or more language families,harg gcat trat (Akhval & Dx : , my mpha).

Amttly, th prpctv r th mt xtrm vw f cvrgc ph-ma, a laguag ca b arrwg th gap that u t parat thm.Hwvr, ctact phma ar t lmt t that partcular cgurat; t qually lgtmat t brv ctact btw laguag whch ar clly r-lat. cgurat url a umbr f tu alg wth varu partf th wrl: , inter alia, th papr Braumllr & Hu (9), a alTrugll (98) a Labv (99) fr Eglh alct, Chappll () fr Stclaguag, El () fr Eatr M Khmr, Tulm (9) fr a ubgrup

f I-Arya, a Dhu () fr Sku laguag; wth th Ocac ub-grup, partcular Graghty (98) fr Fja alct, a R (988, prp.) fr Wtr Ocac.


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Scal clgy a laguag htry th rthr Vauatu lkag 177

ra why th ca rlat laguag ctact pcal l thr-fr t t rarty, but rathr th pttal ctract t tal. Fr a grup

f laguag t b gtcally rlat ma that thy hav vrg frm a cm-m actr, rr t bcm tct laguag vr tm. But prc flaguag ctact btw thm typcally tal th u f lgutc trat,a wul b xpct t rult m frm f lgutc cvrgc. rath qut f hw th tw ctractry tc tract, a what ut-cm rult frm thr trfrc.

1.2 Dvrgc f frm, cvrgc f tructur

tuy prp t brv a grup f laguag pk by th 9, -habtat f th Bak a Trr Ila, th rthrmt part f Vauatu. laguag ar all rlat: rt, thy all blg t th Ocac ubgrup f thAutra famly; c, thy frm a lkag (R 988), far a thyc frm a arlr alct twrk ( Sct blw). Yt pt thrcmm rg, thr mlla f lgutc chag hav ma th laguagmutually utllgbl.

Whl bth prc f vrgc a cvrgc ar at play th h-

try f th laguag, thy hav act rt m f thr ytm.I a uthll, prc f vrgc hav b partcularly t wth rpctt lgutc os, whthr th ccr u chag r lxcal rplacmt.By ctrat, laguag hw much mr aral hmgty a far a thr s-es ar ccr whthr th ytactc a cmbatral prprt fwr, th matc rgazat f th lxc, r phralgcal tratg. (ctrat I raw btw th frm f wr a thr tructur, r tructuralprprt, wll b prt mr tal Sct ..)

partcular alchmy ha brught abut a trcat tuat, whr la-guag hw rlatv vrty th frm f thr wr, but al a trg -mrphm th tructural rgazat f mag. Tabl llutrat th cg-urat that typcally bta, by hwg th tralat f a tc chramly (mag y t kw ur laguag vry wll yt).

typcal tuat that a gl l f trlar glg crrp ta varty f rt wr frm. rthr Vauatu laguag llutrat amwhat xtrm way a tcy whch ha alray b brv thr partf Mlaa (Haurcurt 9, urt 98, 989, Dutt 99, R ,

Fra 9b). Pawly (: ) crb whch rpct th mt va-tv (r abrrat, Grac 99) f th Ocac laguag typcally r frm thrmr crvatv tr: I th ara, mt f th abrrat laguag () ar


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178 Alxar Fra

atypcal lxc a phlgy, but ar t markly atypcal rpct f ()mrphlgy a ytax.

Othr part f th wrl hw mlar cgurat, that , ca whr la-

guag ctact hw almt prfct trtralatablty, pt f th rcbtw thr frm. Cr, fr xampl, th way Gumprz & Wl (9)crb th rlat btw Kaaa, Marath a Uru a pk th Ia

vllag f Kupwar:

[S]tc-by-tc cmpar f atural cvrat txt all thr malcal vart rval a xtrarary gr f tralatablty frm lcal ut-trac t th thr. () tc () ar lxcally tct almt vryrpct, yt thy hav tcal grammatcal catgr a tcal cttuttructur. (Gumprz & Wl 9: )

Hwvr, th Ia tuat crb thr vlv laguag whch ar g-tcally vr (Drava v. I-Arya), uch a way that lxcal frm wrhtrcally rt t bg wth; th pctacular prc th laguag f

able . Dvrgc f frm, cvrgc f tructur th laguag f rthrVauatu: a xampl tc

Hi tat jjmg

wug

k ma taL h tat llmr r k a m

Li k j tt lal al k - ap mu

L kj t lal jmat kp - aap m

V gj t lal al tgb - atat j

M k j t lal al k pt - hhl

L tr ll rma .k tktk mt

V r lama t tktk mu

Vs r t lal war t kpakp amy

Msn r t ll mat atl m

M ra at lala mata tukp aa amua

N r t l ll m u luwluw am

D r w rl taul t a la -

Ko r t r taul w.ml alalaw am

O j t r l w.ml uura m

Ln at r kr ah.mal la -M k r t alar mm tkta l - a

pl no.e kw prprly no.e [o] pch oss:in.

y t kw ur laguag vry wll yt.


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Kupwar th amut f tructural oneene whch thy hav g thrugh.But th rthr Vauatu ca whch I prp t crb hr, th laguag-

har a cmm actr, a hav mata ctact vr c thr g-graphcal pral. I thr wr, what t b xpla hr a parax,whrby a clutr f laguag hav multauly g thrugh prc fdieene a f oneene.

1. prt tuy

Utl rctly, rthr Vauatu laguag ha b ly kw thrugh gram-mar ktch by arly mar (Crgt 88), a wrlt (Try

9). prt tuy, ba ata cllct by th authr c 99, pr-p t crb th rg m tal. cmplx tuat that prvalhr, a whch wa llutrat Tabl , wll b xpla lght f th cala athrplgcal ct f th laguag htrcal vlpmt, that ,thr ne eoo (Haug 9; Mhlhulr 99).

I wll argu that th ytactc a matc mrphm brvabl acrth rthr Vauatu ara rult frm uta rlat f laguag ctacta multlgualm. O th thr ha, th htrgty f wr frm wll b

hw t crrlat wth cal prcpt f what rmally cttut a tctcmmuty. I wll uggt that th trplay f ctrfugal a ctrptal frc th cal clgy f th grup tct vllag cmmut ctat -tract prv th ky t th cmplx lgutc tuat brvabl tay, whch laguag hw bth vrgc a cvrgc.

prt artcl wll ufl a fllw. Sct wll prt th la-guag cmmut f rthr Vauatu thr cal ttg, hwg hw t -

vlv bth m gr f parat a varu frm f ctact. Sct wlltuat th laguag gtcally, a tablh that thy har a gl actr.

Sct a wll prt m tal th fact whch cttut thparax ur cu. Sct wll cu th varu prc lag tlgutc vrcat rthr Vauatu, pcally u chag a lxcalrplacmt. Sct , tur, wll ct a umbr f ca whr laguag hwparalll ytactc r matc tructur pt th vrty f thr wr frm.

al cu, Sct , wll attmpt t xpla th cal urp-g that may accut fr th parax, whrby laguag ca multaulyhw g f vrgc a cvrgc. Fally, I wll uggt that th tw

appartly ctractry tc brv th macr cal ar rally thuprcal rult f pr prc that cmb cal ba a cgtv fac-tr. Bth vrgc a cvrgc ar rt a gl, uvral prc fmcr-u acr vual r lgutc pmlgy (El )


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180 Alxar Fra

a lgutc vat mrg lcally a pra, by mtat, acr -vual ctact. Hwvr, at lat th part f th wrl, th prc f

mcr-u t targt th am cal crcl, pg th aturf th vat that pra. chag actg th o f wr (uchag, lxcal rplacmt), tak a mblmatc rl a markr f plac, at t u thrugh mallr cal crcl, typcally targtg th vllag r lcalcmmuty t whch ach pakr rlat mr r l cculy. Cvrly,th vat that act th s oniion f mag (mr-phytax, matc catgrat, phralgy) cap th ba achrgt ay partcular cal grup, a ar l fr t u acr tr cal t-wrk. Evtually, a th tw typ f chag accumulat vr tm, th rult

a pphm whrby th rlat laguag ctact appar t havmultauly vrg thr wr frm a cvrg thr tructur. artcl cclu wth a ummary Sct .

2. Te social ecology of northern Vanuatu languages:

Distinct communities in constant interaction

2.1 A fragmt lgutc lacap

2.1.1 e situation of the Banks and Torres languages mr cutry f Vauatu, kw a th Nw Hbr utl t p-c 98, ht th wrl hght ty f laguag pr capta (Crw-ly ). A ttal f vracular laguag hav b rcr thr (Try9, Lych & Crwly ) fr a currt ppulat f , habtat,whch mak fr a avrag umbr f abut pakr pr laguag. All thlaguag f Vauatu blg t th Ocac ubgrup f Autra ( Sc-

t ). prt tuy wll fcu th rthrmt ara f Vauatu, amly th

grup f la kw a th Trr Ila a th Bak Ila. Fgur tu-at rthr Vauatu wth Ila Mlaa a th Pacc.

rughut th papr, th labl rthr Vauatu, r th wr archpl-ag, wll cttly rfr t th Trr a Bak grup. rlatvly mallarchplag clu t habt la, a ha a ttal la urfac f 88 km,mt f whch uhabt. It ppulat f abut 9,, trbut acr

apprxmatly vllag, tay pak rt laguag.

Fgur prva map f th ara, tgthr wth th apprxmat umbr f pakr fr achlaguag.


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Figure . tuat f rthr Vauatu th Pacc

Figure . laguag f rthr Vauatu (Trr a Bak la)


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182 Alxar Fra

Amg th pch trat r cmmualct (Pawly & Sayaba 9,Graghty 98), m hw ugh mlarty that thy mght b cr, u-

r m t, alct f a gl laguag (.g., Mw a Vur, Mwt-lap a Vlw, r Kr a Olrat). Hwvr, thy xhbt ugh rc, thr phlg a/r thr lxc, fr pakr t cr thm rtlaguag, wth lmt mutual tllgblty. Bcau th prt tuy fcuprcly lgutc vrcat, I wll fllw th cal rprtat fth pch trat, a trat thm a parat laguag. Cvrly, whth rc btw tw vart tuu a f lttl (lgutc a cal)gcac, I grup thm a alct f a gl laguag. u L a Tga arubum ur L-Tga, Vur a Qtrw ur Lak, Var a Olrat u-

r Olrat, a Mrg a Mwrlap ur Mwrlap.

2.1.2 Demography and vitalityA th gur th map uggt, th laguag tay jy varyg grf vtalty. Fur f thm ar clarly mrbu, lgr tramtt t yugrgrat, a ly rmmbr by a haful f lrly vual. Mw,wth abut pakr, gvg way t th lcally mat laguag Vur. thr pakr f Olrat ar hg t Lak, th majr laguag th wt cat

f Gaua. Lmrg ha v pakr , a ha w g w t jut twvual, wh lv a ara ttl by Mwtlap pakr.

Vlw ca w b cr xtct, c t lat ut pakr (Waha) 98. ra why I tll clu t hr amg th laguag f thara bcau t tll rmmbr tay, at lat pavly, by t lat har-r (Eva : 9), Waha Wlma. A valuabl rcrg f th latWaha, whch th athrplgt Brar V carr ut 99 a latrha vr t m, ha b xtrmly uful th tak f rctructg, wthWlma hlp, what pk Vlw u t b lk.

fur mrbu tgu (Mw, Olrat, Lmrg, a Vlw) ar rm-at f laguag whch m t hav alway b pk by mall la cm-mut, a prbably vr mr tha r tw hur pakr ach thr hyay.

thr Trr a Bak laguag t t umbr th hur, frm fr Lhal t , fr Vur. At th uppr f th pctrum, Mwtlap cur-rtly thrvg, wth a may a , pakr f all ag, f whm , lv th la f Mtalava. All th laguag, xcpt th fur mrbu , ar tll

tramtt t chlr. I th rgar, pt gur whch may m lw by wrltaar, thy ar af frm mmat agrmt ( Crwly 99, ).

I th part f la Mlaa, t appar that jut a fw hur pakr mayfrm a vabl pch cmmuty. avrag umbr f pakr pr laguag


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, r f rmv th fur mrbu laguag frm th cut. gur ar much lwr tha Vauatu atal avrag f , pakr pr la-

guag, whch alray a wrl rcr trm f laguag ty pr capta( Sct ..). al hw th xtrm lgutc fragmtat whch charactrtc f th rthr Vauatu ara.

Whl laguag may m a hgh umbr, htrcal vc hw thatt wa v hghr a fw grat ag. Fra (frthcmg), cmplg ac-cut bth frm mary cumt (Crgt 88, 89) a frm thral trat, lt a ttal f tct cmmualct (laguag r alct) frth Bak a Trr la, whch wr alv aru th ml f th 9thctury. Varu cal prc tk plac th ca aru 9, clug

pmc, labr tra, a la-tral mgrat, whch rult a ratcmgraphc wtur (V 98: ), a wll a th rhapg f cmmu-t a cal grup. I jut a cupl f grat, th cquc wa thramatc r f lgutc vrty th ara (Fra frthcmg), whchwt frm cmmualct t tay, a w t th ar futur.

I trm f cal ttg, th laguag whch hav urvv utl tay ar pk ly r tw vllag. maxmum fr laguag x vl-lag, a th avrag thr ( vllag fr laguag). ly way t rach

athr vllag th am la by walkg. vllag a hamlt arcattr acr th archplag. Althugh m hamlt wr ccaally bult hghr part f mutau la, pcally Vaua Lava r Gaua, mayf thm hav w b aba favr f catal vllag, whr hg ala rurc ar mr aly cmb. Tay, la-tral mgrat ath accrt f mallr hamlt hav ccaally l t th frmat f largra mr ly-ppulat vllag, wth up t ppl lvg tgthr ctguu ara, th wt f Mtalava.

Sm plac th archplag hw partcularly hgh lgutc ty. Frxampl, th vllag f Jlap ( habtat) th wt cat f Gaua cut amay a thr tct laguag, whch ar all har publc vry ay: Lak(tlf a cmpt f tw alct Vur a Qtrw), Olrat (a t varty Var)a Drg. thr laguag hav b pk a tramtt by faml th vllag fr mr tha thr grat. T th may a Kr, Mwrlapa Num; th ar th laguag f mmgrat (pu, w ttlr) a arpk wth crta huhl. r ugh multlgualm ( Sc-t ..) th mall ppulat f th vllag fr vryby t urta, a

ccaally pak, ach thr laguag().


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184 Alxar Fra

2.2 A hmgu cal twrk

Dpt thr rlatv cal parat, th ppulat f th Trr a Bak

Ila hav alway frm a chrt twrk. All thrughut thr htry, thcmmut f th mall archplag hav practc varu frm f cal -tract a lgutc ctact, whthr thr tratal way f lf ( Sc-t ..) r mr tm ( Sct ..). ctat tract ara tal cmpt f th cal clgy f laguag th rg.

2.2.1 Sustained relations of contact cultural a lgutc mlart fu tay acr th Trr a Bak

ara ar partly u t th cmm rg f t ppulat ( Sct .), butal t th ctat rlat f ctact whch lcal cmmut hav alway -trta wth ach thr. Ev thugh ctact tk plac rgularly wth lafurthr uth a wll, th Trr a Bak Ila tgthr vtly frm a par-tcularly chv cal twrk.

tac btw th tw f th archplag, ay, btw th TrrIla a Mrlava, wr t grat t allw fr ay uta ctact btwall par f la f th grup. Hwvr, t grally ay fr ppl t travlfrm thr w laguag cmmuty t th clt . tac btw twlaguag cmmut th am la , avrag, abut tw r thr hurf truu walkg. It t tak much lgr t cr th a t th xt lawh alg ca wr tll u. I um, whl ctact wa mmal btwtat la, t ha alway b pbl fr a gv cmmuty t kp c-tact wth th fw cmmut that urru thm.

Cultural ctact btw grup wa t ly pbl, t wa cally cur-ag. Utl tay, th rlathp prvalg btw cmmut ha alwayb f a mutual balac f pwr, wth lttl c-cmc mac

f grup vr thr (V 9). Whl th ral trat f th TrrIla tll rcall warfar a cct btw vllag, th harly th caacr th varu la f th Bak grup. Ev f thy al ccaally allut pat cct, thr tr t rathr t rvlv aru allac btw vl-lag a chf, a al aru th tra f valuabl tm, clug wm. ty Qat, wh lv Vaua Lava, al rthwt a far a Vava, th a-ct am f th Trr Ila; rtur fr f h pg, h bught th Nght,a wll a a rtr, a a pc f ba (Fra b: ). Athr myth tll

hw a varty f yam wa rt cvr th Trr Ila, a matt ppulat furthr uth. A fr th prtgu wht yam, t clam byMtalava ppl t hav b rt cultvat thr la bfr a chl tkt t Mta. Athr try tll hw th chf f Urparapara appa a cct


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wth th chf f Maw, t th uth f Mrlava, by rg hm h aughtr(Fra b: ). Fally, th Mrlava ppl wh hav clz th atr

cat f Gaua ( Fgur ) lk t rlat hw thr actr c taught th a-tv ppl f th la hw t marry a bgt prg.All th tr, a wll a may thr, prtray a archplag whr cm-

mut hav ctatly xchag g a wm. A mlar pctur rawby archalgt a athrplgt. Huma (99) hw hw th cmyf th Trr a Bak cmmut, a wll a much f th Vauatu archplagfurthr uth, wa pt th tra f g. I partcular, th gra-tak-g crm vlv th cumpt a xchag f vat amut f hll-my, whch u t b tally pruc th w rt atll f Rua

( Fgur ), rthr Bak (V 9, Bfr & Sprgg 8: 9). tra ctact ha mprtat mplcat trm f tratal multlgualm,pcally amg m: th m f a gv cmmuty u t kw a practcth laguag f th ghbrg grup wth whm thy ha ctact. Crucally,th frm f multlgualm wa alway eiin (Haurcurt 9: 9), th that grup r laguag wa cr mat r mr prtgutha thr. Ita, ghbrg grup typcally trta rlat f mutualblgualm. galtara multlgualm tll brv tay, wth th ca-

vat that much trla cmmucat tay t t b carr ut B-lama (Fra frthcmg), th Eglh-lxr pg u a a lgua fracathrughut mr Vauatu (Try & Charptr ).

Majr publc vt, uch a gra-takg crm fr w tat, rgu-larly tk th frm f larg gathrg urg whch ppl f rmt cmmu-t wul mt a cmmucat tgthr. trcmmuty vt wral a pprtuty fr u t frm.

V (98: ) cumt tal th pattr f trla mar-rag th rthr la f th Bak grup (Vaua Lava, Urparapara, M-talava, Mta Fgur ). What h hw a trg habt f xgamy, wthmr tha prct f u bg trla marrag. Fgur brrwfrm V (98: ). utr crcl t th la; th t th -r crcl crrp t vual vllag. V ata, cllct th 9a 9, cumt vual marrag. Each l th gur ymbl-z th marrag f at lat wma frm th urc vllag wth a ma frmth targt vllag. u rult th rlcat f th wf prctf ca, f th huba 9 prct.

Du t th xgamu tcy, t vry cmm fr m t hav rla-tv varu ghbrg cmmut f th archplag, a ccaally v-t thm. Bcau rc t t b patrlcal, vry vllag wll cut a umbrf mmgrat wm rgatg frm varu part f th archplag, wh hav


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186 Alxar Fra

tablh thr rc thr pu vllag. Ictally, V br-vat rgarg th rthr Bak Ila ca b afly xtraplat t thtr Trr-Bak archplag. Fr xampl, th mall ppulat f L Ila(Trr) currtly clu mmgrat frm Hw, Tgua, Tga, Mtalava, Mta,

Vaua Lava a Gaua. cal ct hav mprtat cquc trm f laguag

ctact. Each f th ault wm quckly bcm blgual, bg abl twtch btw hr w mthr tgu a th laguag f hr w vllag. lgutc vrmt f hr chlr wll b hap by th frm f laguagctact, whthr rctly r rctly. Shul ach part pak h r hr wlaguag at hm, th th chlr ar ra blgually. Ev wh th mthrpak th laguag f th fathr at hm, th varty hr chlr wll har wll b tat by hr w lgutc backgru. Tgthr wth thr cau flaguag ctact, trla marrag play a mprtat rl th vlpmtf lgutc cvrgc ( Sct .).

2.2.2 Language contact in the modern worldTratal pattr f cal xchag, whthr thrugh tra r trla mar-rag, hav b xt th mr ra. chrtazat f th archpl-ag by Aglca mar ha put a t ay rmag htlt that mayhav xt. Mar al curag th mrgr f la hamlt t largr

catal vllag, thrby ftrg de facto laguag ctact. Majr rlgu gathr-g, uch a Chrtma clbrat, hav rplac arlr tratal crm,yt tll play a mlar rl utag tr-la xchag a marrag.

Figure 3. Itrla marrag th rthr Bak Ila (V 98)


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Ak t th ct f chrtazat ar th cquc f mr uca-t a t rgaz th lw-ty cmmut (Fra frthcmg).

Bcau m mall la lack chl by th prmary lvl, part thr chlr t barg chl athr la. Rlat f pwr btwth vracular ar t much act by th chl laguag tlf (Frchr Eglh) a by th mgraphc mbalac btw tut f varu l-gutc backgru. Fr xampl, wh yug pakr f mallr laguagar chl th Arp cary chl f at Vaua Lava, thy t t larMwtlap; v thugh th laguag t gu t th la, t bcmgcragly mat th rg. prt rgazat f chl favr,at bt, multlgualm at a yug ag, a th lg trm, agrmt f th

wakt laguag vart.Fally, th mr ra ha brught abut m tchcal prgr ma

th ma f traprtat (g bat, trla ght) a cmmuca-t (atllt ph hav quckly pra c th f 8). cmbct f all th mr ct t crably cra th frqucy fctact btw lgutc cmmut, v by what wa alray th caur tratal crcumtac.

. Shared ancestry and in situ diversication

I may part f th wrl, mr lgutc vrty wth a gv ara rultfrm ppulat mvmt, whrby gtcally vr laguag hav cm ctact urg thr htry. , hwvr, t th ca rthr Vauatu.Bth archalgcal a lgutc vc hw that th lcal ppulat hara cmm actry, a hav frm a rlatvly u twrk fr abut thrmlla, utl tay ( Sct .).

Bfr Eurpa cvry, thr lttl vc that th la f rthrVauatu ha ay uta ctact wth ay xgu grup. Whl ccaalcutr may hav happ wth th Tmtu ppl th rth, r wth Ply-a vyagr (Clark 99), th wr carc that thy l vrtually lgu-tc trac thr tha a haful f lxcal lawr. ly uta ctact thatca b tablh fr rthr Vauatu rma tral t th Trr a BakIla. Ctact wth la furthr uth, va a MrlavaMaw cct, alxt (Try 99, Fra : 8), but tll vlv clly rlat laguag.

a mprtat pt fr ur cu, c th tal that th prt-ay lgutc vrty t rult frm xtral cau (htrcal mgratr ctact btw gtcally vr laguag), but frm a htrcal prc fin situ vrcat frm what wa tally a lgutcally u cal twrk.


14/72

188 Alxar Fra

.1 A cmm actr

Ulk th Slm Ila t th rthwt ( Fgur ), th Vauatu arch-

plag hw archalgcal trac f ay huma ttlmt prr t BP.N-Autra (Papua) ppulat ha ttl much arlr (mr tha, yar ag) Nw Gua a part f th Slm cha, a rg labllNar Ocaa by Pawly & Gr (9). A fr th rt f th Pacc la,kw a Rmt Ocaa, thr clzat ly bga ar a ppulat favgatr, pakr f Autra laguag, mgrat frm Ila SuthatAa t Mlaa, btw , a , BP.

wh ppulat lvg th cat f Nw Gua, th Bmarck

archplag cl t Nw Brta I ( Fgur ), vlp a cvlzat kwa Lapta (Sprgg 99, 99, Krch 99, ). attrbut f th culturcmplx clu a crta tyl f pttry artfact (Lapta pttry) a wll alabrat afarg tchqu (Pawly & R 99: 8). Btw a 9BP, Lapta avgatr maag t cr larg ca gap, a raply ttl thth uppulat archplag f Rmt Ocaa: th Sata Cruz la (at fth Slm cha), Vauatu, Nw Cala, Fj a Wt Plya. Althughth tal f thr trary a ttlmt pattr rma t b fully urt,t a clar fact that th mr ppulat f rthr Vauatu c frmth arly Lapta ttlr (Shg t al. , Bfr & Sprgg 8).

A far a laguag ar ccr, all catr uggt that th laguag p-k by th barr f th Lapta cvlzat wh l th Bmarck archplag -tally crrp t what rctruct a Prt-Ocac, th cmmactr f all th gu laguag f Rmt Ocaa (R 988, Pawly &R 99, Pawly , b, Lych, R & Crwly ). laguag p-k by Lapta avgatr ha lttl tm t vlv gcatly urg th w m-grat that l thm t ttl acr la Mlaa: rap pra f Lapta

frm th Bmarck t Wt Plya btw a 9 BP ha a lgutccrrlat. pch f th Lapta clt th rt la grup muthav b rlatvly hmgu, lttl rtat frm Prt Ocac (Paw-ly a: ). brvat ha mprtat cquc fr th lgutc h-try f th Ocac famly, wh tr mut largly b rctruct a a rakrathr tha a r f atly t ubgrup (Pawly 999) Fgur b-lw. I thr wr, ur th Prt-Ocac f th famly tr, g-catly rt trmat tag wa abl t frm btw th tm wh th

ppulat l th Bmarck archplag, a th tm wh thy rach thla f Vauatu. ly cmm actr whch har by rthr Vau-atu laguag, trctly pakg, thu Prt-Ocac tlf.


15/72


.2 Pr-pral actry v. pt-pral lkag

r ar fact tw rt way whch th laguag f rthr Vauatu

ca b a t har a cmm actry. Fr thg, thy all c frmPrt-Ocac, th laguag pk by th tal ttlr prr t thr m-graphc pral. But athr frm f har vlpmt crrp t thlgutc twrk whch th ppulat ctu t partcpat v arthr pral.

Ar th tal ttlmt f rthr Vauatu, archalgcal vc(Pawly a, Bfr & Sprgg 8) hw that th wly ttl ppulatmata a u cal twrk acr vat archplag fr vral gra-

t. Such cal lk ar vc, fr xampl, by th arly prc f b-a frm th Bak Ila Fj (Ambr 9, Bt 98, Bfr & Sprgg8: 98), a latr Efat (Bfr & Sprgg 8: ). xamat f c-ramc vc allw archalgt t tfy m pt-Lapta fatur whchar har acr crta clutr f la wth Vauatu: [T]hr rgalvrficat cramc trat rght acr Vauatu ar Lapta ()th trat ca b v t a umbr f rg: uthr, ctral, rth-r, a far rthr Vauatu (Banks and Torres Islands) (Bfr & Sprgg8: , my mpha).

lgutc crrlat f th act cal uty ar a umbr f pt--pral vat, whch htrcally u acr a ggraphcally pra-uttwrk f th mutually tllgbl alct. Bcau m f th vat t alway pra t all mmbr f th alct twrk, thy t prpr sos, but ines (R 988, 99, Pawly 999). A lkag -gat a grup f cmmualct whch hav ar by alct rtat(R 988: 8).

Sm gl cmpa th whl f Vauatu a Nw Cala, a

th Soen Oeni ine (Lych ). clu crtamrphlgcal vat (Lych , Lych & Oza-Rvrr ), a wlla th rrgular l f th phm *R a vat umbr f lxcal tm (Graghty99). tal htry f *R l Vauatu (Fra ) prv crucalvc t mtrat that Vauatu ppulat partcpat cmmu-cat twrk v ar th pral f th rt ttlr.

Svral vat al pra acr th rthr tw thr f Vau-atu, frm Hw t Efat. frm th ba fr what Clark (98, 9) ha

t a th Nrth a Ctral Vauatu lkag, t whch h ag 9 fVauatu laguag, clug th Trr-Bak laguag f th pr-t tuy. putatv prt-laguag fr th lkag rfrr t a PnPrt Nrth Ctral Vauatu (Clark 9). Fally, th lgutc vat


16/72

10 Alxar Fra

whch pra acr th Trr-Bak lkag may b cvtly ubum u-r th labl P Prt Trr-Bak. tr-lk agram Fgur umma-

rz th mutual rlat btw th lkag; hr I apt th cvt R (988) f rprtg lkag wth a ubl l, t tguh thm frmprpr ubgrup.

r ar thu tw way whch a grup f clly rlat laguag mayhar a cmm actr, a ccv f a famly-tr ml. Frt, thyfully hrt th fatur f thr e-dises sed neso, .. th la-guag whch wa pk by th tal ttlr a thy pr acr trrtry, th ca, Prt-Ocac. But hul th pr cmmut ctu tuta a cal a lgutc twrk fr m tm, th thy wll al wt a

umbr f vat whch wll u t part r all f th twrk. Ovr tm,th accumulat f uch vat a lkag, .., a clutr f ajactalct harg a cmm pt-pral htry. Such a lkag wll part havth prprt f a so (.g., m vat har thrughut th t-wrk), but al prprt that mak t cary t ag t a tct tatu (.g.,uv trbut f vat that allw fr crvatv pckt; trct-g gl; laguag may blg multauly t vral vrlappglkag). O prprty f th vlut f alct twrk that th va-

t whch ar xcluvly har acr vral alct t rct vrtcal -hrtac frm a arlr (pr-pral) actr, but rathr pt-pral vtf hrztal u acr alct ctact (Graghty 98, Pawly 999,Garrtt , Bg 9, Hggarty t al. , Babl t al. frthcmg).

Oceanic

Western Oceaniclinkage

(other

groups)

(other

groups)

Southern Oceanic linkage

North Central Vanuatulinkage (Clark 2009)

Southern Melanesianlinkage (Lynch 2000)

Torres-Bankslinkage

(other linkages ofNorth & Central

Vanuatu )(17 modernlanguages)

SouthernVanuatu

NewCaledonian

Figure . Prt Ocac ha plt t varu alct twrk, whch hav gv r tlly-bu lkag f varu z


17/72


T ummarz, frm th trct pt f vw f phylgtc, th ly glactr uctrvrally har by th mr laguag f rthr Vauatu

Prt-Ocac. All thr lwr-lvl clutrg ar lkag, .., pt-pralalct twrk whch frm ara f u. alct-twrk ml x-pla hw lgutc vat maag t pra acr cal grup f vary-g cp urg th htrcal vlpmt f th rthr Vauatu laguag.

. chagg cp f lgutc vat

A mprtat pt fr ur cu that th pra f th varu lgutcvat r ggraphcal cp. Sm cvr a bra trrtry, uch

a th whch ar har acr th Nrth-Ctral Vauatu lkag. By -t, th vat t trggr laguag fragmtat a lcal cal,bcau thy wr apt qually by all (r arly all) ajact mmbr f thrlvat alct twrk. Othr vat, hwvr, ly pra acr vry lm-t trrtry, fr xampl, a gl la. Such lcal vat rult gratrlgutc vrty.

varyg trbut f vat partally crrp t uccvtag th htry f th rg. What tart a a far-ug twrk f mall

vyagg cmmut matag m frm f cal a lgutc uty lw-ly crumbl t mallr cal twrk a ruc cal. A lcal ppulatgrw a vlp cmc lf-uccy, thy rl l a l up thrtat rlathp. brakup f cal twrk ha lgutc crrlat, brgg abut vrgc amg c u laguag: Ar th rt pha fclat, th archalgcal a lgutc rcr cat that th Suth-r Mlaa archplag, a quc f mgraphc a cultural chagccurr whch l t wakg r l f cmmucat btw tat -tr cmmut. ()Most linguistic innovations spread only short distances, ath pch trat f tat cmmut vrg (Pawly a: , mympha).

I um, th vrty fu amg th mr laguag f rthr Vau-atu, a llutrat Tabl (Sct .), thr u t ay prxtg gtcvrty, r t xtral put, but rct thr mlla fin situ vrca-t. Sct wll w llutrat m f th lgutc frm tak by th pr-c f fragmtat.


18/72

12 Alxar Fra

4. Processes of language diversication in northern Vanuatu

4.1 Arg th u f laguag vrcat laguag pk th Trr a Bak Ila ar thu rlat twway. O th ha, thy ar all gtcally rlat, all bg cat f tham actr. O th thr ha, thy hav alway trta cl rlat fctact a multlgualm. tw factr cul b xpct t rult mfrm f lgutc hmgty, r at lat prrv mutual tllgblty. But th t what ca b brv tay. Hw t cm abut that th laguag ar vrgt thr phlg a lxc? D thr htry fllw uvral f

laguag chag? Or w t rrt t rg-pcc prcpl f laguagchag, whch wul ly apply t th part f th wrl? Ar th laguag chatc that thy mak t mpbl t apply th cmparatv mth?

I fact, far frm challgg th valty f th cmparatv mth, th ataprt hr wll trgly crm t rlvac attmptg t rctruct thhtry f th laguag. carful tcat f rgular u crrp-c a tructural chag, whthr th phlgy, th mrphlgy r thlxc, wll prv mthlgcally crucal tfyg th prc htry fphm, mrphm a wr th ara. Rgular crrpc (cf. Fra- a) frm th backgru agat whch t wll bcm pbl t tctrrgular vlpmt that ar lmt t a fw ajact laguag. wll allwu t cmpar laguag thr htrcal vlpmt, a track th path takby ach vat paratly.

Lgutc vrcat, a I wll hw th ct, tk hr tallythr frm: e sond ne (Sct .), ie sond ne(Sct .), a ei eeen (Sct .). prc ra twrt qut, f rt atur. O qut whthr th chag ar

typlgcally uuual, a rqur xplaat pcc t th grup f laguag;my awr t th wll b gatv: thmlv, th thr typ f chag fl-lw uvral tr f laguag vlut, a t rqur ay lcal xplaa-t. ctrat wth athr qut, cu th al ct f thpapr (Sct ), amly, hw ca xpla th hr densityf th va-t, a thr prpty t tablz t mall cmmut? ty, I wllvtually uggt, mrrr th cal fabrc f th archplag, a th accptz f cal cmmut th partcular part f th wrl.

But bfr I cmmt th u f thr cal crrlat, I rt prp tcrb hr th vat thmlv, a cu whch lgutc prcca xpla thm.


19/72


4.2 Laguag vrcat thrugh rgular u chag

tal lgutc uty that ca b rctruct fr th arly tm f ttl-

mt gav way t a twrk f alct whch vrg mr a mr vr ththr mlla f thr cxtc. O f th frc f uch vlut wa uchag. cvr trm cmpa tw tct typ f chag:

Re u chag: chag ccurrg th phlgcal ytm, aactg th whl lxc f a gv cmmualct. ut f chag thphm.

Ie u chag: chag pcc t m vual lxcal tm,pt f rgular u chag th ytm a a whl. ut fchag th wr.

tw frm f u chag ar pt f ach thr, a ar t r-r wth rpct t athr. I th cur f thr htry, vual lxcaltm ar act bth by rgular (phm-ba) a by rrgular (wr-ba)u chag. rt f th tw typ th bjct f th prt ct, Sc-t .; th c wll b crb Sct ..

Jut lk ay thr vat, bth typ f u chag ca b crba havg mrg lcally, th pch f a fw vual, a u grau-ally t thr pr acr a twrk f lct, fllwg prc f th kcrb by Labv (9, 99, ). A w wll , u chag rthrVauatu tablz t a mall ara, uually mallr tha th whl Trr-Bak archplag, .g., jut la, a mtm jut vllag.

4.2.1 Linguistic diversity at the phonological level lgutc fragmtat u t rgular u chag mt cpcuu th ma f vwl. Prt-Ocac, th cmm actr f th laguag,

rctruct wth v vwl: / a u/. mpl vtry tll prrv Mta, a crvatv laguag f th Bak Ila. Hwvr, all thr laguag- f th ara hav cra thr vtry f vwl phm va a htrcalprc f mtaphy, ak t umlaut, crrlat wth tr (Fra a). Afrmr trchac ft *CVCV rgularly yl a cl yllabl CVC, whchV a w vwl qualty rultg frm th clrg f V (tr) ur thuc f V (utr), .g., Pn *

mu yam > Vs ndm.Crucally, th pattr f vwl chag (*CVCV > CVC) ar hghly rgular

wth ach laguag, but thy hw trg varat frm laguag t a-thr. u Kr, a tr *a fllw by a utr *u ytmatcallyrct a a phthg /a/: *ndamu > ndam yam. am quc *a(C)urgularly yl /a/ Num (ndam) r Lak (am), a lg /a/ Drg (ndam);


20/72

14 Alxar Fra

// Lhal (nd), // Vraa (ndm) r Mw (nm), // Mwrlap (ndm),// Lmrg (tm), // Lyp (ndm), // Mwtlap a Vlw, // Olrat

(m). A th prvav phm f mtaphy appl rgularly t all p-bl cmbat f vwl, t rult th phmczat f w vwl, rt way ach laguag. Tabl (aapt frm Fra a: ) ltth vwl vtr f th mr laguag f th Bak a Trr Ila. rghtmt clum cat th ttal umbr f vwl phm ach la-guag, clug hrt mphthg, phthg a lg vwl.

Mr vwl vtr ar thu vr, ragg frm a crvatv -vw-l ytm (Mta) t vatv t f (Mwrlap) r (L-Tga). If hrt alg vwl ar cut a tct phm, th th hght umbr ar fu

Olrat () a Lak (). ytm al vary thr tral lgc, mbg prfctly ymmtrcal (.g., Mw, Lmrg), thr l ( Fgur ).

Oly vry fw ca ca grup tw ajact laguag tgthr (.g.,Mwtlap wth Vlw, r Drg wth Kr), a uggt thr vwl ytm may havfllw a gl htry. But vrywhr l, t appar that ach lcal cmmutyha m t vwl ytm a rt way tha t mmat ghbr.

able . laguag f rthr Vauatu a thr vwl vtr

lgg name vowel inventory nb V

Hi Hiw i e a o 9

L Lo-Toga i e a o + ie i ia o o 8+

Li Lehali i a u

L Lyp i a y + i +

V Volow i a u

M Mwotlap i a u

L Lemerig i a u V Veraa i a u

Vs Vurs i a y + ia 9+

Msn Mwesen i a u

M Mota i e a o u

N Nume i a u

D Dorig i a u + a +

Ko Koro i a u +a +

O Olrat i a u + i a u

Ln Lakon i a u + i a u 8

M Mwerlap i a +a 9+


21/72


phlgcal ytm f th mr laguag al hw m r-c thr cat vtr. u, m laguag hav praalz tp(/mb/, //, /g/); thr t. Whl mt laguag hav ru labalvlar(/kp/ r /mgb/, /m/), fur laguag hav ru vlar (/k/, //) ta.Crta gmt, uch a //, /h/ r //, ar fu m laguag, but t thr mmat ghbr. Sm laguag hav tw lqu /r/ a /l/, thr jut/l/; th ly lqu f Hw a prtpp vlar latral /g/ [g], uhar lwhr(Fra a).

Laguag al r rgarg thr phlgcal ctrat a phtac-tc prprt. Sm lc labalvlar tp yllabl-ally (.g., Vur /kpakp/

pch Tabl ), whl thr t. Sm lc tautyllabc catclutr, whl thr ytmatcally av thm. Ev thugh bth Hw a Drghar th am yllabc tmplat (CCVC), t ca b hw that ctrat f -rty ar pratal th clutr f Hw, but t Drg (Fra a).

Ev tat ca r acr laguag. Whra mt laguag xprplar qut wth a rg ptch, tw t f laguag (th tw Trr laguag-, plu th f Gaua) prv th qut wth a fallg ctur.

4.2.2 Linguistic fragmentation through regular sound change rgular phlgcal chag hav mtm bcur th rlat btwwr frm ghbrg laguag, v wh thy ar ultmatly cgat.

Althugh th t th typcal ca ( Sct .), m lxcal tm hwa hgh rat f rtt, th that (arly) all th laguag f th Trra Bak Ila rct th am rgal tym. tym may b a rt-t frm thr cmm actr (Prt-Ocac), r th rult f pt-prallxcal vat whch pra acr alct urg th arly tm f lgutcuty (Pn, P).

Whl all th mr wr may b cgat, thr urfac frm hav bcm rt ugh t hampr mutual tllgblty. Tabl prv a malllct f uch cgat t. Rgular phlgcal crrpc (Fra

Lmrg( vwl)

Mwrlap( vwl)

Hw(9 vwl)

i u

a

i

a

a

i

e o

a

Figure . Mr vwl ytm ar mr r l ymmtrcal


22/72

16 Alxar Fra

a) mak t pbl t rctruct a pbl prtfrm fr ach cgat t(th lat rw f Tabl ), at th lvl f Prt Trr-Bak (P, Sct .).

A prprt f th vrgt frm ca b xpla mply by th rgularchag utl Sct ... u, th varty f mr frm fr g, trk,a ccut crab rult frm th applcat f rgular pattr f u chag tth thr rctructabl tyma, P *asi, *sarai, a *ndaeru rpctvly. Afrm a cupl f xcpt, th way ach laguag trat th prt-cat (*,*r, *) r quc f prt-vwl (.g., *C) vry rgular.

Mt f th chag llutrat hr ar l wth typlgcally cmmtr u chag, whthr wth rpct t vual gmt (.g., * > /h/;*t > //, r *t > //), r prc lk umlaut (.g., *C > /C/). Othr tac

f u chag ar prhap l cmm (.g., *r > /j/, *r > /g/; *mb > //, *mb >/k/; * > //, * > //; *C > /C/, tc.), but thy ar tll wth th lmt f thxplcabl. Ovrall, what mr cpcuu hr th ata t much thu chagper se a thr hr ty uch a lmt trrtry.

able 3. Laguag rtat thrugh u chag: A fw cgat t frm rth-r Vauatua

song stroke coconut crab craysh breathe incl:DuHiw g tt g mnaw tg

Lo-Toga h hr hh r mkh r

Lehali -h hjp -j -j mk j

Lyp - jp n-ndij -j m

Volow -h hj -j -j mh (j)

Mwotlap -h hjp a-j -j mkh (j)

Lemerig - r tr -r mp tru

Veraa ara r r mm u

Vurs r r r mm rk

Mwesen r r r mp r

Mota a ara ar ura maa ara

Nume w ara r wr mam uru

Dorig a ra r r mamb ar

Koro a ra r ra mma uru

Olrat ? j ur mpa r

Lakon hh hr ur mahp w

Mwerlap - rp nttak -r mm r

ProtoTB *a *ara *aru *ura *mambua *arua

a prx /-/ bfr u a parabl artcl. Frm talc ar t cgat wth th rt f th lt.


23/72


mpr f fragmtat v trgr f th ata ar pltt t amap. I, v th laguag whch har th am u chag (.g., * >/h/, *r > /j/, r *C > /C/), ta f frmg a chrt clutr, ar ggraph-cally cattr. Fgur llutrat th wth th rx f *asi g (r wth thartcl, *na asi).

Wh a chag har acr ghbrg laguag, t may rult frmth pra f a gl vat acr ajact alct th cha (.g., * >/h/ Mwtlap a Vlw). Hwvr, t th ca that a gv chag rtrct t jut a gl alct, a abt frm t mmat ghbr (.g.,*asi > Vs //). Wh th am chag tk plac tw ggraphcally pa-rat alct, t prbably rct paralll vlpmt. Fr xampl, gv what thrw kw abut th tw laguag, t wul t mak t grupth ggraphcally tat Lhal a Lak tgthr th ba f thr har

chag * > /h/ a *a(C) > /(C)/, a llutrat by *asi > Li n-h, Ln

h

h( th bx Fgur ). Clarly th ar tw paralll vlpmt, whch c-curr ptly bth plac.

h

s

ns

ns

ns

ns

ws

ns

ss

nh

nh

nh

hh

as

asas

Figure . Lxcal rtat thrugh rgular u chag: Rx f th u *asig


24/72

18 Alxar Fra

Nw, frm th prpctv f th frthcmg cu, t may b trtgt url th ccc that bth Lhal a Lak, th rultg trg

/h/ tur ut t b a rt a ca gt frm th frm f thr actualay-t-ay ghbr, Lyp /-/ a Olrat // rpctvly. A , th ara f Vauatu, t cmm t a hghr gr f phlgcal f-frtat btw laguag whch ar thrw, bth ggraphcally algutcally, vry cl t ach thr. It lk a thugh u chag mght havb (ub)cculy xplt by ach pch cmmuty a a ma t t-guh tlf frm t mmat ghbr ( Sct .).

4. Laguag vrcat thrugh rrgular u chag4..1 e diusion of irregular formsI at t rgular u chag, m frm hav g thrugh rrgularchag, .., chag rtrct t partcular lxcal tm. prc alct-lgcal htry f ach cgat t ca b trac wth raabl accuracy. Bybrvg mr frm th lght f kw rgular u crrpc, t pbl t rctruct trmat prtfrm, m f whch hw rrgularvat, a brv thr trbut th alct cha.

Fr xampl, th ca f th u crayh (Tabl ), whl all th mrfrm ar prbably ultmatly cgat (but blw), t cary t rc-truct t , but fur tct prtfrm:

M ura, Vs r, N wr, M n-r, tc. all pt t a pr-mr frm*(na) ra

L n-ij, V/M n-j, L n-r, a V nirall pt t *(na) ra Ko ra, O nur, a Ln ur all prupp a frm *(na) uri Hi g, L r, a Li n-j all pt t a prtfrm *(na) ru

Fr ra f pac, I wll t tal hr th vual chag fr ach f th frm f th u, but ach f thm ca b rgularly rv frm f thfur trmat prtfrm, .g., Li n-j < *nr< *na ru; L n-ij < *n-ir< *na ra, tc. ggraphcal rag f th rt prtfrm hw Fgur .

fur trmat rctruct ar all ultmatly rv frm thPrt-Ocac tym fr crayh, amly *qura (R, Pawly & Om: ). Yt amg thm, ly , amly *ura, hw th xpct frm

ba rgular u crrpc. u, crg that th l f PO*q all pt a th l f wr-al cat ar bth cmm chag th Nrth-Ctral Vauatu lkag (Clark 9: , ), th prtfrm *qurargularly yl a pr-mr frm *ura, f whch a wr lk /r/ Vur a


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prfctly rgular rx (va mtaphy a utr vwl lt, Sc-t ..). By ctrat, th thr thr rctruct vlv a xtra chagwhch cat b xpla by rgular u chag al. u *ira tal a r-rgular vwl chag *u > *, fu ly th lxm. frm *urai llutratth lcally frqut yt uprctabl accrt f a -tymlgcal *-, a thubqut rtt f th rt-al cat (*). A fr *rau, t uclarwhthr t a rrgular rx f *qura (va **ura a mtath? r **urau

> **urau?), r f t fact -cgat wth *qura, whch ca t wul ba ca f lxcal rplacmt (Sct .). mr qut mak lttl f-frc fr ur currt cu, whch vlv th pra f vatv frm.

Bcau *ura rgular, t rx ar mrly ca f har rtt: thprc f u chag actg thm hav t wth rgular phlgcalchag that t targt th partcular lxm. But th ca rt fr ththr thr frm, whch ar clarly vatv. Each f th thr frm (*ira,*urai, *rau) uprctabl, a cat b ag ay mpl phtc mt-

vat. fact that thy ar ach fu vral ajact laguag (Fgur ) bt xpla by a ual car: ach frm ha t mrg m alct,a th pra by mtat, acr a prt f th cal twrk.

*ira

*rau

Regular*ura

*urai

Figure . Lxcal rtat thrugh rrgular u chag:

Itrmat vat fr th u crayh (< PO *qura)


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200 Alxar Fra

cmplt htry f th vual cgat t fr crayh ca thu brctruct a a layrg f multpl pt-pral vat, ach wth a f-

frt ggraphc cp. Sm pra acr vat alct twrk, uch a th(rgular) chag *q > * > (*qura > *ura()) wt thrughut Nrth-Ctral Vauatu. Othr lmt thr mpact t jut a fw ajact alct, ucha th vwl chag *(q)ura() > *(q)ira().

Itrtgly, th ca fr whch a rlatv chrlgy f chag r-ctructabl, t ca b hw that vat actg a mallr ara mtmtk plac before th actg th largr twrk. u, th accrt f a para-ggc vwl *- (a *(q)ura > *(q)urai), whch happ wth varu lxm uthwt Gaua (Fra a: 9), mut carly hav tak plac at a

tm wh PO wr-al cat wr tll prt. rgular l f wr-al cat (.g. *(q)ura > *(q)ura#), a u chag fu acr th trNCV lkag, carly tk plac latr. At rt ght, th car m at wth th tr-lk frm f Fgur (Sct .), c t mpl that crta -

vat charactrtc f hghr (larg cal twrk, th ca th NCVlkag) mut hav tak plac aerthr chag th lwr (mall caltwrk, th ca thr alct f Gaua). But th prcly a mprtatrc btw th clac trprtat f phylgtc tr trm f uc-

cv mgraphc plt, a vt f pt-pral hrztal u ucha th I am crbg hr. Bcau th f Fgur t ubgrup, but lkag, thy ar t trctly rr tm; thy mrly rctrlat f patal a cal clu.

I thr ca, th rvr rrg f vt (larg-cp rt, mall-cplatr) mut b rctruct. It mut b br m that uch prc f f-fu, pcally th rgarg u chag, wr ly pbl a lg a thalct ctact mata ugh mutual tllgblty t lt vatpra. Fr xampl, t hghly lkly that th rplacmt f *(q)ura(), acrth rthr Bak ara (Fgur ), wth a vatv frm *(q)ira(), ccurrat a tm wh th alct vlv tll ha vry mlar phlgcal ytm,wth v vwl a a trll /r/. It ly latr, c th frm *ira ha ttl thatara, that ach alct wt thrugh t w ycratc frm f phlgcalchag, .g., *na ra > /-j/ Lyp, /-j/ Mwtlap, /r/ Lmrg, /r/ Vraa. If th rr f u chag ha b th ppt (phlgcal uchag rt, lxcally-pcc chag latr), th wul hav mat that th wrcrayh wul hav rt vlv t tct frm uch a (*na ura >) **n-j

Lyp a Mwtlap, **nr Lmrg, **nur Vraa. Latr, a pakr f, ay,Lmrg h rrgularly frm **nrt /r/, thr Vraa ghbr wul havbrrw th rrgular chag, a altr thr w **nur t /r/. Sucha car, whrby laguag cul hav brrw a rrgular u chag


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ar thy ha bcm phlgcally rtat, wul b hghly ulkly.I uch a ca, t thrfr afr t rctruct a quc whrby th chag

wth a largr ggraphc cp, rrgular *(q)ura() > *(q)ira(), tk plac rt,whra u chag lmt t mallr cmmut (.g., rgular *Ca > /C/ Lmrg) ar mr rct (Fra a: ). Occaally, th rct at fcrta phlgcal chag ca b upprt by xtral vc. Fr xampl,th h *r > j th rthr Bak ara ca b hw t hav ccurr wth thlat ctury r , bth Mtalava (Fra : ) a Urparapara; th{*r > j} gl brv tay rult hr frm a rct prc f u.

Ovrall, vt f u mtm pra acr larg chuk f th t-wrk, a mtm acr ruc ara, wth prcpl way t rr th

tm. Bth rr ar attt:

Ivat pra t a mallr ara rt: [*(q)ura > *(q)urai uthwtGaua], fllw by a vat pra t a largr ara: [l f *C# allNCV laguag]

Ivat pra t a largr ara rt: [*(q)ura() > *(q)ira() rthrBak], fllw by a vat pra t a mallr ara: [.g., *r > /j/; vwlmtaphy ach tct laguag]

I um, rrgular prc f (wr-ba) u chag wr th ra whya gl hrt tym *qura parat, a t wr, t fur trmatfrm. I tur, th fllw varu pattr f phlgcal a mrphlg-cal chag, bth rgular a rrgular, whch vtually brught abut th varurt frm brvabl tay. A mlar mtrat cul accut fr th

varu mr frm hw Tabl fr brath, whch cmb layr pr-c f rrgular a rgular u chag.

I ach ca, laguag fragmtat rult frm a accumulat f varuvat ( th xampl, u chag), ach f whch u t a r-t prt f th cal twrk. vrlay f multpl trctg gl up prvg ach lcal cmmualct wth t w lgutc tty.

4..2 Parallel innovation in lexically-specic sound changeGgraphcally pakg, th trbut f tymlgcal varat fr crayh ahw Fgur wa rrly ugh t grup ajact laguag tgthr, at rctruct a gl rrgular u chag that u by ctact. But thtuat ca mtm b l ty, way that mak t cary t cr th

pblty f r r paralll vat, a way mlar t what wa prp Sct .. fr phlgcal chag.

Cr, fr xampl, th ca f th t pr ual cluv pru, gv th rghtmt clum f Tabl . It full tymlgcal frm ca b rctruct


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202 Alxar Fra

a *inda-rua, tlf frm Prt-Ocac *kita cl:Pl + *rua tw. pru*indarua vtly acqur thr rrgular rx at m pt t htry:

*n

darua (va aphr); *n

daru (aphr + apcp); *in

dua (va ycp). Frra f pac, I wll t tal hr th vual chag fr ach f th mr frm, but ach f thm ca b rgularly rv (Fra a) frm f th trmat rctruct, fr xampl:

Li nj < *ndr < *indara Hi tg < *ndr< *ndara (< *indarua) D ndar < *ndru (< *indarua) Ln w < *< *nd< *inda (< *indarua)

alctlgcal trbut f th fur trmat prtfrm (Fgur 8) ggraphcally mr chatc tha th at gl w aw Fgur abv.It lkly that at lat m f th vat har by tat cmmutrct paralll vat, r r. Fr xampl, th ycp whch yl thprtfrm *inda mut prbably hav tak plac paratly th htry fLyp, Vraa a Lak; hypth rrtg t ctact r mgrat, althught xclu, wul t b vry cvcg hr.

I um, jut lk rgular u chag (Sct .), w hav that pr-

c f wr-pcc u chag mtm vlv u, a Fgur ,

*indua

*indarua

*ndarua

*ndaru

Figure . Irrgular mrphlgcal chag a chatc trbut: Itrmat prt-frm fr th in:D pru


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a mtm ccurr ptly parat laguag. I bth ca, thchag wa rtrct t a rlatvly mall ara, a ha rult gratr lgu-

tc fragmtat at th cal f th Trr-Bak archplag.

4.4 Laguag vrcat thrugh lxcal rplacmt

I th cur f thr mlla, th cmb ct f rgular a rrgularu chag thu maag t crat ugh vrty t mak th laguagmutually utllgbl, v th ca whr th mr frm ar ultmat-ly cgat wth ach thr. But at t th wpra tcy twaru chag, athr prc ha prv v mr pwrful brgg abut

lgutc vrgc vr tm. ei eeen, wh a hrtfrm rplac by athr wr, htrcally urlat, fr a gv mag.

4.4.1 Lexicostatistics and the rate of lexical replacementI h lxctattcal tuy f th Nw Hbr, Try (9) calculat pr-ctag f lxcal cgacy btw par f laguag, ba a lt f abut bac vcabulary tm. I h tabl f Trr a Bak Ila (9: 9), thhght gur f lxcal cl btw ay tw laguag, Mw a Vur,

88.% f har bac vcabulary. But mr gcat th lwt gur fh chart, whch hw that th tw lxcally mt tat laguag f th -la, Hw a Lak, har mr tha .% f thr bac lxc. All thrumbr fr th Trr a Bak Ila rag btw a 88% f har

vcabulary. Nt urprgly, lxcal vrty bcm v hghr f th cpf brvat xt uth f th Bak ara t thr laguag f th amNrth-Ctral Vauatu lkag; fr xampl, Lak har ly .% f bac

vcabulary wth Apma (Ptct Ila), a .% wth Llpa (Efat Ila).By t, th gur tll u thg abut lgutc rtat

amg cgat frm thrugh u chag (Sct ., .). Yt thy ar quttructv wh t cm t wghg th gr f lxcal rplacmt thTrr-Bak ara. By way f cmpar, lxctattcal gur calculat wthth am mth fr bttr-kw ubgrup f I-Eurpa (Dy, Krukal& Black 99) hw that th rat f har vcabulary rag btw 9. a.% th Slavc ubgrup, btw 9. a .% Grmac, a btw89.9 a .% wth Rmac. N f th thr grup apprach th ratf .% whch fu wth Bak-Trr al, t ay thg f th Nrth-

Ctral Vauatu lkag a a whl.O cul bat hw tattcally gcat th rc btw th g-

ur f .% a th lwr rat (.g., .%) fu fr th I-Eurpa ub-grup. tm pth vlv th rt ca f lgutc vrcat


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204 Alxar Fra

tally mlar: th prtlaguag actral t th Trr-Bak ara(Prt-Trr-Bak) bga t xtc abut yar ag, but mut hav

ly brk up vral ctur latr, ar a pr f har vlpmt ur-g whch t frm a hmgu alct twrk (a gl laguag). Suchat, btw thr a tw mlla f ag, ar thu cmparabl t th g-rally accpt fr th thr ubgrup f I-Eurpa mt hr. I thprpctv, th chrlgcal pac f lxcal vrcat th Trr-Baklkag may b a t b tally mlar t ach f th thr I-Eurpaubgrup mt hr.

Whl lxcal rplacmt t m t b gcatly fatr tha l-whr, what xtrm hr rathr t ggraphcal a huma ty. I-

Eurpa hgh-rr ubgrup uch a Rmac, Grmac r Slavc all vlvmm laguag cmmut wh mgraph umbr hur f ml-l f pakr pr acr vat trrtr. By ctrat, th Trr-Bakarchplag rprt a la urfac abut % th z f Crca, a ha appulat f jut a fw thua vual (tay 9,); t ly frm a ubtf th Nrth-Ctral Vauatu lkag, tlf mrly a brach f Ocac. factthat th vry lw-rr ubgrup f Autra, wth uch a mall ppulat,ha rach uch a gr f lxcal vrty tlf wrthy f tc.

4.4.2 Semantic change, markedness shi, and lexical replacementCmb wth th varu pattr f u chag w aw arlr, lxcal r-placmt largly accut fr th hgh lvl f vrgc fu btw thwr frm f rthr Vauatu laguag. S, fr xampl, th varty f wrfr prprly r pch Tabl (Sct .).

O qut ar frm th brvat, amly, what mtvat lxcal r-placmt. I th a ccu prc? I t prmarly rv by cal factr? Ith al ct f th tuy, I wll argu that clgutc factr th ara f Mlaa play a mprtat rl th u a pra f lxcalvat. Hwvr, I wll al prp (Sct .) that th factr ly ac-cut fr th dision f vat c th hav alray mrg. A frth qut f hw lxcal vat thmlv ise th rt plac, I wllclam hr that th bt xpla by uvral tc f matc chaga lxcal rplacmt, whch ar t pcc t th rg.

Laguag rplac lxcal tm fr a varty f ra. y may rw tmf thr vcabulary, fr xampl, t av hmphy (Gllr & Rqu 9,

Kllr 989, Campbll a: ). Athr mtvat may b rlat t th -cal practc f lgutc tab (Blut 98). I, Sm (98: 8) crlgutc tab t hav play a ky rl lxcal rplacmt th Autr-a famly. Hwvr, th xplaat t trly cvcg fr rthr


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Vauatu. ly frm f tab rprt fr th ara (Crgt 89: ),whch tll u tay, frb vual frm uttrg th am f thr

-law; hul thy t u a wr phtcally mlar t a frb am,thy wll hav t rplac t wth a yym. Obvuly, th frm f wr tabr frm pr t pr pg thr pt th khp twrk, uch a way that t vr act a tr cmmuty. Such a cultural xplaat thrfr t th al wr t accut fr lxcal rplacmt.

Mt , th rplacmt f wr by athr mply rult, I blv,frm uvral prc f matc h (Blut 98, , Wlk 99, Blak& Kch 999b, Vahv 8). I typcal ca f lxcal rplacmt, th tart-g pt a laguag whch, at a gv pt tm, ha a umbr f cl

yym fr a gv mag. may tally r thr matc u-ac, thr ctat, r thr tyltc rgtr. A pakr maag thr waythrugh th mafl ajutmt f aly cmmucat, m matc rpragmatc xt f lxm may ga gru vr t lxcal ghbr, at t rplac t crta tuat. Shul th w uag tak rt a prathrugh th pch cmmuty, vtually th l trm bcm blt a up bg rplac by th w trm, fllwg a prc call ednesssi (Dk 989: ).

hw, fr xampl, Lat Lat prgrvly rplac t l trm caputha wth athr u testa, rgally arth pt (cf. Blak & Kch 999a).I prp t llutrat th fur tag tak by th ca f lxcal rplacmt Tabl . brackt ymblz wh a trm mark, a pp t bg thfault trm fr a gv mag ( bl). rt vat (Se ) wat u th u pt a a guratv, lag wr fr ha, cmptt wthth hrt frm caput, a way mlar t Frch lag carafe jug fr ha.Evtually, testa lt t jcular ctat, a up a th taar trmfr th by part (Se ), a vc by Itala testa, a Frch tte. lr trm caput(> Itala capo, O.Fr. chief) rt fr m tm, but ha b-cm th mark trm th par; th ctury Frch, chefwa tll u aa archac, hghly mark yym fteste, utl t appar th . I

able . Wh mark h rv lxcal rplacmt: Wr fr ha LatLat/Rmac

leader, chief head earthen pot

Se 0 caput caput testa

Se 1 caput caput~ (testa) testa

Se 2 caput (caput) ~ testa testa

Se 3 caput testa testa


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206 Alxar Fra

mr Frch, chefurvv ly wth athr mag (htrcally cary)fcaput, amly lar, chf (Se ). whl prc ca b ummarz

by tatg that Lat/Rmac rplac t rgal u caput(Se ) wtha vatv frm testa (Se ), but t mut b br m that th frmula-t mply a hrtcut fr what rally a graual, fur-tag quc vlvglxcal cmptt a mark h amg plymu trm ( Swtr99: 9, Eva & Wlk : 9). Rathr tha a rct h frm Se tSe , th ky turg pt th vlut rally th h frm Se tSe , a th vr f mark.

Mt htr f lxcal rplacmt rthr Vauatu ar lkly t b x-pla by a fur-tag quc mlar t th caput> testa xampl. Smtm

th urc f a vatv frm ca b t, gvg a clu t th matcpath whch wa fllw. O uch xampl ca b fu Tabl (Sct ..).Whl mt laguag rct P *ndaeru fr ccut crab (Birgus latro), Lypha a -cgat frm n-ndij. Ltrally, th u par a paau lav(.., nd- < *nrau < PO *raun laf + ij < *ire < PO *kiRe Pandanus tec-torius); th u t a aalgy btw th prckl f th lav a thp th crab carapac. I a way mlar t th Lat xampl abv, ca mag that n-ndij paau lav tart t lf a a clrful mtaphr

fr th amal alg th hrt frm, whch wa prumably a rx f*ndaeru. I ptau pch, th l frm wa t b rplac mr a mr by t mark yym, whch vtually bcam th umark am frth crutaca. Smlarly, Mwrlap ha rplac *ndaeru wth athr cmpufrm: n-t-tak, ltrally th parg hrmtcrab, wth rfrc t th cru-taca agru lmb. ar ca f lxcal rplacmt va cmpuga mark h.

4.4. Lexical competition in progressQut , th prc f lxcal rplacmt ha t yt tak ay t hap,but alray lurk th gg cmptt btw tw matcally vry clwr. By brvg th pattr f varat btw pakr, t pbl tactually pt lxcal rplacmt prgr. u, t tak a lat xampl frmTabl abv, th Hw u fr g u t b s (< *asi); yt th wa mark, archac trm whch rrv fr acr g r Chrta palm. umark wr fr g tay, th ly kw t yugr pakr, tntn, rv frm th vrb tn lar.

Ita f hwg lxcal cmptt a a cmplt prc (Se ), whatth ca llutrat prcly th pha f lxcal cmptt btw twwr (Se ), a a frrur f lxcal rplacmt. mr laguagf rthr Vauatu tm wth yym par, a t lkly that th wa al


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th ca arlr tag f thr htry. Sm yym ar mply fr varat,a ar u frly by th am pakr th am ctxt, .g., na-mt

a n-m

b, tw prfct yym u fr th brafrut tr Mwtlap. But may ca, th tw wr r thr matcally r tyltcally, trm frgtr. Fr xampl, Mwtlap ha a vrbjt har, lt. All pakr wulagr that th frm a caual wr (hhl asapsawj), a that crtacal ctxt, .g., rr t ar try-tllg wth a clrful tyl rt hw rpct t -law by carfully chg a mr lcat wrg, twul b mr apprprat t u haltikpj, a havy wr (hhl map) wthth am mag.

Smlarly, yug Hw pakr ar taught t u rpctful pch (ma

tmma) r avac pch (ma isis) a a tk f rpct wh a-rg mprtat trlcutr. I uch a tuat, rathr tha ug ull arct vryay wr uch a (), t mr apprprat t rrt t m -phtcat paraphra uch a ():

() Hi k1s atIm gg t at.

() Hi k

g

ak-ag

- t ks z-k-thg d 1sI hall z mthg fr mylf.[rpctful quvalt f Im gg t at]

Ifar a th mrphlgcal quc /gak-ag-/ ha alray bcm cv-talz th rpctful rgtr a a yym fr at (Se ), t t f-cult t mag a pttal car whrby th xpr, ar prgrvlylg t tyltc mark, mght up bcmg th w taar way t

ay at Hw (Se ), a vtually rplac nn th lxc (Se ). yamc lxc f th rthr Vauatu laguag play all p-bl gr th cal f tyltc mark, frm th famlar varat t thfag-ut, ltrary archam. Crucally, what appar t b tyltc rcfrm th ychrc pt f vw ar crrlat wth htrcal prcf lxcal chag. Whthr th w xpr rct a lagh hrtcut r alvat mtaphr, t wll bg lxcal cmptt wth th wr prvuly u fr th pt f bg th fault frm fr a gv mag. Whl th arm-wrtlg may ctu fr a lg tm, t wll up wth th vctry f frm vr th thr.


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208 Alxar Fra

4.4.4 e diusion of lexical innovations prc f lxcal rplacmt hav rult a hgh gr f lgutc

vrgc amg th rthr Vauatu laguag. Tabl prv a ramampl f wr f rt ytactc catgr, hwg varu gr f lx-cal rplacmt. Othr mlar ca ca b fu Tabl (Sct .), a Tabl (Sct .).

I m ca, th cmpar f lxcal gl cmb wth kwlgf rgular u crrpc mak t pbl t grup frm tgthr thatar cgat. Each clum f Tabl ha ubcrpt umbr labllg th frmwhch rv frm th am prtfrm, .., wh mr rc ar lyu t rgular r rrgular u chag; th lat rw hw th umbr f tct

cgat t that t b pt fr ach mag.Fr xampl, th mr frm fr pr, th rt clum f Tabl ,

ca b ruc t fur cgat ubt, rctg *talua, *ata, *tamasara a*tandunu rpctvly. Of th, *ata Pn *ata prt, ul; pr (Clark

able . Laguag rtat thrugh lxcal rplacmt: a fw lxcal t frmrthr Vauatu

person woman true Complementizer (be) like

Hiw [] taj [] jk []wj [] tm []

Lo-Toga [] tl [] lk []w [] t [] w

Lehali [] -at [] -lk [] ta [] [] a

Lyp [] -at [] -lkp [] tama [3] [3] m

Volow [] -at [] -lgb [3] hjw []

g []h

Mwotlap [] -t [] a-lkp [3] hjw [3] [] kpl

Lemerig [3] -r [] -r []r [] w [] mk

Veraa [3]aar [] r [] rr [3] [] Vurs [3] taar [3] rkp []

y []ta [] tmak

Mwesen [3] tamar [3] rkp [] u [] (w)ta [] tmk

Mota [] tau [] ta [] u [] wa [9] tama

Nume [] tuu [] tawa []

u [] [9] ta

Dorig [] tu [3] rkpa [] l

u [] (k)ak [] mra

Koro [] tuu [3] rakpa []utw [] (k)ak [] mar

Olrat[]

uu[3]

rakpa[]

utw[]

ka[]

maj

Lakon []au []amt [] wuw [3] a [] mr

Mwerlap [] -t [] a-aa [3] rwa [] [] r

nb etyma


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9: ), tlf frm PO *qata haw, rct; ul. *ta lmt thrfrm thr a trucat frm f th am u, r a rx f PO *tau pr.

lgr frm ar cmpu, ltrally P *ta-n

dunu ral pr (cf. thclum tru) a *ta-masara rary pr (cf. *masara pr, y). tymlgy f *talua ukw.

alctlgcal trbut f th fur tyma fur ggraphcal-ly chrt clutr f laguag. I l wth map gv arlr fr u chag,lxcal gl fr th u pr ar chart Fgur 9. I th abc fcmpllg vc, Fgur 9 rma agtc a t whch f th fur frm art b cr crvatv v vatv.

Jut a w aw arlr fr u chag, lgutc vrgc hr fllw

a multlayr prc. Frt, th arly alct cha wt th mrgc fw frm fr th am mag, ach f whch pra t a prt f th caltwrk. At m pt, th tal uty ha brk up t fur gl frth partcular wr. Latr , ach f th fur tyma urwt lcal pattr fu chag, whch cra th gr f rtat wth ach alctt: .g., *tamasara > Msn tamsar, L n-sr; *tandunu > M tanun, Ouu, tc.

Ntc, ctally, that th trbut f lxcal gl fr th wr

pr t match th brv arlr fr th u crayh (Fgur ),lt al th ram cattrg fu wth th cl:Dual pru (Fgur 8).

* talua

*ata

*tamwasara

* ta dunun

Figure 9. Laguag rtat thrugh lxcal rplacmt: Itrmat prtfrmfr th u pr


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210 Alxar Fra

mr xampl f vual lxcal tm ar brught , th mr cttth pctur bcm. hw hw th prag f vat r frm

vual tm t athr. Shul a htrcal lgut attmpt t map t-gthr varu k f gl wth th hp f tfyg chrt clutr fhar vat, th wul tur ut t b a va avr. Ev thugh malct may hav vlv tgthr wth rpct t crta vat (cf. thfur laguag f Vaua Lava I. Fgur 9), thy ar alway parat by a largumbr f thr vat (cf. th am fur Vaua Lava laguag Fgur a Fgur 8). prvav trct f gl, whch typcal f lkagphma (Sct .), jparz ay hp f vr cmg up wth a atphylgtc tr fr th rg.

u pr th mplt ca f Tabl . thr xampl hwv mr trcat htr, whch I wll t tal hr. tru t lyf lxm, .g., wma a tru, but al f grammatcal mrphm, lk thcmplmtzr. I th ca, th cmbat f lxcal vat wth mr-phlgcal r phlgcal chag appar t hav mall ara f u-, mtm rtrct t jut r tw ajact alct.

4.5 Summary: O lgutc vrcat rthr Vauatu

Ovrall, thr majr k f chag hav ctrbut t th vrcat frthr Vauatu vcabular: e onooi ne at th y-tm lvl, ie sond ne a mrphlgcal vat pccwr, a ei eeen.

By thr rc, th thr typ f chag har a fw prprt.Each vat mut hav ar th pch f m vual th arch-plag, a th u frm pakr t pakr, by mtat, utl t ttl a crta prt f th cal twrk. Smtm vat wr c tly a gl cmmualct, r a t f ajact vllag. I thr ca, th glcvr a largr, ctguu ara, vlvg alct ctact acr la. Smchag fu wly parat plac may b u t r r paralll va-t. A mr vat a up vr tm, ach mmbr f th alct chafurthr rtat tlf v frm t clt ghbr; th what brughtabut th lgutc fragmtat w brv tay.

Cr vually, mt f th vat whch hav ccurr th htry f th rthr Vauatu laguag ar uprblmatc, a ca b

xpla by typlgcally cmm prc f laguag chag. Tw pt,hwvr, ar charactrtc f th grup f laguag, a ar tll f axplaat.


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O pt th hgh ty f th vat. Fr xampl, w aw (Sc-t ..) that rat f lxcal vrty bac vcabulary th rthr Vau-

atu laguag ar mlar t, a v hghr tha, th fu wth crtahgh-rr ubgrup f I-Eurpa, fr a much mallr ppulat. I wllprp, Sct . blw, that th hgh gr f lgutc vrcat cab xpla by th laguag clgy f th ara a cal atttu that prvalamg th lcal ppulat.

c parax that th hgh gr f lgutc vrgc brvamg th laguag g alg wth a rvr tr, whch cul bcrb a a frm f rgal oneene. Hwvr, th cvrgc t hw up th am lgutc ma a th vrgg tcy w jut

brv. Fuamtally, th ma whch th rthr Vauatu laguaghw mt t rtat ar th that act th o f wr, whthrth vlv u chag r lxcal rplacmt. By ctrat, th am laguaghw much mr hmgty wth rpct t th s oonen fth wr, whthr trm f thr mrphytactc prprt r thr ma-tc makup. tructural hmgty th ubjct f th xt ct.

5. Structural isomorphism in northern Vanuatu

5.1 Structur v. frm

A g may b crb a th acat f a pcc phlgcal trg ro wth prprt f se, th lattr rfrrg t th rgazat fmag t laguag-pcc catgr a ctruct.

ctrat, structure v.form crrp mr r l clly t what R(: 8) call lemma v.form, r t th ctrat raw by Grac (98: )

btw, rpctvly, content form v. lexication ( th ctat Sct .). ra why I am t ug Grac trm content form, a trm rgally frmHjlmlv (9: ), t rlatv pacty, pcally c t upp t c-trat wth what I (fllwg R a thr) callform.

A fr th trm lexication, t t rtrctv f t tak t apply xcluvlyt th frm f lxm. My u f th par f trm structure v.form rally r-thgal t th tratal v btw grammar a lxc. Frm rfr tth phlgcal ubtac f th lgutc g, whthr t a lxm, a gram-

matcal mrphm r a ctruct. A fr th trm tructur, t rfr t thrlatal prprt btw g, whthr rlat f ctrat r f th cm-bat f g. clu th tructural rlat th ytagmatc ax(mrphytax, cmbatrc, phralgy), a wll a th th paragmatc


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212 Alxar Fra

ax (lxcal a grammatcal matc). Ur th tructuralt ml, ma-tc prprt f lxm a mrphm (thr mag) ar ubum ur

thr tructural prprt, far a thy ar by thr ctrat, a bythr varu cmbat wth th laguag rprtr f ctruct.Tw laguag ca b a t b isooi a partcular ma f thr

ytm f th g thy u a gv pch tuat har th am tructural(r ctructal) prprt. Fr xampl, th tw tc () ar prfctlymrphc bcau thy xpr th am fuctal ctt by rrtg t -tcal tructur:

() En You can take your time.

F Tu peux prendre ton temps.s o. tak oss:s tmYu t t hurry.

mrphm btw Eglh a Frch hr ccr t ly th par-alll rr f wr, but al th hrt prprt f ach cmpt thtc. u bth laguag hav paralll ctruct whch th abtractt tm m by a pr, a th bjct f a actv vrb tak. tw laguag prv that ctruct wth th am mag (act a lwly

a cary r r), a wth th am array f pragmatc mplcat ( t hurry, yu ca rlax, tc.).Structural mrphm ca b prfct a (), r qua-prfct a ():8

() Eg I have caught a cold.Fr J ai attrap froid.

s catch:s. [:ind] clI am ck u t cl wathr.

Ev thugh th tw tc () hw ytactc rc (prc v. ab-

c f th t artcl th bjct), thy ar thrw tructurally paralll.u Eglh a Frch, have a avoirar bth lxcal vrb wh magclu p, a whch ca bth b u a auxlar t c prfct apct.Coldafroidar bth tmpratur ajctv whch ca b u a u. Fally,catch (a) colda attraper froidar tw paralll ctruct that har th ammatc prprt, cr a a whl (bcm ck u t cl wathr) awll a thr tral mak-up (tcal mtaphr vlvg a catchg vt).

Crucally, tructural mrphm acr laguag pt f th r-

lathp btw th phlgcal frm f wr. I xampl (), th tw pr-u Iaje, whl ultmatly cgat, hav vlv uch a way t l ayfrm f mlarty. All thr wr () a () ar t cgat btw Frcha Eglh.


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5.2 Dvrcat f frm, mrphm f tructur rthr Vauatu

A Tabl (Sct .) alray uggt, th laguag f rthr Vauatu

xhbt cutl pattr f tructural mrphm, rgarl f th vrtyf thr frm. paralllm amg laguag wa alray wt by thmary-lgut Crgt at th f th 9th ctury: a xamat fthr laguag cvr a vry crabl urlyg am (Crgt89: ).

Bcau th laguag ar all clly rlat, t ca b ambguuwhthr a partcular ca f mrphm mply rct har hrtac frmthr cmm actr (Prt-Ocac), r a pt-pral vat whch

u acr a lgutc twrk (Sct .). Oly th lattr ca t ap-prprat t pak f oneene trctly pakg. Uually, xtral vcwll mak t pbl t tfy what har amg th Ocac laguag amay pttally b rctruct fr thr cmm actr. I th ct, I wllfcu xampl whch appar t b mr pcc t rthr Vauatu, cthy prumably rct vt f cvrgc rtrct t th ara a pp thar rtt frm thr Prt-Ocac actr.9

Smtm, tructural hmgty g alg wth a t f frm that hap-p t all b cgat. Fr xampl, th vrb mag brath Tabl (Sc-t ..) all clxfy th tw mag brath a tak rt (cf. Fra8: 8). Bcau mt f th mr frm ar cgat, Occam razr mplyuggt agg th plymy t thr actral tym, *mambusai, a harlxcal vat f th Trr-Bak lkag (cf. Fra a: 8, Clark9: ), a cclug that th mag u tgthr wth th frm. Ia way, th al a ca f tructural u, th that m tructuralprprty ( th ca, a appartly vatv ca f plymy) pra acrth whl ara, but th t a pctacular r a prblmatc ca bcau t mt

lkly u tgthr wth th frm.Mr rvalg ar th ca whch vlv bth mrphm f tructur

a vrty f frm. I, th ca tal that the very same words havg, t pak, tw ppt rct. O th ha, thr frm havg thrugh prc f vrgc, thr thrugh phlgcal vrcatr lxcal rplacmt; th thr ha, thr tructural prprt hav ma-ta r crat cr-lgutc hmgty.

What fllw wll cctrat th lattr ca, c thy clarly mak t

cary t crmat btw th vrgc f frm a thtablty r cvrgc f tructur th thr ha. Fr ra f pac, Iwll c th cu t v t f wr, lt Tabl .


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214 Alxar Fra

Whthr thy blg t th lxc r t th grammar, th wr ar truc-turally mrphc, far a thy play th am prprt acr laguag:

th am matc rag (plymy, plyfuctalty), th am cmbatrc,a paralll uag phralgy. A bvu maftat f th laguagmrphm th fact that mt f thr tc ar amabl t a gl lf trlar tralat, jut a Tabl abv. I th fllwg ct, vwh a gv ctruct attt mt r all f th archplag, fr raf pac I wll kp th xampl t jut a mall ampl f up t v laguag. lct wll b arbtrary, but wll attmpt t cvr a w a ara a pbl,fllwg th am rth-t-uth rr a prvu tabl.

able . A lct f wr t cmbg frmal vrcat a tructural paral-llm acr laguag

x Adjective

random

Postverb

nd

Restrictive

just

Negative

Eistential

ime Focus

aspect

Hiw tkj g utj t tak

Lo-Toga kur hr wr tat ak

Lehali lkj t ww tt jak

Lyp lkj t w mam pj

Volow glgl a w tath gbaja

Mwotlap lt a w tath kpjLemerig lkr kpr mak

Veraa alakra r a ta mak

Vurs alakr r m a kara

Mwesen plt r p kara

Mota pplta uar ap taa kpara

Nume klkl wu am mbk kpar

Dorig klkl w wr ()mbk kpra

Koro klkl w wr mbk kpara

Olrat klkl w wj a tak

Lakon l w a lak

Mwerlap klkl m t kr


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5. Structural mrphm th lxc

5..1 Adjective randomAll th rthr Vauatu laguag hav a ajctv ( fu vrb-mfyg pt) hwg a bra plymy aru a mag whch may bgl ram. It typcal patal crb a mt a ram r aml:

() M k - ll slt l- pL t - tltl lkr l uuKo t- lal klkl t l- Ln t aa sln t l a

s i war~ed ram [i2] o vllag

H wa warg around th vllag.

Out th patal ma, a cmm matc xt mly, caually,fllwg pcc prcpl r rul. may hav gatv ctat, a tuat whr m cal rul hul b fllw:

() Hi tt tat a itikje M tt kaka slt t aLn at u sln ah h

in: o:ne chat ram [o:ne2] abut.tL t tk lkr mKo t arr klkl lat

1in: o:ne mt ram o:ne2[pakg abut a tab u] W cat jut talkcasuallyabut that.

() Hi k tat mmg itikjeM k t mbmbl slslt

-s o b.agry~ed ramL - l-m lkrKo a ll- t- ktkt klkl lrLn ll- mt ktkt sln l

[art] m-s o b.agry~ed ram [o2]Stp gttg agrywith no reason!

cmbat f th ajctv wth th vrb , mak wll frm a cmpuvrb mag m up, pl, amag:

() Hi k mk gak itikje ttajw

L a lkj - .lwM k tpl al slt a- lat

s e mak ram partyYu mght mess up th party.


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216 Alxar Fra

But th am ajctv ca al hav ptv ctat:

(8) Hi tka itikje

M slt: ramordinaryppl (a pp t rch, pwrful r bg ppl)

(9) Hi k itikje utjL k a kure wrM - slt wL lkr kpr

s s ram jut

Im jut a simple guy. (.., I t thk Im pcal )r I t m! (.., I t hav pcal ma, Im ay.)

I all ca, th laguag hw tructural mrphm, rgarl f whthrthr frm ar cgat r t.

5..2 e postverb nd rthr Vauatu laguag lack ay vrb . What thy hav a ptvrb,r vrb mr, whch thy u t crat cmpu vrb wth th . Fr

wat f a bttr tralat, I wll gl th ptvrb a v thugh th uually t ychrcally a prpr vrb. A rugh paralll wul b Eglh comeacross X, whr th rult frm th cmbat fcome a across.

vrb V that prc th ptvrb crb th act whch l t thg vt, .., lkg (), ltg, grpg, archg, walkg (), a :

() L mal t st?M k m- t sas?

N k m kr wun?Ln k t n?M ak u- mt n?

s ()Hav yu fu t?

() Hi k t sg t wtL k a hr t tM ma- a sas - m

D a m-m

ba wn ms [] walk () [] [o] myIv fu m my (a I wa walkg).


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I all th laguag, th am ptvrb al u cmbat wth th vrbthk, t ctruct th mag rmmbr:

() V m- sas !L m- tt s aa!M a m m suar akpa!Ln a - m n k!

s thk () wI rmmbr w!

map Fgur hw tw layr f gl fr th ptvrb . tt l hw th trbut f cgat t acr th archplag, a ar

thu ccr wth th alctlgcal trbut f wr frm, l wthFgur 9 (Sct ..). l l, th thr ha, hw that all mrwr, pt vt f lxcal rplacmt a u chag, har th amtructural fatur.

Rctly cllct ata (Hr ) hw that th xt laguag furthr uth(Sugwaa, th rthrmt laguag f Maw Ila), pt ccaalctact wth th Bak Ila, t hav ay wr whch har all th truc-tural prprt f th ptvrb fu th Trr-Bak laguag. I

thr wr, th l l Fgur utl xactly th maxmal xtt f thtructural gl fr th ptvrb .

*oniws

*suari

*sooti* sasa

Structuralproperties of

postverbnd

Figure . Dvrcat f frm, mrphm f tructur: ca f th ptvrbnd


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218 Alxar Fra

5.. e restrictive postverbAll th rthr Vauatu laguag hav a fuctally mlar rtrctv wr

whch may b gl a jut, ly. Evrywhr, t t th am ptvrb lt,a thu ccur at th f th prcat phra. rtrctv ptvrb -cat that th prcat rtrct t a lw valu, a Eglh only three, rjust

you. u wa llutrat (9) abv.Cmb wth a vrb, th rtrctv cmmly ma thg l tha:

() L k rwulm wrM k alal wM ka alal ap

Ln k t l w ts [i1] cv jut [i2]Yur (jut) lyg!

Laguag wll matcally u th rtrctv cmbat wth tatv pr-cat that matcally mply a lmt quatty r qualty, .g., mall, lght, ay,cl, tcal, tc.:

() Hi =kj gpt utjLi - jk jpt ww

L - kpk muk r kprD - aru -k rt wrM - a -k mmt m

hu my cl jutMy hu (vry) cl.

() L hr a atw wrL kj atj wiL tru r kpr

Vs rr a- aart mLn wr a ha w

d s tcal jutyr (xactly) th am.

Athr matc u t cmb th rtrctv wth th prcat [b] g.Bcau th mag f th lattr matcally wgra by th rtrctv,what rult a phra mag t jut ; wrr ( () blw). Fally,xampl () wll llutrat hw th am rtrctv ptvrb a typcal cmp-

t f th mmat prfct ctruct (Eglh hav jut ).I l wth Fgur abv, Fgur uprmp tw typ f gl.

brat crcl, whch cmpa th whl rthr Vauatu archplag,may b call th tructural gl, that , th gl grupg all th laguag


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that har th matc a phralgcal u f th rtrctv ptvrb, a -crb th ct. A fr th mallr crcl, thy lat th maxmal ara fu f ach cgat t. Sm f th ar t by rctruct (.g.,

*ambu, th rgular urc f th mr frm p, m, ap, am, m); wh acgat t rtrct t laguag, I cat th frm tlf.

5.4 Structural mrphm th grammar

mrphm fu th lxcal ma al prt, t a larg xtt, th fuctal prprt f mt grammatcal mrphm. I wll tak ly twxampl hr: th Ngatv Exttal, a Tm Fcu apct.

5.4.1 e Negative ExistentialAll th rthr Vauatu laguag p a wr wth mlar matc agrammatcal prprt, whch I wll gl a Ngatv Exttal (ne:eis).

Frt, th wr hw th am grammatcal fatur vrywhr. It a mm-br f a cl cla f rctly prcatv wr, whch tct frm vrb.Lk thr majr part f pch (.g., vrb, ajctv, a u) thy ca frmth ha f a prcat phra, yt ulk thm, th prcatv wr ca rctly, wthut ay ctal mrphlgy. mall cla f uctwr pattr wth thr -vrbal prcat (Fra b,c), uch a lca-tv a mtratv.

Structural

properties ofrestrictive

just

*wia

(wr)

(utj)

(kpr)

(ia)

*ambu

*woro

Figure . Dvrcat f frm, mrphm f tructur: ca f th rtrc-tv ptvrb just


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220 Alxar Fra

mrphm ccr t ly th mrphytactc bhavr f thNgatv Exttal, but al t matc a phralgcal prprt. Wh t

tak a vrt u phra a t ubjct, ne:eis tat th abc f th rfr-t a gv plac (Eglh thr X):

() Hi twu t ut.pV - al tath M aal taai akLn ahl ai aa.h

[] kf ne:eis hrere is no kf hr.

Wh t ubjct a p NP, th Ngatv Exttal frm pv tat-mt wth gatv plarty, th quvalt f Eglh hav t:

() Hi -ma pta t j- =maLn a-m am ai l-um mm

oss:ood-1e:P yam ne:eis o-hu oss:1e:PW dont have anyyam ur hu.[lt. Our yam is lacking ur hu ]

Wth a huma rfrt a t ubjct, th am prcat wr wll tralata t b thr, b abt:

(8) L p mam, k m- a l kpM tta tath, k ma- a l- tkpVs ndia, ma- a l rLn ap ai, - a l mhmh

Mum ne:eis s - g o garMum not here, h g t th gar.

am wr ne:eis al u ablutly (.., wth vrt ub-jct), wth varu mag. Fr thg, t frm th havy quvalt f Eg-lh a awr t a y/ qut. I all th rthr Vauatu laguag,a gatv rply may ct f tw part:

th lght , ctg f a prc gtur f th frm [..] uttr thr a chwa [..] r // [..]

th havy , whch th Ngatv Exttal u ablutly.


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(9) Hi jk m ? , t! kukuj utj!wma yur that () ne:eis fr jut

M ? , tath! kpulkpul w!Msn uum ? , n! pulal p!M rat ka? , t! mbulal m!

[] wf.2s that () ne:eis fr jutI that yur grlfr? Oh , no! Sh jut a fr.

Athr cmm uag f ne:eis cur wh rt frutrat- by a lack f rult. I th ca, th prcat wul tralat va, t aval:

() Li l k - mj k- mutuj, p tt!

V l kp a mr k- mr, mba ita!D l kp a a mr r, la mbk!

o ght s s wat [o 1s] lp but ne:eisLat ght, I tr t lp, but no way!

Fally, a wpra frmulac pattr mply th wr ne:eis grt-g. ltral mag mut b urt a [thr] [prblm], but t rutly u t ma Im :

() Hi .a? t, mgaw utjL mk.? ni, w kprVs tmak.a? ndia, - w mM tama.a? taai, w wa apD aka? mbk, a- w wr

hw ne:eis s g jutHw thg? No [worries]! Evrythg alrght.

I um, v thugh th frm f th Ngatv Exttal r crably b-tw laguag, t mrphytactc prprt a wll a t ctructal cm-

batrc ar tcal acr th tr rg.

5.4.2 e Time Focus aspectT-Apct-M (TAM) paragm hw a crta gr f varat acrth ara. Laguag wll mtm r th way thy v th matc pacf TAM rfrc, m laguag makg ctrat whr thr t. Fr x-ampl, th TAM catgry call Art (cmpag qutal, prpctv,ubjuctv, hrtatv, tc.) fu ly th rthr part f th archpl-

ag; th uthr Bak laguag, t brk w t vral catgr(Fra 9a). Hwvr, v th ma hw m ara f cr-lgutchmgty, c crta TAM catgr ar fu t b vry mlar acrth tr rthr Vauatu grup. u all laguag p a tct mal


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222 Alxar Fra

catgry f Apprhv (cf. Lchtbrk 99), thy all tguh Prfct v.Cmplt r Futur v. Pttal, a .

O partcularly ycratc apctual catgry, whch ca b fu vry-whr th ara pt th varty f t frm, I uggt callg TmFcu (TFo). It urlyg matc mcham (Fra a: 99)ct achrg a vt tm by tablhg a xplct ctrat wth ar-lr pbl tm achrg. I thr wr, a gral gl fr th TAM markrwul b [] th, a t arlr.

A happ th laguag whch c apct but t t, TmFcu cmpatbl wth ay tm achrg, whthr pat, prt r futur. accut fr th plyfuctalty f th mrphm. Wh arratg pat vt,

Tm Fcu may b u t achr a vt ctratvly th tml:

() Hi pa g tak pV wl uru mak rlD t rar kpra lalaLn t wr lak rulM la karar kr r

th d TFo argu S thats when thy (tart t) argu.

If th clau clu a tm avrb rfrrg t th pat (.g., ytray) r thprt (w), Tm Fcu wll rcv a auguratv trprtat, .., thfr th rt tm:

() Hi tak a p gL t mak u - a l.rM k kpj a- a ajO tak u kp a

s TFo rk [] kava [o] ytrayH rak kava ytrayfor the rst time.

A ctruct whch har by all laguag th rg cmb th Tm F-cu apct markr wth a prfctv ptcltc, plu (ptally) th Rtrctv pt-

vrb jut. cmbat frm th matc quvalt f a mmat prfct:

() L ak pah wr M kpj mbah w tL mak kp kpr

Vs kara kpt m tLn lak pah w t

[s] TFo h jut Itjusth.


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ctruct cmb th apctual prat f Tm Fcu (th a tarlr) wth th matc f th prfct, a wll a wth th pragmatc rtat

f th rtrctv twar a lw quatty (ly > jut a mmt ag).Fally, wh u a rral ctxt, TFo wrk a a rt f layfutur, thrby rawg a ubtl argumtatv ctrat wth th rary Futur(Fra a: ). Whl bth markr prt a vt a bu t happ(.g., w willplay, I prm yu), Tm Fcu u a a dio e. at, t plac th mpha th cary lay btw th mmt f uttraca th bgg f that vt a way ctt wth t cr matc mcha-m th, a t arlr.

() Hi tt tak tk, pa tkL pj wulwul, p kpV mak rr, mba ta.V baja , mba mahLn lak , la tamalM a kr rr, tkta

1in:P TFo play but t.ytY, w will(eventually) play, but t yt.

A th xampl hw, th rthr Vauatu laguag all har th am -ycratc apct catgry f Tm Fcu, bth th -gra tal f tmatc plyfuctalty a t varu cmbatral ablt.

5.5 Summary: O grammar, lxc

xampl ct th prcg ct llutrat th varu frm f truc-tural mrphm whch ca b fu acr th laguag f rthr Vauatu:paralll wr rr, tcal plym a matc catgrzat, a m-

lar phralgcal tratg.Such a urvy cul pttally b xpa tly, crg that a

vat prprt f th laguag tructur hw mrphm, whthr pr-fct r qua-prfct (Sct .). Of cur thr ar alway xcpt, acarful brvat uvl ubtl rc acr laguag; fr xampl, th-gra matc tal f crta TAM markr, r f pv clar,lm match xactly acr th archplag. Al, whl m pattr f ply-fuctalty cmpa all th Trr a Bak Ila, thr gl ar r-

trct t mallr ara. Ially, th tructural tac btw th rthrVauatu laguag cul b maur a way mlar t th prctag f lx-cal tac bac vcabulary (Sct ..), but uch a avr wul gby th lmt f th tuy. At th tag, I ca at lat r a mprtc


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224 Alxar Fra

gur ba my brvat, a tmat that ay tw laguag f th Tr-r-Bak ara wul xhbt 8 t 8% tructural mrphm thr uttr-

ac. clr (ggraphcally r cally) th tw laguag cmmut, thhghr th gur wul b.O th am trbut f mag t fuctal catgr a

ctruct vrywhr, v thugh th bx ar ll wth htrguphlgcal frm. O cul almt prp t ummarz th tuat uga bl frmula, a ay that th laguag rprt grammar wth lxc, a way rmct f Frma (99) papr O grammar, thrlxc, abut laguag ctact th Balka ara. Of cur, th wul blghtly xaggrat, c ach f th laguag al ha t w ycra

a vat, but t wul captur qut wll th parax ur cuhr. Al, uch a frmula wul hav t b tak wth caut u t t cptvtrmlgy, a th ctrat rally rthgal t th tratal v btwgrammar a lxc (Sct .). What brv rathr a trg vr-cat th phlgcal frm f wr (rgarl f whthr thy blg tth lxc r th grammar) v. a trg mrphm btw th tructuralprprt f th am wr (whthr ytactc r matc prprt).

Nw that th mprcal fact hav b tablh, t tm t vtgat

th mtvat fr uch a cmplx tuat. th bjct f th al ct.

6. Divergence and convergence: wo forms of diusion

6.1 Explag tructural mrphm

Amg th tw majr tr at play rthr Vauatu, th isoois prbably ar t accut fr. ma frc at wrk hr laguag ctact,

a th mutual uc that ghbrg laguag xrt ach thr.

6.1.1 Structural convergence in multilingual contextsW kw (Sct .. a .) that rthr Vauatu laguag cmmuthav alway b ctact wth ach thr. y hav mata rlat fmultlgualm thrugh thr cal rlat, pcally uta pattr f x-gamy. fact that may chlr th archplag ar ra blgually, rby a mthr wh hrlf blgual, cra th rat f trfrc whrby

laguag t t ctatly rhap ach thr tructur. multlgualm vtly th ky t th tructural hmgty brv th ara. Haur-curt (9: 9), h cu f th Nw Cala tuat, al prp


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crrlatg pattr f grammatcal mrphm wth th cal cgurat hcall galtara blgualm.

May thr ca aru th wrl hav b crb whr tct la-guag ctact hav vlp paralll tructur, mtm clug prfctmrphm-by-mrphm crrpc, pt thr wr rt rg.T tak jut a fw xampl, pattr f tructural cvrgc hav b brvbtw varu brach f I-Eurpa th Balka (Wrch 9,ma & Kaufma 988), btw I-Arya a Drava laguag uthr Ia (Gumprz & Wl 9), btw varu lgutc faml uthat Aa (El , ) r Amrca (Campbll t al. 98, Bg9), r btw th Autra a Papua laguag f Nw Gua (ur-

t 98). lattr ara f ctact al gav r t R () ccpt fe, whch crb th prc f tructural uc whch la-guag ca xrt up athr multlgual tuat. T th xampl ca a th tr l f pg a crl tu, whch rgularly uarth pat-tr f tructural paralllm btw pg r crl a thr ubtrat la-guag (Kg 988, 99, Lfbvr 998, 9, Sgl , 8), r rarch c-laguag acqut, whch cttly hw hw th tructur f art laguag L uc th acqut f a c laguag L (Ol 989,

, Dughty & Lg , Wfr ). Hwvr rt thy may b thr cal crcumtac, all th ctact tuat typcally fllw a mlartcy, whch Sa (98, R : 9) ummarz a lghtgfrmula: Wth avac laguag ctact, thr ar th tcy t vlp agl laguag wth rt vcabular.

prc f tructural cvrgc ar ultmatly rt cgtvprur multlgual tuat. Structural cvrgc ar wh mult-lgual pakr ctact gv t a tr twar wr-fr-wr tralat-abl c (Gumprz & Wl 9: ). Achvg cr-lgutc tructuralmrphm mak t cgtvly ar fr pakr t lar a pak thrlaguag vart. Al, by lmtg th rk f matc l tralat, uchparalllm cra th chac fr uccful cmmucat vt. I-

vual wh lar r practc a laguag tct frm thr w ar tmpt ttrafr (Ol 989) th tructur f th laguag thy ar mt famlar wtht th w ytm thy ar attmptg t u. I g , thy t t rlabl(Lfbvr 8) thr atv catgr ug frm frm th targt laguag. clac ml prv th xplaat fr th gg prc f cvrgc

brv rthr Vauatu.


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226 Alxar Fra

6.1.2 Convergence or retention?A partcularty f th rthr Vauatu ara, hwvr, that laguag har th

am actr. Fr th ra, t mght b bjct that m ca f tructuralmrphm, rathr tha rultg frm th aral pra f a vat, r-ally rct th eenion f a hrt ctruct r tructural cgura-t; th cgurat wul hav b tramtt vr tm pt f lx-cal rplacmt. clarly a pblty, whch ca mtm b crmthrugh xtral cmpar (Fra b). Fr xampl, ach Trr-Baklaguag ha a u, rt ach laguag, whch clx tr tump, trba wth bgg, rg, urc r cau. am plymy fu mt Autra laguag (Fx 99: ); t rctruct by Blut (99) fr

Prt Malay-Plya a *puna(), a by Eva (8: 9) fr PO a *puqun. a ca whr laguag may prv vatv thr frm, yt cr-

vatv thr matc tructur. am plymy fu acr th Trr-Bak laguag thu lkly t b a hrt pattr. Strctly pakg, t culharly b crb a a ca f aral oneene, c t mply rct harrtt; lgcally, laguag ctact hul b rrlvat th ca.

Hwvr, v uch a ca whr th tructural mrphm prbablyhrt rathr tha vatv, I blv that laguag ctact play a rl f

a ly f lxcal rplacmt ha tak plac. Cr, fr xampl, th maf e, wh matc utl tcal all th Vauatu laguag: u clx (frh) watr wth rvr r lak, a al a grc trm fr(rkabl) lqu, but t cat rfr t alty watr r a, whch a paratwr. Whl th mag (frh) watr+ lx, mt Trr-Bak la-guag, wth rx f a rt *mbei, th laguag Lak ha rplac *mbei wtha vatv frm tu, tymlgcally frm *tuu ap, juc f a plat r frut. mt lkly brgg ctxt (Eva & Wlk : 9) whch ca ac-cut fr th wr matc h frm juc t frh watr wul b a grcmag rkabl lqu. At m pt htry, pr-Lak up havgtw yym fr frh watr: th hrt frm *mbei, a a vatv y-ym *tuu, prumably wth m tyltcally mark ctat, fr xamplf juc wr u a a lag trm fr watr. I Tabl , th crrp t a hfrm Se A t Se B.

h frm Se A t Se B llutrat lxcal rplacmt va match, whch typcally rult a chag f matc rgazat vr tm. uw aw arlr, Tabl (Sct ..), that Lat tally clx ha wth

lar (caput), but vtually, ar a prc f matc h, lt that plymya acqur a w ha ~ pt (testa). Lkw, th matc h actg*tuu pr-Lak lgcally rult a w matc rgazat crrp-g t Se B, whch rkabl lqu (*tuu) a rvr, lak (*mbei) wr


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prumably lx paratly. But th t what w brv mr Lak.Ita, m tm ar th mag watr ha b rlx ug th va-

tv frm *tuu, th frm up rplacg th frmr *m

bei ach a vrypart f t tal plymy. Stram a rvr, a v th larg ulphurc lakf Gaua, ar lx a tu Lak, pt t tymlgy a juc. Nt ly hath w labl tu tak up all th frmrly acat wth *mbei, but t hav lt t mag juc, whch w lx wth a rv frm (tuuhwi); paralll, Lak ha lt all trac f *mbei. Se C llutrat hw Lak wag t *tuu xactly th am matc utl (ha ara) a that whch cab rctruct fr th thr rt *mbei.

I a way, th tructural prprt f Lak tu cttut a frm f rt-t frm Se A t Se C. But crg hw lxcal rplacmt rmal-ly rult m frm f matc rtructurg, th uxpct prrvatf matc tructur t b xpla. parax whrby a laguagca rw t wr frm wthut rwg thr matc utl wul b f-cult t xpla f Lak ha vlv lat frm t ghbr: why hula laguag, ar havg g thrugh matc chag, rtrv plym f thpat? Smtm, uch a rult may b trggr by laguag-tral prcf aalgy, prv th rght ct ar prt (Wtr 99). Hwvr,

gv th laguag clgy f rthr Vauatu, th mt lkly xplaat hr prbably mply laguag ctact. Ar Lak ha vat a w wr *tuufr th rkg watr, t multlgual pakr flt th cgtv prurt (r)alg t matc prprt wth th fu ghbrg laguag. trggr th h frm Se B t Se C, a th gralzat f *tuut all (a ly th) frmrly acat wth *mbei.

Whl th prc up gvg th llu f tructural crvatm, t caly b atfactrly xpla by ptg a tw-tp prc whrby laguag

rt vrg, a latr partally rcvrg: Se A > B: a laguag urg a lxcal vat that chag th frm

acat wth a crta mag, but al th tructural rgazat f tmatc ma; th a rmal prc f matc chag.

able . Wh lxcal rplacmt prrv matc tructur: Wr fr watr Lak

(fruit) sap,juice (drinkable)liquid fresh water river, lake sea water,salt, sea

Se A *tuu *mbei *mbei *mbei *nawo

Se B *tuu *tuu *tuu~*mbei *mbei *nawo

Se C tuuhw *tuu *tuu *tuu *nawo


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228 Alxar Fra

Se B > C: Whl th w frm apt, t tructural prprt (ma-tc utl, cmbatrc, ytactc bhavur) ar ubqutly ralg

wth a mlar wr frm ghbrg laguag u t aral prur. Sm-tm, th ralgmt wth ghbrg laguag happ t rult la-guag-tral tructural crvatm.

am rag cul b prp t accut fr all thr ca whchtr

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AlexFrancois 2011 JHL1-2 Social-Ecology Vanuatu[1]