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Designed and produced by David Moore © British Mycological Society 2005
All your farm animals. Your beef and veal, including milk and dairy products. Not just cattle, but sheep, deer, goats, and even llamas, giraffe and antelope. Meat, certainly, but other products too, like leather, wool and other fibres. Each and every one depends on fungi in the gut to digest the grass.
All the plants in your garden. All the crops in your fields. All the trees in your forests, and the grass of your pastures. All depend on fungal associates in their roots to help them grow.
Some of the wonder drugs of today come from fungi. Statins control your cholesterol level to protect you from heart disease. Cyclosporin stops rejection in transplant patients. And we still depend on penicillin – the wonder drug of the 1940s. All from fungi!
Only fungi can degrade woody lignin. Without fungal wood decay the world would fill up with dead timber. Like it did in Carboniferous days when coal seams were laid down!
T
hank
fun
gus
for
that
! A
ll th
e p
lan
ts in
yo
ur
gar
den
. All
the
cro
ps
in y
ou
r fi
eld
s. A
ll th
e tr
ees
in y
ou
r fo
rest
s, a
nd
th
e g
rass
of
you
r p
astu
res.
All
dep
end
on
fu
ng
al a
sso
ciat
es i
n t
hei
r ro
ots
to
hel
p t
hem
gro
w.
Plan
ts g
ain
thei
r nut
rient
s by
abso
rbin
g m
iner
als a
nd w
ater
from
the
soil
usin
g th
eir r
oots
. But
they
get
qui
te
a lo
t of h
elp
from
cer
tain
spec
ies o
f fun
gi. T
he re
latio
nshi
p ap
pear
s to
have
star
ted
beca
use
the
plan
t roo
ts
alon
e ar
e no
t abl
e to
supp
ly th
e pl
ant w
ith a
ll th
e nu
trien
ts it
nee
ds. T
he fu
ngi a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith p
lant
root
s are
ca
lled
MY
CO
RR
HIZ
AS,
whi
ch in
crea
se n
utrie
nt a
vaila
bilit
y to
the
plan
t. Th
e nu
mer
ous h
ypha
e of
the
fung
i gr
eatly
incr
ease
the
surf
ace
area
ava
ilabl
e fo
r abs
orbi
ng m
iner
als.
The
hyph
ae c
an a
lso
go lo
okin
g fo
r foo
d;
by g
row
ing
into
are
as o
f fre
sh n
utrie
nts.
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
plan
t and
fung
us is
mut
ualis
tic; w
hich
m
eans
that
bot
h si
des g
ain
som
ethi
ng fr
om h
avin
g th
e ot
her p
rese
nt. T
he p
lant
pay
s for
the
priv
ilege
of u
sing
th
is fu
ngus
to b
ring
it nu
trien
ts b
y sh
arin
g up
to 2
5% o
f the
pro
duct
s of i
ts o
wn
phot
osyn
thes
is w
ith th
e fu
ngus
. The
fung
us b
enef
its b
y ta
king
read
ily a
vaila
ble
suga
rs fr
om th
e pl
ant.
Des
pite
this
‘tax
’ on
its
activ
ities
, the
pla
nt g
row
s muc
h be
tter t
han
it w
ould
with
out t
he m
ycor
rhiz
a.
So
me
myc
orrh
izal
fung
i for
m a
mat
of f
unga
l tis
sue
arou
nd th
e ro
ot; t
he fu
ngal
cel
ls g
row
bet
wee
n th
e ce
lls o
f the
pla
nt ro
ot, b
ut n
ever
act
ually
cro
ss th
e pl
ant c
ell w
alls
. The
se a
re c
alle
d ‘ E
CTO
MY
CO
RR
HIZ
AS’
. In
anot
her m
ycor
rhiz
al p
artn
ersh
ip (c
alle
d EN
DO
MY
CO
RR
HIZ
AS)
the
fung
al c
ells
ent
er
the
plan
ts c
ells
. Ins
ide
the
plan
t cel
ls th
ey m
ake
stru
ctur
es th
at e
xcha
nge
nutri
ents
with
the
plan
t cyt
opla
sm.
By
grea
tly in
crea
sing
the
abso
rbin
g su
rfac
e of
a h
ost p
lant
’s ro
ot sy
stem
, myc
orrh
izas
impr
ove
the
plan
t’s a
bilit
y to
tole
rate
dro
ught
and
oth
er e
xtre
mes
, lik
e hi
gh a
nd lo
w te
mpe
ratu
res a
nd a
cidi
ty. A
s man
y as
95
% o
f all
plan
ts h
ave
myc
orrh
izal
ass
ocia
tions
, sho
win
g ju
st h
ow im
porta
nt th
ese
type
s of f
ungi
are
for t
he
grow
th o
f so
man
y pl
ants
, inc
ludi
ng a
ll th
e cr
op p
lant
s we
need
to fe
ed th
e hu
man
pop
ulat
ion,
and
all
the
trees
in a
ll th
e fo
rest
s. A
ll yo
ur
farm
an
imal
s. Y
ou
r b
eef
and
vea
l, in
clu
din
g m
ilk a
nd
dai
ry p
rod
uct
s. N
ot
just
cat
tle,
bu
t sh
eep
, d
eer,
go
ats,
an
d e
ven
llam
as, g
iraf
fe a
nd
an
telo
pe.
Mea
t,
cert
ain
ly, b
ut
oth
er p
rod
uct
s to
o, l
ike
leat
her
, wo
ol a
nd
oth
er f
ibre
s. E
ach
an
d e
very
o
ne
dep
end
s o
n f
un
gi i
n t
he
gu
t to
dig
est
the
gra
ss.
Man
y an
imal
s inc
ludi
ng c
ows,
shee
p, g
oats
, dee
r, an
d ev
en g
iraff
es, a
re k
now
n as
rum
inan
ts. T
his i
s bec
ause
th
ey h
ave
a sp
ecia
lised
four
-cha
mbe
red
stom
ach
need
ed fo
r the
dig
estio
n of
thei
r exc
lusi
vely
veg
etar
ian
diet
. Th
e fir
st c
ham
ber t
he fo
od e
nter
s is c
alle
d th
e ru
men
, hen
ce th
e na
me
rum
inan
t. Th
e ru
min
ant w
e’re
mos
t fa
mili
ar w
ith is
the
cow
, and
we
al k
now
that
cow
s spe
nd m
ost o
f the
ir tim
e ea
ting
gras
s and
hay
.
Plan
t cel
ls w
alls
con
tain
cel
lulo
se, w
hich
is a
n ex
celle
nt so
urce
of f
ibre
in th
e di
et o
f mos
t ani
mal
s. Fi
bre
is im
porta
nt a
s it p
rovi
des r
ough
age
whi
ch k
eeps
the
excr
etio
n of
was
te p
rodu
cts r
egul
ar. H
owev
er
cow
s, lik
e al
l ani
mal
s, do
not
pro
duce
enz
ymes
cap
able
of d
iges
ting
cellu
lose
them
selv
es; s
o w
ithou
t hel
p th
ey c
an’t
extra
ct th
e nu
trien
ts th
e gr
ass c
onta
ins.
The
cow
ove
rcom
es th
is p
robl
em b
y ha
ving
spec
ial f
ungi
in
the
rum
en c
alle
d C
HY
TRID
S; o
r mor
e ge
nera
lly c
alle
d ru
men
fung
i. Th
ese
fung
i are
ana
erob
ic, m
eani
ng
they
are
abl
e to
surv
ive
with
out o
xyge
n. E
ven
with
out o
xyge
n, c
hytri
ds a
re a
ble
to d
iges
t pla
nt c
ell w
alls
by
mak
ing
spec
ific
enzy
mes
cal
led
cellu
lase
s. Th
e ru
men
act
s lik
e a
larg
e fe
rmen
ter b
ecau
se th
e gr
ass i
s sto
red
ther
e w
hils
t the
fung
al e
nzym
es fr
om th
e ch
ytrid
s bre
ak d
own
the
cellu
lose
.
Afte
r the
pla
nt m
ater
ial i
s pro
cess
ed in
the
rum
en, i
t is b
roug
ht b
ack
up in
to th
e m
outh
of t
he c
ow.
This
mat
eria
l is n
ow c
alle
d ‘c
ud’ a
nd th
e co
w c
hew
s it a
gain
to g
rind
it do
wn
furth
er. W
hen
it is
swal
low
ed
for t
he se
cond
tim
e it
pass
es th
roug
h th
e ne
xt th
ree
cham
bers
of t
he st
omac
h. T
he c
hytri
ds a
re th
ough
t to
pass
from
one
ani
mal
to th
e ne
xt b
y be
ing
trans
ferr
ed in
saliv
a, b
ut th
ey a
lso
occu
r in
larg
e nu
mbe
r in
cow
du
ng. F
rom
the
dung
the
fung
i get
atta
ched
ont
o su
rrou
ndin
g gr
ass.
Whe
n an
othe
r cow
com
es a
long
and
eat
s th
e gr
ass,
the
fung
i car
ry o
n th
eir w
ork
in th
e ne
w h
ost.
The
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
chyt
rids a
nd ru
min
ants
is sa
id to
be
sym
biot
ic. T
his m
eans
that
bot
h th
e fu
ngi a
nd th
e co
w b
enef
it fr
om h
avin
g th
e ot
her p
rese
nt. I
n th
is c
ase
the
cow
ben
efits
bec
ause
pla
nt m
ater
ial
the
anim
al c
an’t
degr
ade
is d
iges
ted
and
turn
ed in
to m
ater
ials
the
cow
can
abs
orb.
In re
turn
, the
fung
i liv
e of
f so
me
of th
e nu
trien
ts o
btai
ned
from
the
cow
’s fo
od, a
nd li
ve o
ut th
eir l
ives
in th
e co
w’s
rum
en.
On
ly f
un
gi
can
deg
rad
e w
oo
dy
lign
in.
Wit
ho
ut
fun
gal
wo
od
dec
ay t
he
wo
rld
wo
uld
fi
ll u
p w
ith
dea
d t
imb
er.
Lik
e it
did
in C
arb
on
ifer
ou
s d
ays
wh
en c
oal
sea
ms
wer
e la
id
do
wn
! Ev
er w
onde
red
wha
t hap
pens
to a
ll th
e le
aves
that
fall
from
the
trees
, or t
he b
ranc
hes t
hat f
all t
o th
e gr
ound
in
stor
ms,
or w
hen
a tre
e di
es?
Som
ehow
ther
e’s n
ever
a b
uild
up
of a
ll th
is o
rgan
ic m
atte
r, bu
t wha
t hap
pens
to
it?
Whe
re d
oes i
t go?
Wel
l, it’
s bro
ken
dow
n an
d re
cycl
ed. M
any
smal
l org
anis
ms l
ike
bact
eria
, ins
ects
, w
orm
s and
man
y ty
pes o
f fun
gi b
reak
dow
n th
e pl
ant m
ater
ial.
The
resu
ltant
hum
us is
nut
rient
rich
and
can
be
use
d by
pla
nts f
or th
eir g
row
th.
Th
e ce
ll w
alls
of p
lant
s are
ver
y st
rong
. The
com
pone
nts t
hat p
rovi
de th
e st
reng
th a
re C
ELLU
LOSE
an
d LI
GN
IN. F
ungi
are
ver
y im
porta
nt fo
r the
dec
ay o
f woo
d be
caus
e th
ey a
re th
e O
NLY
org
anis
ms c
apab
le o
f br
eaki
ng d
own
BO
TH c
ellu
lose
and
lign
in. C
ellu
lose
is a
pol
ymer
of g
luco
se th
at fo
rms f
ibre
s tha
t are
in
cred
ibly
stro
ng. B
row
n ro
t fun
gi b
reak
dow
n ce
llulo
se. B
row
n ro
t fun
gi a
re so
-cal
led
beca
use
the
ligni
n re
mai
ns in
tact
so th
e w
ood
keep
s its
bro
wn
colo
ur. T
he e
nzym
es re
leas
ed b
y br
own
rot f
ungi
bre
ak th
e ce
llulo
se c
hain
s int
o si
ngle
mol
ecul
es o
f glu
cose
suga
r tha
t can
be
re-u
sed
by th
e fu
ngus
. Lig
nin
is th
e ot
her
stro
ng p
olym
er. I
t is t
he se
cond
mos
t abu
ndan
t nat
ural
pol
ymer
on
Earth
afte
r cel
lulo
se. F
ungi
that
bre
ak
dow
n lig
nin
are
calle
d w
hite
rot f
ungi
; thi
s is b
ecau
se a
s the
con
tent
of l
igni
n is
dec
reas
ed, t
he w
ood
beco
mes
ligh
ter i
n co
lour
. Whi
te ro
t fun
gi d
egra
de li
gnin
by
prod
ucin
g ox
idis
ing
enzy
mes
that
are
rele
ased
fr
om th
eir h
ypha
e –
they
‘bur
n’ th
e w
ood
in a
n en
zym
e-co
ntro
lled
way
. Lig
nin
cont
ains
phe
nols
and
the
whi
te ro
t fun
gi a
re th
e on
ly o
rgan
ism
s tha
t can
dea
l with
them
. Th
ese
two
type
s of f
ungi
hav
e im
porta
nt ro
les i
n th
e re
cycl
ing
of n
utrie
nts.
With
out t
hem
, old
pla
nt
mat
eria
l wou
ld n
ot d
ecay
and
the
soil
nutri
ents
wou
ld b
e lo
cked
into
an
accu
mul
atin
g m
ass o
f und
egra
dabl
e bi
omas
s. S
om
e o
f th
e w
on
der
dru
gs
of
tod
ay c
om
e fr
om
fu
ng
i. S
tati
ns
con
tro
l yo
ur
cho
lest
ero
l le
vel
to p
rote
ct y
ou
fro
m h
eart
dis
ease
. Cyc
losp
ori
n s
top
s re
ject
ion
in
tran
spla
nt
pat
ien
ts. A
nd
we
still
dep
end
on
pen
icill
in –
th
e w
on
der
dru
g o
f th
e 19
40s.
All
fro
m f
un
gi!
M
ost o
f us a
ppre
ciat
e th
at if
we
have
too
muc
h ch
oles
tero
l the
bod
y is
not
abl
e to
use
up
the
exce
ss so
it
stic
ks to
the
insi
de w
alls
of o
ur b
lood
ves
sels
. Thi
s bui
ld u
p re
duce
s the
dia
met
er o
f the
ves
sels
, and
this
re
stric
ts b
lood
flow
. If b
lood
ves
sels
that
supp
ly b
lood
to th
e he
art b
ecom
e cl
ogge
d up
like
this
it c
an c
ause
a
hear
t atta
ck, b
ecau
se th
e he
art m
uscl
e do
es n
ot re
ceiv
e en
ough
oxy
gen
to fu
nctio
n pr
oper
ly. T
o co
ntro
l hea
rt di
seas
e it’
s im
porta
nt th
at h
uman
s reg
ulat
e th
eir c
hole
ster
ol le
vel.
The
mos
t eff
ectiv
e ch
oles
tero
l low
erin
g-ag
ents
we
have
toda
y ar
e ca
lled
S TA
TIN
S, a
nd th
ese
are
prod
uced
by
fung
i. Th
e tw
o fu
ngi u
sed
to p
rodu
ce st
atin
s are
cal
led
Asp
ergi
llus
terr
eus
and
Pen
icil
lium
ci
trin
um. S
tatin
s inh
ibit
enzy
mes
nee
ded
to m
ake
chol
este
rol a
nd p
rodu
ctio
n of
cho
lest
erol
is sl
owed
dow
n.
Add
die
tary
con
trol,
and
you
can
sign
ifica
ntly
dec
reas
e th
e pa
tient
’s c
hole
ster
ol le
vel.
To
day,
man
y pe
ople
rely
on
stat
ins f
rom
fung
i to
help
kee
p th
eir c
hole
ster
ol le
vel n
orm
al; t
he d
rugs
ar
e cr
edite
d w
ith sa
ving
700
0 liv
es a
yea
r in
the
Uni
ted
Kin
gdom
alo
ne!
C
YC
LOSP
OR
IN is
ano
ther
cru
cial
won
der d
rug
of to
day.
It m
akes
succ
essf
ul lo
ng-te
rm tr
ansp
lant
of
liver
s, ki
dney
s, he
arts
and
lung
s pos
sibl
e. T
his c
ompo
und
is p
rodu
ced
by th
e fu
ngus
Tol
ypoc
ladi
um in
flatu
m.
The
fung
us w
as is
olat
ed fr
om a
soil
sam
ple
and
scre
ened
in a
sear
ch fo
r ant
ibio
tics.
The
com
poun
d cy
clos
porin
was
foun
d to
be
a w
eak
antib
iotic
, but
to h
ave
stro
ng a
ctiv
ity a
t sup
pres
sing
the
imm
une
syst
em
(= IM
MU
NO
SUPP
RES
SIV
E).
Th
is is
the
cruc
ial r
ole
of th
is d
rug
now
. Our
bod
ies a
re p
rogr
amm
ed to
elim
inat
e fo
reig
n th
ings
, and
th
e bo
dy w
ill n
atur
ally
reje
ct a
tran
spla
nt. T
he d
etec
tion
and
elim
inat
ion
of fo
reig
n bo
dies
is c
arrie
d ou
t by
the
imm
une
syst
em, w
hich
is m
ade
up o
f sev
eral
cel
l typ
es th
at a
ct to
pro
tect
our
bod
ies f
rom
pot
entia
lly
harm
ful o
rgan
ism
s. Ly
mph
ocyt
es a
re th
e ce
lls th
at a
re a
ble
to d
etec
t for
eign
obj
ects
. The
y at
tach
them
selv
es
to p
atho
gens
iden
tifyi
ng th
em a
s thi
ngs t
o be
des
troye
d.
Fo
llow
ing
trans
plan
t ope
ratio
ns c
yclo
spor
in h
elps
pre
vent
reje
ctio
n by
stop
ping
the
prod
uctio
n of
ly
mph
ocyt
es. I
f lym
phoc
ytes
are
not
abl
e to
incr
ease
in n
umbe
r the
re is
a g
reat
er c
hanc
e th
at th
e tra
nspl
ant
will
not
be
dete
cted
and
will
con
tinue
to fu
nctio
n no
rmal
ly. C
yclo
spor
in is
cur
rent
ly th
e m
ost e
ffec
tive
and
wid
ely
used
imm
unos
uppr
essi
ve d
rug.
VIS
IT t
he
BM
S w
ebsi
te a
t h
ttp
://w
ww
.bri
tmyc
ols
oc.
org
.uk
Writ
ten
by
Ste
ph
anie
Rob
erts
and
pro
duce
d b
y D
avi
d M
oore
©
Brit
ish
Myc
olo
gica
l Soc
iety
200
5
