An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages

Scott Brewer

University of South Carolina

8/21/2015

An Historical Grammar of and Its Daughter

Languages

Brewer i

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Phonological Bedrock ..........................................................................................................................................1

§1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory................................................................................................................................1

§1.1.1 Consonants .............................................................................................................................................................1

§1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs ....................................................................................................................................1

§1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................1

§1.2 Sound Changes ..............................................................................................................................................................1

§1.3 Phonotactics ...................................................................................................................................................................2

Chapter 2: The Mother Tongue ..............................................................................................................................................3

§2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology: Nærut N n .............................................................................................3

§2.1.1 Consonants .............................................................................................................................................................3

§2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs ....................................................................................................................................3

§2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs............................................................................................................................................3

§2.2 Morphology ....................................................................................................................................................................3

§2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival ......................................................3

§2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology ..................................................................................................................................4

§2.2.3 Nominal Morphology .........................................................................................................................................5

§2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal ..........................................................................................6

§2.2.5 Verbal Morphology .............................................................................................................................................7

§2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms .......................................................................................................................9

§2.2.7 Methods of Derivation.................................................................................................................................... 10

§2.2.8 Honorifics............................................................................................................................................................. 15

§2.3 Syntax............................................................................................................................................................................. 16

§2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order ...................................................................................................................................... 16

§2.3.2 Interrogatives..................................................................................................................................................... 16

§2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order.......................................................................................................................................... 18

§2.3.4 Prepositions ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

§2.3.5 Coordination ....................................................................................................................................................... 18

§2.3.5 Syntactic Focus .................................................................................................................................................. 19

§2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses ........................................................................................................................................ 19

§2.3.7 Possession ........................................................................................................................................................... 21

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§2.3.8 Negation ............................................................................................................................................................... 22

§2.3.9 Mood ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23

§2.3.10 Honorific Speech ............................................................................................................................................ 24

§2.4 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................ 25

§2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – P ik B bel ot ....................................................................................................... 25

e oem o t e in – e i onol k ot ............................................................................................ 26

e o e – imin on em e ot ......................................................................................... 27

§2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article ne – el ol nn t i ob e b

ot ek olt ot t i le t -het ................................................................................................................................... 27

e t o t e i t t – Be ek o ot ek ot .................................................... 28

§2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el ol p ot b nt lp it ................................................. 29

Chapter 3: Migration and Evolution ................................................................................................................................. 30

§3.1 Fictional Setting......................................................................................................................................................... 30

§3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion ....................................................................................................................................... 30

§3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire.............................................................................................................................. 32

Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North ................................................................................................ 33

§4.1 Phonological Changes ............................................................................................................................................. 33

§4.2 Phonological Inventory .......................................................................................................................................... 34

§ 4.2.1 Consonants ......................................................................................................................................................... 34

§ 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs ................................................................................................................................ 34

§ 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs........................................................................................................................................ 35

§ 4.2.4 Orthography ...................................................................................................................................................... 35

§4.3 Morphology ................................................................................................................................................................. 35

§4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival...................................................... 35

§4.3.2 Pronominal Morphology ............................................................................................................................... 36

§4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ....................................................................................................... 37

§4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles ......................................................................................................................... 38

§4.3.5 Verbal Morphology .......................................................................................................................................... 39

§4.3.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms .................................................................................................................... 50


§4.3.8 Honorifics............................................................................................................................................................. 55

§4.4 Syntax............................................................................................................................................................................. 56

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§4.4.1 Subject Dropping .............................................................................................................................................. 56

§4.4.2 Basic Sentence Order ...................................................................................................................................... 56

§4.4.3 Syntactic Focus .................................................................................................................................................. 56

§4.5 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................ 58

§4.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærik B vloþ......................................................................................................... 58

e oem o t e in – e i on o .............................................................................................. 59

e o e – Þ imin n em e oþ ............................................................................................ 60

e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn i óv e

Fr vo ek olt o le -het ........................................................................................................................... 60

e t o t e i t t – Be o o ek o ................................................................ 61

§4.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M le el p t b nt l i ........................................................ 62

Chapter 5: Nærüt Jul o b – The Speech of the South ................................................................................................ 63


§5.2 Phonological Inventory .......................................................................................................................................... 64

§ 5.2.1 Consonants ......................................................................................................................................................... 64


§5.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs......................................................................................................................................... 65

§ 5.2.4 Orthography ...................................................................................................................................................... 65

§5.3 Morphology ................................................................................................................................................................. 66

§5.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival..................................................... 66


§5.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ....................................................................................................... 69

§5.3.4 The Definite Article.......................................................................................................................................... 70

§5.3.5 Verbal Affixes ..................................................................................................................................................... 71


§5.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms .................................................................................................................... 76


§5.3.9 Honorifics............................................................................................................................................................. 81

§5.4 Syntax ............................................................................................................................................................................. 82

§5.5 Translations ................................................................................................................................................................. 83

§5.5.1 The Tower of Babel – P kno B bel t ................................................................................................... 83

§5.5.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i o no lno k t no .................................................................................. 84

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e o e – imin o nno em e no ............................................................................ 85

e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – nn t o b el olno e

bot ek olt t i - et lest .......................................................................................................................... 86

e t o t e i t t – Be ekno o n ekno ot no ....................................... 86

§5.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – M e el olno p ot b nt lp i t o t ................................................ 87

Chapter 6: Tifejóf – The Speech of the Homeland........................................................................................................ 88


§6.2 Phonological Inventory............................................................................................................................................ 90

§ 6.2.1 Consonants ......................................................................................................................................................... 90


§6.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs......................................................................................................................................... 90

§ 6.2.4 Vowels: Nasals .................................................................................................................................................. 91

§ 6.2.5 Orthography ...................................................................................................................................................... 92

§6.3 Morphology ................................................................................................................................................................. 92

§6.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival...................................................... 92


§6.3.3 Nominal Morphology ...................................................................................................................................... 94

§6.3.4 Adjectival Morphology ................................................................................................................................... 94

§6.3.5 Verbal Affixes ..................................................................................................................................................... 95


§6.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms ................................................................................................................. 104

§6.3.8 Methods of Derivation................................................................................................................................. 105

§6.3.9 Honorifics.......................................................................................................................................................... 109

§6.4 Syntax.......................................................................................................................................................................... 110

§6.5 Translations ............................................................................................................................................................. 111

§6.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærek B vl t .................................................................................................... 111

e oem o t e in – e i on t .......................................................................................... 112

e o e – imin n em e t ................................................................................... 113

e nive l e l tion o m n i t ti le ne – el nn t i ó e

Fr vot k olt t e le t -het ............................................................................................................................ 113

e t o t e i t t – Be o ot k t ............................................................ 114

– e it n in t e – e el p te p nt l i ................................................ 115

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Chapter 7: The Wheel of Fire............................................................................................................................................. 116

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Brewer 1

Chapter 1: Phonological Bedrock

§1.1 Initial Phonological Inventory

The phonological starting point has been kept relatively simple, as it allows for a few sound changes to be applied early on to the structure of the language, providing it with a more realistic character.

§1.1.1 Consonants

Bilabial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ ]ː t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ[ː]

Nasal m[ː] n[ː] ŋ[ː]

Fricative s[ː] h Tap ɾ [r]

Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː]

§1.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs

Front Back High i[ː] u[ː]

Mid e o Low æ ɑ[ː]

§1.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs

ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ, oj, oʊ, u[ː]j, æj, æʊ, ej, eʊ, i[ː]ʊ

These sound changes are applied to all initial forms of lexical items. Because of the fact that the syntactic particles are over time being reanalyzed as parts of the words they modify, the changes apply across the boundary between word and particle.

§1.2 Sound Changes

1. s z / V_V 2. tj tʃ 3. dj dʒ 4. Ns NCVSs (e.g. ens ents) 5. VFnVF VFɲVF (e.g. tene teɲe) 6. VFlVF VFʎVF ʎæ) 7. sj ʃ 8. #Vj #jV 9. ɑː# ɑw# 10. ʔː ʔhˑ 11. Cʰ# C# 12. V[voiced consonant]# Vː[voiced consonant]# 13. VʃV VʒV

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14. VFV VFjV 15. VBRV VBRwV

§1.3 Phonotactics

1. [ɲ, ʎ] can only occur between front vowels. 2. [ɑː] cannot occur word finally. 3. [s] [z] when intervocalic. 4. [ʃ] [ʒ] when intervocalic. 5. Aspirated stops deaspirate when word-final. 6. Nasals cannot precede [s]. An epenthetic voiceless stop must be inserted between the two

phonemes. 7. When a front vowel precedes another vowel, an epenthetic [j] will be inserted between

them. 8. When a back rounded vowel precedes another vowel, an epenthetic [w] will be inserted

between them. 9. Diphthongs of the type [Vj] cannot occur initially. 10. Vowels in word final syllables that precede voiced consonants are lengthened. This creates

long allophones of [æ, e, o]. 11. All consonants can be geminated except for [h] and [ʔ]; [ʔː] has become [ʔhˑ].

12. Stress generally falls on the first syllable of the root.

(All of these rules operate across the boundaries between words and grammatical particles.)

Brewer 3

Chapter 2: The Mother Tongue

§2.1 Post-Sound Change Phonology:

§2.1.1 Consonants

Bilabial Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

Plosive p[ː] pʰ[ː] b[ ]ː t[ː] tʰ[ː] d[ː] k[ː] kʰ[ː] ɡ[ː] ʔ ʔhˑ Nasal m[ː] n[ː] (ɲ[ː]) ŋ[ː]

Fricative s[ː] (z) ʃ[ː] (ʒ) h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː]

Tap ɾ [r]

Approximant w[ː] j[ː] Lat. Approx. l[ː] (ʎ[ː])

§2.1.2 Vowels: Monophthongs

Front Back

High i[ː] u[ː]

Mid e(ː) o(ː) Low æ(ː) ɑ[ː]

§2.1.3 Vowels: Diphthongs ɑ[ː]j, ɑ[ː]ʊ, o(ː)j, o(ː)ʊ, u[ː]j, æ(ː)j, æ(ː)ʊ, e(ː)j, e(ː)ʊ, i[ː]ʊ

§2.2 Morphology §2.2.1 Grammatical Particles – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival

Case Particle – Basic Form Function Nominative Ø Subject

Accusative is / wis / jis Direct Object

Genitive t w t t Possession Partitive lo Part of a Whole

Dative drɑ Indirect Object Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej Location

Instrumental ‘em Means/Instrument Comitative ents / wents / jents Together with

p p t t t p p t t Case particles are added to the final constituent of the noun phrase. As Nærut N is a head initial language, this means they are added to the final adjective or determiner that modifies a noun. However, when emphasis is desired, the particles can be added to every constituent of the noun phrase. Pluralizers must follow every constituent of a nominal phrase.

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§2.2.2 Pronominal Morphology

Singular

1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative t ɑ den rom ærom orom

Accusative t ɑ is den is rom is ærom is orom is

Genitive t ɑ ot den ot rom ot ærom ot orom ot Partitive t ɑ lo den lo rom lo ærom lo orom lo

Dative t ɑ drɑ den drɑ rom drɑ ærom drɑ orom drɑ Locative t ɑ sej den tsej rom psej ærom psej orom psej

Instrumental t ɑ ‘em den ‘em rom ‘em ærom ‘em orom ‘em Comitative t ɑ ents den ents rom ents ærom ents orom ents

Dual

1st Dual Inclusive 1st Dual Exclusive 2nd Dual 3rd Dual

Nominative e o mor ttɑ dæd

Accusative e o wis mor is ettɑ is dæd is Genitive e o wot mor ot ttɑ ot dæd ot

Partitive e o lo mor lo ttɑ lo dæd lo Dative e o drɑ mor drɑ ttɑ drɑ dæd drɑ

Locative e o sej mor sej ttɑ sej dæd sej Instrumental e o ‘em mor ‘em ttɑ ‘em dæd ‘em

Comitative e o wents mor ents ttɑ ents dæd ents

Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural

Nominative nɑ ru on t æle

Accusative nɑ wis on is t æle jis is Genitive nɑ wot on ot t æle jot ot

Partitive nɑ ru lo on lo t æle lo lo Dative nɑ drɑ on drɑ t æle drɑ drɑ

Locative nɑ ru sej on tsej t æle sej sej Instrumental nɑ ‘em on ‘em t æle ‘em ‘em

Comitative nɑ wents on ents t æle jents ents

Brewer 5

§2.2.3 Nominal Morphology ɑ ɑm - man

Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t

Accusative ɑ ɑm is ɑ ɑm ek ɑ ɑm t

Genitive ɑ ɑm ot ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t Partitive ɑ ɑm lo ɑ ɑm wek ɑ ɑm t

Dative ɑ ɑm drɑ ɑ ɑm drɑ ek ɑ ɑm drɑ t Locative ɑ ɑm psej ɑ ɑm p ek ɑ ɑm p t

Instrumental ɑ ɑm ‘ m ɑ ɑm ‘ m ek ɑ ɑm ‘ m t Comitative ɑ ɑm ents ɑ ɑm t ek ɑ ɑm t t

dunoj – ceiling

Singular Plural Collective Plural

Nominative dunoj dunoj ek dunoj t

Accusative dunoj is dunoj is ek dunoj is t Genitive dunoj ot t ek dunoj ot t

Partitive dunoj lo dunoj lo wek dunoj lo t Dative dunoj drɑ dunoj drɑ ek dunoj drɑ t

Locative dunoj sej dunoj sej ek dunoj sej t Instrumental dunoj ‘ m ‘ m ek dunoj ‘ m t

Comitative dunoj ents dunoj ents ek dunoj ents t

t – hour


Nominative bist t ek bist t Accusative t is t ek t t

Genitive t ot t t ek t t t Partitive t lo t wek t t

Dative t drɑ t drɑ ek t drɑ t

Locative t sej t ek t t Instrumental t ‘ m t ‘ m ek t ‘ m t

Comitative t ents t t ek t t t ɑ’ – cup

Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ’ ɑ’ jek ɑ’ t

Accusative ɑ’ jis ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t Genitive ɑ’ jot ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t

Partitive ɑ’ lo ɑ’ wek ɑ’ t

Dative ɑ’ drɑ ɑ’ drɑ ek ɑ’ drɑ t Locative ɑ’ sej ɑ’ ek ɑ’ t

Instrumental ɑ’ ‘ m ɑ’ ‘ m ek ɑ’ ‘ m t Comitative ɑ’ jents ɑ’ t ek ɑ’ t t

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§2.2.4 Grammatical Particles and Prefixes – Verbal Non-Finite Forms –

Active Infinitive: t t w t

Passive Infinitive: su

Supine: Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mu- + -i

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw- + -i Person Particles –

1st Person, Active: moj

2nd Person, Active: æn

3rd Person, Active: jol / ol

1st Person, Passive: em 2nd Person, Passive: ’ ’ w ’

3rd Person, Passive: ŋ

Dual/Plural, Active: ‘

Tense Prefixes –

Present: Ø-

Past: ‘ -

Future: un- Aspect Prefixes –

Imperfective: Ø- (present) / [C]o- / w- (past and future)

Perfective: Ø- Progressive: ɑm -

Inchoative: en(n)-

Terminative: rɑ- Mood Particles –

Conditional: ste

Subjunctive: t

Imperative:

The 3rd person active particle can trigger final-consonant mutation in verbs, as yod-coalescence is common with dental consonants. Verb roots ending in the phonemes [t d s z] have 3rd person forms that e t t [t ʃ ʒ ʃ ʒ]. When this happens, the third person marker is reduced to {ol} and the final consonant of the root exhibits the mutation.

Infinitive, supine, person, and plural particles all follow the verb they modify. Tense and aspect markers are prefixes, with tense coming before aspect. The mood particles are all placed before the conjugated verb.

When more than one verb occurs in sequence, it is extremely common for only the last to be marked with person and number particles.

The imperfective aspect is marked through reduplication in the past and future tenses. The initial consonant or consonant cluster of the root is reduplicated, and is then followed by the vowel /o/. If the root-initial syllable is of the type CCCV, then only the f irst two consonants participate in reduplication (skrɑ skoskrɑ . If it takes the shape ChCV, then only the aspirated stop appears in the reduplicated syllable . If the word begins with a vowel, then the perfective marker is simply {w-}, from earlier {o-}.

There is no present perfective. The passive voice is marked by a separate series of person markers from the active voice, but is

not marked for number.

Person particles are marked with secondary stress. When a verb root ending in an alveolar trill [r] appears in the supine, the supine particle is

phonetically reduced to [iː] t t t p p t t m t m

The imperfective verbal adverb is used to indicate simultaneous actions, whereas the perfective marks an action that has already been completed.

Brewer 7

§2.2.5 Verbal Morphology Verb Root: reldus (say) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their preposed particles.)

Infinitive: reldus ot Supine: reldus

Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mureldusi Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw

Active Voice

Past Present Future

Imperfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ moj reldus moj unroreldus moj

2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn reldus æn unroreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ roreldu ol reldu ol unroreldu ol

1st Person D & P ‘ roreldus moj ‘ reldus moj ‘ unroreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ roreldus æn ‘ reldus æn ‘ unroreldus æn ‘

3rd Person D & P ‘ roreldu ol ‘ reldu ol ‘ unroreldu ol ‘

Perfective 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj - unreldus moj

2nd Person Sing. ‘ æn - unreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol - unreldu ol

1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ - unreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ - unreldus æn ‘

3rd Person D & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ - unreldu ol ‘

Progressive 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus moj ɑm reldus moj unɑm reldus moj

2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldus æn ɑm reldus æn unɑm reldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑm reldu ol ɑm reldu ol unɑm reldu ol

1st Person D & P ‘ ɑm reldus moj ‘ ɑm reldus moj ‘ unɑm reldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ ɑm reldus æn ‘ unɑm reldus æn ‘

3rd Person D & P ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ ɑm reldu ol ‘ unɑm reldu ol ‘

Inchoative 1st Person Sing. ‘ reldus moj enreldus moj unenreldus moj

2nd Person Sing. ‘ reldus æn enreldus æn unenreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ reldu ol enreldu ol unenreldu ol

1st Person D & P ‘ reldus moj ‘ enreldus moj ‘ unenreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ reldus æn ‘ enreldus æn ‘ unenreldus æn ‘

3rd Person D & P ‘ reldu ol ‘ enreldu ol ‘ unenreldu ol ‘

Terminative 1st Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus moj rɑreldus moj unrɑreldus moj

2nd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldus æn rɑreldus æn unrɑreldus æn 3rd Person Sing. ‘ ɑreldu ol rɑreldu ol unrɑreldu ol

1st Person D & P ‘ ɑreldus moj ‘ rɑreldus moj ‘ unrɑreldus moj ‘ 2nd Person D &P ‘ ɑreldus æn ‘ rɑreldus æn ‘ unrɑreldus æn ‘

3rd Person D & P ‘ ɑreldu ol ‘ rɑreldu ol ‘ unrɑreldu ol ‘

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Participle Imperfective ’ roreldus reldus w roreldus

Perfective ’ reldus - w reldus Progressive ’ ɑm reldus wɑm reldus w ɑm reldus

Inchoative ’ reldus w reldus w reldus Terminative ’ rɑreldus rɑreldus w rɑreldus

Passive Voice

Past Present Future Imperfective

1st Person ‘ u em reldu em unroreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ ’ un ’

3rd Person ‘ ŋ ŋ un ŋ Perfective

1st Person ‘ em - unreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ’ - unreldus ’

3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ - unreldus ŋ

Progressive 1st Person ‘ ɑm reldu em ɑm reldu em unɑm reldu em

2nd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ’ ɑm reldus ’ unɑm reldus ’ 3rd Person ‘ ɑm reldus ŋ ɑm reldus ŋ unɑm reldus ŋ

Inchoative 1st Person ‘ reldu em enreldu em unenreldu em

2nd Person ‘ reldus ’ enreldus ’ unenreldus ’

3rd Person ‘ reldus ŋ enreldus ŋ unenreldus ŋ Terminative

1st Person ‘ ɑreldu em rɑreldu em unrɑreldu em 2nd Person ‘ ɑreldus o’ rɑreldus ’ unrɑreldus ’

3rd Person ‘ ɑreldus ŋ rɑreldus ŋ unrɑreldus ŋ Participle

Imperfective m’ roreldus hæmreldus hæmunroreldus

Perfective m’ reldus - hæmunreldus Progressive m’ ɑm reldus hæmɑm reldus hæmunɑm reldus

Inchoative m’ reldus hæmenreldus hæmunenreldus Terminative m’ rɑreldus hæmrɑreldus hæmunrɑreldus

Brewer 9

§2.2.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms The numerals one through ten govern the genitive case, singular with one, plural with all the others. For numbers higher than ten, the final number will determine whether the genitive singular or plural is used.

All numerals decline like nouns and adjectives, though in numbers higher than ten only the last number combines with a case particle. The numerals one through ten are stressed on the second syllable of the root. The numerals one through ten are:

gewɑ ɑ tw )

mit ɑ t

ɑ tɑ k ɑ

imɑ rwet ɑ

luksɑ t

hojnɑ sre ɑ t

The language also has a set of collective numerals that describe a set or group, similar to the terms pair, duo, or trio. These special numerals are frequently used alone to describe a group of people.

Though they inherently describe a plural group, they trigger singular agreement with verbs. When used in conjuction with a noun, the noun appears in the genitive case. As with regular numerals, the collective numerals are stressed on the second syllable.

While it is theoretically possible to use a collective numeral with a group of any size, in practice they are not used for groups larger than ten. As they by definition describe groups larger than one, there is no singular collective. However, building on the pattern used to create the collective numerals, the word w t w t t m “ m t ”

p /duo) m t t

ɑ t uartet)

k t t m t t

rwet pt t k t t

t

sre t

Fraction terms are also stressed on the second syllable of the root and decline in the same fashion as noun and adjectives, just as numerals do. They govern the partitive case, but unlike numerals, the object determines which grammatical number is used. The first ten fractions are:

getet (a whole)

t mit et (a third)

ɑ t t t

k t t

imet (a sixth)

rwet et (a seventh) lukset (an eighth)

hojnet (a ninth) sre et (a tenth)

With the numeral roots for one through five, the suffix - can be added to create frequentative adverbs (i.e. once, twice, etc.).

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§2.2.7 Methods of Derivation

§2.2.7.1 Nouns from Verbs

Abstraction₁: verb root + don + (case/number particles) Examples: enne (begin) ennedon (beginning), rɑ rɑ

Abstraction₂: verb root + + (case/number particles) Example: howmɑ t howmɑw t t t

Agent: verb root + res + (case/number particles) Examples: dem (rule) m t [t ] t w t t p t

Patient: verb root + ol + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) hortejol (building), irɑ p irɑ p

Occupation: verb root + juŋ + (case/number particles) mp m t w k m ŋ t t ŋ

Location: verb root + sejn + (case/number particles) mp ’ t tt ’ t tt m t m romessejn (school)

Instrument: verb root + rek + (case/number particles) Examples: nærni (speak) nærnirek (language), njæwr (spin) njæwrrek (wheel)

Master: verb root + rom + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) horterom t t ŋ t ŋ rrosrom (master of combat)

§2.2.7.2 Verbs from Nouns

Method 1: ne + noun root + (person/number particles) mp ‘ t p ’ t tt t m t m [ ]

Method 2: som + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: poro (iron) somporo (forge), ɑ m somɑ t

Method 3: j + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: ɑ ŋ t ɑ ɑ ŋ ɑ m t ɑ ɑ k w

§2.2.7.3 Adjectives from Verbs

Active Participle: u + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) mp t ɑ ɑ ŋ t ɑ ɑ ŋ [p mp ] p k ’ nonærni (speaking [past impfv.])

Passive Participle: hæm + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: nærni (speak) hæmnærni (spoken [pres. impfv.] ɑ t m’ ɑ (created [past impfv.])

Capability: verb root + ‘ mp ‘ t pt ‘ t’ɑt pt t t ’ɑt

§2.2.7.4 Adverbs from Adjectives

Quality: adjective root + rur Examples: turi (whole) t w t t t t

Positive Comparative: adjective root + on Examples: tɑ t tɑ m k m imejon (better)

Negative Comparative: adjective root + liŋ Examples: tɑ t tɑ ŋ k t t t ŋ t

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Diminutive Comparative: adjective root + in Examples: tɑ t tɑ tt m k m (good) imejin (a little better)

Augmentative Comparative: adjective root + om Examples: tɑ t tɑ m m m k m imejom (much better)

Positive Superlative: adjective root + Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t most quickly), ime (good) m t t t

Negative Superlative: adjective root + ‘ Examples: tɑ t tɑ ’ɑ t t k t t t ’ɑ t t brightly)

Elative: adjective root + mos Examples: tɑ t tɑ lemos (most quickly), ime (good) imemos (most well)

Enough: adjective root + tos Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t m imetos (well enough)

Very: adjective root + b Examples: tɑ t tɑ ɑwt k m ood) imebɑwt (very well)

§2.2.7.5 Verbs from Adjectives

ro + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: stiri (important) rostiri (matter), t t

to become: ‘ob + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples t t ‘ t t e (happy) ‘ m pp e (happier) ‘ e (become happier), mostɑ [m t k t ] ‘ m tɑ m m t k

make so: ne + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: swɑ neswɑ m k m nejime (make good)

§2.2.7.6 Nouns from Adjectives

Quality: Adjective root + emo mp t m k t m m k ime (good) m m m (home) mmɑ (homeless) mmɑ m m

Personal Embodiment: Adjective root + Examples: ser (brave) ɑ ɑ m ɑ m ɑ t

§2.2.7.7 Verbal Adverbs (Gerunds)

Imperfective: mu + verb root + i (verb roots ending in /i/ l t t w t Examples: rojæs (have) m m w ,

Perfective: h + verb root + i t t t w t nærni (speak) hɑw having spoken) ‘ɑ ’ t hɑw’ɑ ’ having hit m t w k hɑwm t having worked)

§2.2.7.8 Nouns from Nouns

Augmentative: noun root + om Examples: ɑ ŋ ɑ ŋ m [ t ] m m m [ ] t ɑ p t ɑ m el)

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Diminutive: noun root + in Examples: ɑ ɑm m ɑ ɑm ɑ w m ɑ m t m (kitten), hæsɑt hæsɑt tt

Elemental/Essential: noun root + sre Examples: ɑ ŋ ŋ w t w t w t w t

Abstract: noun root + (o)ssa Examples: sor o (brother) sor ossɑ t ’ t t ’ t ɑ t

Master: tes + noun root Examples: ri ɑ w tesri ɑ w m ter), poro (iron) tesporo (blacksmith)

Decessive: verb root + ‘o + (case/number particles) Examples: mɑ k mɑ ’ (former/dead king), dɑ t dɑ ’ t

Falseness: noun root + o Examples: nærut (speech) t ŋ ɑ m ŋ ɑ

Nationality: noun root + ru Examples: Jisrɑ ’ Jisrɑ ’ t

Simple noun compounds are usually stressed on the first syllable of the second nominal element. Example: mɑ k + ɑm mɑ ɑm t

§2.2.7.9 Possessive Adjectives n + 1st syllable of pronoun +

Examples:o 1st singular: t ɑ

t ɑ nɑt ɑ o 2nd singular: den nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular, masculine:

rom nɑ mɑ o 3rd singular, feminine: ærom nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular, neuter:

orom nɑ ɑ o 1st dual, inclusive:

nɑ ɑ

o 1st dual, exclusive: mor nɑm ɑ

o 2nd ttɑ nɑ tɑ o 3rd dual: dæd nɑ ædɑ o 1st plural, inclusive:

nɑ nɑ ɑ ɑ o 1st plural, exclusive:

on nɑ onɑ o 2nd p t nɑt ɑ o 3rd plural: nɑ elɑ

§2.2.7.10 Adjectives from Nouns

Semblative Adjectives: noun root + i i (epenthetic voiceless stop appears after nasals) mp m t mp i (catlike), ɑ ɑm m ɑ ɑmp i (manly)

Adjectives of Trait: noun root + job Examples: otɑm t otɑm t t t t t

Abessive Adjectives: noun root + m mp ‘ m m ‘ mmɑ m m m mmɑ m

“- ” A t t + w Examples: otɑm (north) otɑmwɑ t ɑ ɑm m ɑ ɑmwɑ m

§2.2.7.11 Adjectives from Adjectives

“- ” A t t t + w Examples: ælɑ w ælɑwɑ w ɑ m ɑ mwɑ

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§2.2.7.12 Degrees of Comparison Positive Comparative: on + adjective root

Examples: tɑ t ontɑ t ɑ w onælɑ w

Diminutive Comparative: in + adjective root Examples: tɑ t intɑ a little faster), ælɑ w inælɑ tt w

Negative Comparative: liŋ + adjective root Examples: tɑ t ŋtɑ t ɑ w ŋ ɑ w

Augmentative Comparative: om + adjective root Examples: tɑ t omtɑ m t ɑ w omælɑ m w

Positive Superlative: + adjective root Examples: tɑ t t tɑ t t ɑ w t ɑ w t

Negative Superlative: ‘ + adjective root Examples: tɑ t ‘ɑ tɑ t t t ɑ w ‘ɑ ɑ t t w

Elative: mos + adjective root Examples: tɑ t mostɑ m t t ɑ w mosælɑ m t w

Enough: tos + adjective root Examples: tɑ t tostɑ t ɑ w tosælɑ w

Very: b + adjective root Examples: tɑ t) bɑwttɑ t ɑ w bɑwt ɑ w

§2.2.7.13 Verbs from Verbs (Some of these derivational patterns are grammaticalized in the daughter languages, though in different ways, depending on the language. Often, they are the foundation of a more complicated aspectual system, forming a system of subaspects.)

completeness: + verb root mp t m m m m t

semeliterative: m + verb root mp ɑm mɑ orɑm m mɑ m

durative (short): læs + verb root mp t tt m læsromes (to learn a little)

durative (long): es + verb root Examples: entsori (play) esenstori (play a while), suljem (sleep) essuljem (sleep a while)

protractive: led + verb root mp t ɑ w t t ɑ w t

habitual (customary action): + verb root Examples: moj (I run) m ‘ m jol (ruled [perfective]) ‘ m jol (used to rule [perfective])

negative conative (attempted action implying failure): wil + verb root Examples: m mp over) wil m t t mp over [and fail]), romes (learn) wilromes (try to learn [and fail])

neutral conative (attempted action with no implied outcome): sos + verb root Examples: ældo (make) sosældo (try to make), romes (learn) sosromes (try to learn)

positive conative (attempted action implying success): rem + verb root Examples: ældo (make) remældo (try to make [and succeed]), romes (learn) remromes (try to learn [and succeed])

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reversionary: l + verb root Examples: rodi (do) ɑlrodi (undo), ældo (make) ɑ m

momentane: gew + verb root mp m mp wm mp ilsos (annoy) gewilsos (momentarily annoy)

desiderative: dri + verb root mp resun (eat) wm k drinrowm (be thirsty)

reflexive: o + verb root Examples: rojæs (have) t ŋ m k t ŋ m w

motion away: verb root Examples: runɑ w k ɑ w k w w

motion toward: h + verb root Examples: runɑ w k hɑ ɑ w k t w hɑ t w

motion around/about: u + verb root Examples: runɑ w k ɑ w k

motion over: + verb root Examples: runɑ w k ɑ w k

motion under: in(e) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k inerunɑ w k

motion into: t( + verb root Examples: runɑ w k tɑ ɑ w k t tɑ t

motion out of: emi + verb root Examples: runɑ w k emirunɑ w k t m t

motion through: e(r) + verb root Examples: runɑ walk) errunɑ w k t t

motion ahead: ge(m) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k gerunɑ w k w w

motion onto: o(d) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k orunɑ w k t t

motion up: + verb root Examples: runɑ w k t ɑ w k p t p

motion down: he + verb root Examples: runɑ w k herunɑ w k w w

motion past: pro + verb root Examples: runɑ w k prorunɑ w k p t p p t

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§2.2.8 Honorifics Nærut N utilizes a complex set of honorific particles to indicate relative status.

Honorific Relationship

me peers, simple politeness or inferior to superior, respect

to inferior to superior, deep respect t superior to inferior, respect

min spouses ɑ children to parents

parents to children

student to teacher wes young person to older person (age difference of 25 years or more)

er old person to younger person (age difference of 25 years or more) Honorific particles precede case particles, and are separated from the root by a hyphen. They are normally only used with personal names, personal pronouns, and possessive adjectives and they almost never appear in the 1st person.

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§2.3 Syntax

§2.3.1 Basic Sentence Order

§2.3.1.1 Standard Word Order Standard word order in active voice is Verb-Subject-Object. Use of the syntactic case particles allows virtually any word order, but other syntactic arrangements are marked for focus.

t m t ɑ – I see you.

§2.3.1.2 Passive Voice Standard word order in passive voice is Verb-Subject-(Agent), and the agent, when present, is marked by the instrumental case. Other word orders are possible, and are used to shift focus.

Am t ɑ em t ɑ ‘ m – I am being watched (by you).

t ɑ em t ɑ ‘ m – I am watched (by them).

§2.3.1.3 Stative Syntax In stative sentences that utilize the verb o ot (to be), syntax often becomes Subject-Verb, since neither the subject nor its predicate descriptor is marked for case.

m t – He is old.

Arrɑm k ‘ tɑ k – The men are fast.

§2.3.2 Interrogatives §2.3.2.1 Polar Interrogatives In polar interrogative sentences, the default sentence order is verb-second, with a clause-final interrogative particle o. Fronting an element to a clause-initial position focuses the discourse on that element.

ɑ t t – Do you see me?

t t t ɑ – Is it you that sees me? When the speaker expects a certain answer, positive or negative, different particles are used. When the expectation is for a positive answer, then the particle is wej. When the expectation is negative, is used.

ɑ t t w – Do you see me? (positive expectation) Os. – Yea. – Nay.

m t ɑ ɑ – Do you know her? (negative expectation) Aso. – Yes. / Mun. – No.

Tag questions are formed by appending a t p t t t t m t t “sul os ” (lit. not so?) in the case of a negative tag “o os ” lit. be so?) in the case of an affirmative.

He’s tall, right/isn’t he? – m

He isn’t tall, right/is he? – m

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Nærut N uses a five-form system for answering polar questions. It operates as follows:

Positive question, affirmative answer: os o Are you a king? – Den o es æn mɑ wej?

Yes (yea), I am. – m t ɑ

Positive question, negative answer: o Are you a king? – Den es æn mɑ w

No, I’m not. – m t ɑ

Negative question, affirmative answer: o o Are you not a king? – Den o es æn sul mɑ wej?

Yes, I am. – A m t ɑ

Negative question, negative answer: mun o Are you not a king? – Den o es æn sul mɑ wej? o No (nay), I’m not. – m t ɑ

The fifth response is used in special cases where the person answering the question wishes to express displeasure with the premise of the question itself. It is usually used when someone has asked a ridiculous question, or when the questioner meant to rhetorically trap the person being questioned. It is neither positive nor negative, but rather states that the question does not deserve an answer. It can be a fairly rude, but is usually only used in response to the rudeness of another It takes the form rr .

o Are you a king? (asked to a beggar on the street) – Den o es æn mɑ w Are you serious? Freeze in hell, you shit. – Rrɑ t tɑ ollɑm p ɑtt

§2.3.2.2 Choice Questions Choice questions are used to present options. There are three general strategies:

Using the word ur (and). This word is used to provide a list of options, all of which are presented as a group.

o Do you want bread and water? – k w t w ɑ

Using the word it (or). This word is used to provide discrete options for someone to choose from. It explicitly allows for only once choice from the available choices. If none of the options are desired, then there are three possible answers: (nay, positive inquiries), mun (no, negative inquiries), and æwosul (neither / none such).

o Do you want bread or water? – k t w t w ɑ Water, please. – w t w t ‘ ɑm ’ Bread, please. – k t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither, thank you (informal). – w is, ŋ ɑ

The third option is to use the word en. This word falls somewhere between ur and it, with the m t pt t t “ ” When the respondent wants one option, they answer by repeating that option followed by the appropriate case particle. If all available options are desired, then the respondent answers lu (both) or r l (all). If neither option is desired, then there are three possible answers: (nay, positive inquiries), mun (no, negative inquiries), and o ul (neither / none such).

o Do you want bread and/or water? – Kek en w t w ɑ Both, please. – w t ‘ ɑm ’ Neither, thank you (informal). – w ŋ ɑ

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§2.3.2.3 Wh-questions In wh-questions, the default position for the question word is in initial position, with the interrogative particle o in clause-final position. Responses to questions place the information relevant to the inquiry in initial position.

m t ɑ – Where am I? – What is this?

§2.3.2.4 Echo Questions Echo questions are used when the hearer wishes to verify the content of the question. This may be from uncertainty, or even incredulity, the point being to ensure that all parties are on the same page. Echo questions are usually very simple, usually just the one word or piece of information that is the focus of the inquiry, followed by the particle te. If the word was followed by a case particle in the original question, then that particle is repeated in the echo question.

Knɑ ɑ – Do you want some meat to eat? Knɑ t – Meat? Os. – Yes.

ol ekɑ tɑm – Where is the northern border? ‘A t – The eastern (border)? tɑm – No, the northern.

‘ s æn den re tɑ t – What did you say about me? Re den ot te? – About you? Os, re t ɑ t – Yes, about me.

§2.3.3 Noun-Phrase Order Since Nærut N is strongly head initial, all noun phrases start with the noun. Any modifiers will follow the head. When a case particle is used, it normally only appears in phrase final position. In emphatic conversational speech it is very common to mark all the constituents of the noun phrase with the case particles, which is effectively the beginning of a true nominal case system.

‘ t t m ɑ ɑm ɑ m – She saw the big man. (standard form)

‘ t t m ɑ ɑm ɑ m – She saw the big man. (emphatic conversational form)

§2.3.4 Prepositions Prepositions serve as the heads of their phrases, and are therefore restricted to phrase-initial position. Every preposition governs at least one case, though some can govern more to distinguish different meanings.

ol rom tɑ ɑt t – He’s in the house.

‘ tɑ rom tɑ ɑt ɑ – He entered the room. §2.3.5 Coordination When two or more verbs are coordinated, all but the last can omit person and number marking. However, if the verbs govern different objects or one or more of them takes an object while the other(s) ’t ’t t m t marked for person and number. The subject will only appear once if it is identical in every clause.

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Clause coordination is accomplished in three different ways. 1. Simple coordination “ ” p t w t t t ur. When two or more noun

phrases that operate as the subject are thus coordinated, the verb in the associated predicate is in the plural.

a. Am rno ‘ ɑ ɑm ɑ – The man and the woman are running. b. Amej ɑm ɑ – The girl is running and singing. c. Am m t ɑ kek is ur ɑm wm m w t w – I’m eating bread and drinking

water. 2. Alternative coordination “ ” uses the conjunction it.

a. Unnonemɑ t nelomor moj t ɑ – I will rule or (I will) die. 3. Exception coordination (i.e. “ t” t t as.

a. ɑ m t ɑ t ɑ mɑt m ɑ estsul is. – I want to go, but I don’t have any money.

§2.3.5 Syntactic Focus The sentence-initial position is used to indicate focus, and nominal constituents can be moved there to add emphasis to their role in the clause.

‘ 'ɑw ŋ rul is. – The farmer ate the apple.

‘Aw ŋ ‘ – It was the farmer that ate the apple. ‘ ‘ɑw ŋ – It was the apple that the farmer ate.

Am ɑ m k – The tall girl is running around the park.

ɑ ɑm m k – It is the tall girl who is running around the park. m k ɑm ɑ – It’s around the park that the tall girl is running.

‘ m k ŋ ɑ’ ɑ ‘ m – The cup was broken by the demon.

A’ ‘ m k ŋ ɑ ‘ m – It was the cup that was broken by the demon. A ‘ m ‘ m k ŋ ɑ’ – It was by the demon that the cup was broken.

§2.3.6 Subordinate Clauses

§2.3.6.1 Relative (Adjective) Clauses One of the most common subordinating methods used is the relative pronoun wrel. It is used to create relative clauses that modify nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Wrel stands in the place of its referent in a relative clause, agreeing with it in number. In the relative clause, it can take whatever case particle is needed in the context of that clause, and it can also be governed by any required prepositions. Examples:

ɑ ɑ m t ɑ ɑ ɑm w t ‘ ɑm jæn den. – I know the man you were speaking with.

Rɑw ɑ w is ‘ t t m ‘ m t – Who was the woman that the two of us saw yesterday?

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§2.3.6.2 Noun Clauses Another common method is to use the conjunction naj, which is creates a clause that stands in the place of a noun.

ɑ ɑ m t ɑ ɑ m gædiri. – I know that you won’t be here tomorrow. ‘ t t m ɑ ‘ ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑ rom drɑ – He saw that she was walking toward

him.

Unlɑ m ɑ t ɑ ɑ runtsul is. – She will think that you know nothing. This conjunction is also sometimes used in combination with the demonstrative no u and a preposition in order to create a noun clause that is the object of a preposition. One of the most common is the phrase ne no u dr , j t ‘ t t t t

‘ m u drɑ ɑ ‘ ol morjob. – He left because he was angry.

t m m ‘ on den is ne no u drɑ ɑ ‘ skrɑ m We (exc.) hate you because you killed the cat.

‘ ɑm m ‘ on re no u wot, nɑ ‘ m ‘ t m t m k – We (exc.) were talking about how you (pl.) ran around the tree yesterday.

§2.3.6.3 Adverbial Clauses Adverbial clauses are subordinate clauses used to modify the verb in some way. One of the more common types of adverbial clause is the temporal, which specifies the timeframe of the action.

Dre ŋ m ‘ ɑ – When the music plays, we (inc.) sing.

‘ ɑm m ‘ ‘ ɑm w o. – They worked while it was raining. m ɑ m u sej, nɑ ‘ ɑ m ‘ hɑ m ɑ ‘ ensriwo jol o. – Before we

(exc.) got home it started to rain. Locative clauses are those used to indicate where an action takes place, using locative adverbs and conjunctions like hili (where), hilij ll (somewhere), and lilæhili (anywhere). l ‘o l lo i (everywhere) also performs the same function, though because it is a pronominally-headed phrase, it usually appears as the object of a preposition.

‘ ɑm ŋ m ol. – He likes where he is.

ɑ’ɑt m ‘ on lilæhili, nɑ ‘ ɑm ’ – We (inc.) can eat anywhere you like.

‘ m t t ŋ ‘ t t – The food was strewn all about. Adverbials of manner are constructed through the use of the word gruni (how).

‘ gogrudin moj t ɑ n ‘ ɑ m – I acted like I wanted to. Comparative adverbials clauses are also quite common, and the complex system of adverbial suffixes allows for myriad shades of meaning by means of a simple ending attached to an adjective. That which is t t t mp “t X” w the partitive particle. ’ position in the main clause is unrestricted, though is usually immediately follows the subject.

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ol rom tɑ t ɑ – He runs faster than me.

Amenærni jol ærom tɑ ŋ m – She is speaking less quickly than him. m t p p w soljobɑwt – The blacksmith strikes the iron very hard.

Ŋ ol tesri ɑ u imemos. - That swordmaster fights most well. A subtype of the comparative adverbials utilizes the adverb kæjrur to indicate to two things are the m W t t tw mp … t is followed by the partitive particle lo. When it is two verbs (in the same way that / as), the conjunction n j is used following the adverb.

Rom o k t ɑ – He’s as tall as me.

... mmɑ m ‘ on is ɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k kæjrur nɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t jis, wrel ek somɑ ‘ p t on drɑ … – … and forgive us our debts, as we forgive those who sin against us …

Another oft-seen adverbial clause uses the verbal adverb, a word derived from a verb root that allows the speaker to modify another verb by linking the two actions.

Mutɑ ɑ tɑ t ɑ ‘ t intse m ‘ on orom is. – Walking into the room, we (exc.) saw it. Mu m ɑ k w k somɑ m ‘ ɑ t – Speaking many

languages, we (inc.) cannot understand each other.

Hɑwskrɑ ŋ w k ‘ wm rom mɑ ‘ m. – Having killed all his enemies, he became king.

§2.3.6.4 Causative Clauses Causative clauses use the verb u j (push) to indicate that someone or something is caused or forced into some action or state. The object of the verb is followed by the accusative particle, which is in turn followed by another verb with the supine particle.

‘ m mɑ ɑt ɑ t ɑ – My mother made me eat the food.

m ɑ k ɑ p t – The warlord will make you kill a puppy.

Am m m t ɑ t on nɑt ɑ is sonrɑ – I’m making my son find a job. §2.3.6.5 Word Order Word order in subordinate clauses is verb second, most of the time following whatever relativizer was used. Word order following a relativizer is much stricter, and only allows for variation in the position of the subject and object in a subordinate noun clause. §2.3.7 Possession There are two levels of possession in Nærut N : alienable and inalienable. Each uses a different verb and is associated with different case morphology.

Alienable possession is indicated with the verb t t “t ,” but with m t “t p ”) and the genitive case. Inalienable possession uses the verb rojæs t t “t ” t t t t p ssed, and inalienable possession only applies to body parts ’ w and family members, and often abstract concepts connected to these things. However, because these are very frequently referenced,

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these two grammatical categories are robust and unlikely to be confused. One area where there is some overlap is with animals. Pets are very frequently treated as inalienable possessions, but livestock is almost always spoken about as being alienably possessed. Also, the word hæs j (house) can only be alienably possessed, whereas the word (home) can only inalienably possessed.

dɑm t – John’s chair (alienable)

m ɑ – John’s cat (inalienable)

t t – John’s cattle (alienable) mɑ ɑ – John’s mother

(inalienable)

hæsɑt t – John’s house (alienable)

m ɑ – John’s home (inalienable)

t t – John’s ship (alienable)

ɑ - John’s shadow (inalienable) m t – John’s book (alienable)

w t ɑ - John’s marriage (inalienable)

In some cases when a noun with a pronominal possessor falls into a non-subject position in the sentence, it can be marked in more than one way: with either a possessive pronoun or with the pronoun with either a genitive or dative case particle, depending on the alienablility of the possessed.

The ball hit my head. – ‘ ’ɑ ’ m t tup nɑt ɑ ‘ ’ɑ ’ m t tup is t ɑ ɑ

The wall fell on his bike. – ‘ w w k ɑ mɑ ‘ w w k m t

W t p t pt ’ m t t t t particle used with inalienable possession can also mark an indirect object. Therefore, it is disallowed with ditransitive verbs.

She sent my letter. – ‘ m ‘ m ɑt ɑ * ‘ m ‘ m t ɑ ɑ §2.3.8 Negation Negative concord is an important feature of Nærut N n . It requires that all constituents in a noun phrase that are being negated take a negative form. Failing to properly negate all necessary constituents yields an ungrammatical statement.

I love everyone. – Uljɑ ɑ m t ɑ tɑ t I don’t love anyone. – Uljɑ ɑ m t ɑ ɑw

I will be there tomorrow. – m t ɑ gædiri. I won’t be there tomorrow. – m t ɑ

You (dual) were talking with someone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ tɑ ɑ t You (dual) weren’t talking with anyone. – ‘ ɑm ‘ ttɑ ɑw t

I always work with tools. – t m t ɑ ( m t k ‘ m k I never work with tools. – t m ul t ɑ m t k ‘ m k

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§2.3.9 Mood There are four moods in Nærut N : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and imperative. §2.3.9.1 The Indicative Mood The indicative mood is the unmarked form of the verb, and is used in all factual statements. It is the most common of the four moods.

§2.3.9.2 The Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive mood is used to mark counter-factual statements, and is obligatory after some verbs, especially those that mark hopes and wishes. It is required in the independent clause of a conditional sentence, following the conditional mood in the conditional clause (though there can be intervening clauses in the indicative). Another important use of the subjunctive is in volitive sentences, which p w m t t p “ ” When used with the conjunctive particle , it indicates what the speaker wishes another person to do, and is usually accompanied by the future tense.

Mɑŋɑ m t ɑ ɑ t e. – I hope (that) you (sg.) are happy. m t ɑ ɑ t ‘ hɑ m ɑ t t t – I wish that he had come here

with you (pl.).

Ti dre ste muwo esi gewɑ r roltɑ ot t i, wrel ek næ ‘ nærnirek kæ ‘ m ‘ ‘ el l is, wɑ t wo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑt sul ne el drɑ runtsul, wrel is unwirɑ ‘ t el. – If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.

ɑ m ‘w – May she live long!

ɑ m t ɑ ɑ t n den! – I want you to leave!

§2.3.9.3 The Conditional Mood The conditional mood is used only in conditional clauses, and always in conjunction with the subjunctive in a connected independent clause.

t ‘ m t ɑ t moj sul. – If I had eaten, I wouldn’t be hungry.

t ‘ t m t ɑ t ‘ ɑm t m – If I’d had time, I would have finished working. Ti ste un’ t ‘ rom ents gædiri, t ɑ ‘ m ɑ ‘ m – If they see him

tomorrow, they will give him the letter.

§2.3.9.4 The Imperative Mood The imperative is used to give commands, and is formed by adding the prefix du. Most imperatives appear in the second person, and usually omit person marking. Number marking is always obligatory. When used in the 1st- and 3rd-person, all person marking is required. Most basic imperatives appear in the perfective aspect. When someone wishes to reinforce a command that they have already given, they will repeat it in the imperfective. The progressive is used to instruct someone to perform an action for a certain amount of time or at a certain point in time. The inchoative and terminative serve to command someone to stop or start an action.

‘ ! – Go away (pl.)!

gogellɑ t ɑ tɑ t – Let me in!

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wen m ‘ – Let’s start eating!

wɑm somɑ ‘ u wot t m t. – Let them think about that for a day. §2.3.10 Honorific Speech

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§2.4 Translations §2.4.1 The Tower of Babel – ik B bel ot Ennedon 11:1-9

1 Tɑ loren ek no ut i sej ‘ rorojæ ’ t wɑ r is nærnirek ot ur nærut welɑ is. in time pl those loc , past.impfv.have 3rdp.sg world whole one acc language gen and speech common acc .

Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 ‘ ɑm nel jol ‘ tɑ t i hɑ ‘ɑnel drɑ ‘ sonrɑ jol ‘ el ɑ em is tɑ inɑr sej ur s l

while past.prog.go 3rd

p pl person cltpl to east dat , past.pfv.find 3rd

p pl they plain acc in Shinar loc and there

As the people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled ‘ ’ t ‘ past.pfv.settle 3rdp pl

there. 3 ‘ ol ‘ el soron lert l drɑ “ wæ m ‘ t k ek ur d rɑ son moj ‘ el is

past.pfv.say 3rd

p pl they each other a , “i p make 1st

p pl brick acc pl and imp bake 1st

p pl they acc

They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them m ” ‘ bobɑsti jol ‘ el horterek ‘ m k tɑ ‘ t sej domin ot ek, ur me ‘ m tɑ ‘ t oo .a v .” pa .i pfv.u 3rdp pl they brick inst pl in place loc stone gen pl , and tar inst in place loc

thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar wɑt d ot. mortar gen .

for mortar. 4 Wɑ ‘ ol ‘ “ horte moj ‘ ne t or drɑ jɑ nom is, murojæsi pɑ k is, wrel t n

then past.pfv.say 3rdp pl h y ,”i p build 1stp pl for rflx dat city acc , have.vbadv tower acc , which.conj.nom subj

Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower undodɑr jol hɑ rɑ ɑ drɑ ek, ɑ t n unældo moj ‘ ɑ ru ne t or drɑ eŋ ɑ is; ti lær sul, fut.impfv.climb 3rdp sg to heaven dat pl , чтобы subj fut.pfv.make 1stp pl we.inc for rflx dat name acc ; if thus not ,

that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise wɑn unhertot moj ‘ ɑ ru t ɑjn l so wis ’ t t ” then fut.pfv.scatter 1stp pl we.inc across face acc world whole .”

we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 A ‘ nel jol ‘ ɑ Demresom t t r jɑ nom is ur pɑrik is, wrel ‘ ɑmehorte jol ‘ roltɑ

but past.pfv.go 3rdp pl downward Lord see.sup city acc and tower acc , which.conj acc past.prog.build 3rdp pl person

But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were

t i. cltpl .

building. 6 ‘ ol ‘ m m “ t m w esi gewɑ r roltɑ ot t i, wrel ek næ ‘ nærnirek

past.pfv.say 3rdp pl Lo ,”if h co b .vbadv one person gen cltpl , which.conj pl pres.impfv.speak 3rdp pl language

The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same kæj ‘ m ‘ jol ‘ el l is, wɑn t unwo e ol uwun ɑ’ɑt sul ne el drɑ same inst , past.inch.do 3

rdp pl they this acc , then subj fut.impfv.be 3

rdp.sg actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg for they dat

language they have begun to do this, then runtsul, wrel is unwirɑn jol ‘ jot el. what.neg , which.conj acc fut.impfv.plan 3rdp pl do inf they .

nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.

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7 D nel moj ‘ ɑ ur d mentso moj ‘ ærnirek nɑ elɑ is, ɑ t n untsosomɑ el jol ‘ imp go 1stp pl downward and imp.confuse 1stp pl language their acc , чтобы subj fut.impfv.understand 3rdp pl

Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand sul el soron lert l ” neg they each other acc .”

each other.” 8 Lɑ ‘ t t jol ‘ mresom el is ress l t ɑ ’ t ‘ ɑhorte jol ‘ el

therefore past.pfv.scatter 3rdp pl Lord they acc from.there acrossworld whole acc and past.term.build 3rdp pl they

So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building jɑ nom is. city acc

the city. 9 No u o e ol tedor, nɑ ‘ momɑsen jol ‘ el orom “Bɑ ” – ne no u drɑ, nɑj s l

that pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg reason , that.conj past.impfv.call 3rdp pl they it acc “Bab l” – for that dat , that.conj there

That is why it was called Babel – because there ‘ mentso jol ‘ m m æ k ’ t jot. ress ‘ t t jol ‘ Demresom el past.pfv.confuse 3rdp pl Lord language acc world whole gen . from.there past.pfv.scatter 3rdp pl Lord they

the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them is t ɑ l so wis ’ t jot. acc across face acc world whole gen .

over the face of the whole earth.

§2.4.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i onol k ot Mitɑ t k ne mɑ w k ɑ ek ine three.nom ring gen pl for king pl Elf dat pl under sky loc ,

Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, w t ɑ ne demres ek Dwɑ ɑ ek tɑ tome jek dominjob ek nɑ elɑ ek, seven.nom for lord pl Dwarf dat pl in home pl stony pl their loc pl ,

Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Arrɑm k m ɑ ek, wrel ek sudɑ ŋ m nine.nom for man pl mortal dat pl , which.conj.nom pl doom 3p.pass die sup

Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, Gewɑ ne m m ɑ mɑ ɑm t m ɑ mɑ One.nom for Lord Dark dat on throne dark his loc

One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne Tɑ t t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3

rd pl shadow.nom pl .

In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ t m wɑ t ɑ One.nom Ring get rule sup all acc they par , One.nom Ring gen find sup they acc ,

One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, Gewɑ t m tɑ t m m One.nom Ring gen bring sup all acc they par and in darkness loc bind sup they acc ,

One Ring to bring them all, and in the darkness bind them, Tɑ æsit sej Mor t ‘ k in land loc Mordor gen , where lie 3rd pl shadow pl .

In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.

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§ e o e – imin on em e ot Dɑ ɑ onɑ w k ‘ tɑ rɑ ɑ Father.nom our.exc , which.conj.nom pl be 3rdp pl in heaven loc ,

Our Father, who art in heaven, t ŋ ɑ ɑt ɑ holy subj be 3rdp name.nom your.pl.nom

hallowed be thy name. ɑ mɑ w ɑt ɑ subj come 3rdp kingdom.nom your.nom .

Thy kingdom com. ŋ ɑ k ɑt ɑ k subj do 3

rdp.pass wish.nom pl your.nom pl

Thy will be done od moner sej kæjrur, nɑ ŋ tɑ rɑ ɑ on earth loc same.adv , that do 3rdp.pass in heaven loc .

on earth as it is in heaven. ɑ ‘ on drɑ ɑw k k t m ɑ onɑ imp give pl we.exc dat today bread daily our.exc acc ,

Give us this day our daily bread, mmɑ m ‘ on is ɑ w k ɑ onɑ t k and imp forgive pl we.exc acc sin pl our.exc gen pl ,

and forgive us our trespasses kæjrur nɑ mmɑ m m ‘ t w k mɑ ‘ p t on drɑ same.adv that forgive 1stp pl those acc , which.conj.nom pl sin 3rdp pl against we.exc dat ,

as we forgive those who trespass against us, w ‘ ul on is tɑ wilsdon drɑ i p l pl . xc in temptation dat ,

and lead us not into temptation t wɑ ‘ on is so wot. but/rather imp free pl we.exc acc from evil gen .

but deliver us from evil. ol. subj thus be 3rdp .

Amen.

§2.4.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – el ol nn t i ob e b ot ek olt ot t i le t -het ɑm jol ‘ tɑ t m w wɑ k m ‘ m ɑ ‘ m ek. pres.impfv.be.born 3rdp pl all.nom person par cltpl be.vbadv free.nom and equal.nom dignity inst and right inst pl.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. mɑt ‘ ɑ ɑwt w t ɑwt wis, ur jol ‘ æsris ot soron pres.impfv.possess 3rdp pl they.nom reason acc and conscience acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged 3rdp pl act inf each.nom

They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one t drɑ ‘ m ossɑ ot. other dat spirit inst brotherhood gen .

another in a spirit of brotherhood.

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§2.4.5 e t o t e i t t – Besrek So ot ek ot Am t ŋ ɑ ŋ tɑ t ɑm ɑt ɑ ; pres.prog.rflx.gather.3rdp sg night.nom and in hour this loc pres.prog.begin 3rdp.sg watch.nom my.nom ;

Night gathers and now my watch begins Unrorɑ m m ɑt ɑ drɑ fut.impfv.end 3rdp.sg neg it.nom until death my dat .

It shall not end until my death Un o m t ɑ ɑ ɑ t t fut.impfv.wed 1stp.sg neg I.nom wife which.neg com ,

I shall take no wife Un o mɑt m w k t k t t ɑ ɑ m w k t k fut.impfv.possess 1

stp.sg neg land pl which.neg acc pl , fut.impfv.father 1

stp.sg neg child pl which.neg acc pl ;

Hold no lands, father no children Unt t ’ ’ m t ɑ mɑ m k t k sro k m t ɑ ɑm k t fut.impfv.rflx.wear 1stp.sg neg I.nom crown pl which.neg acc pl and fut.impfv.win 1stp.sg neg for rflx dat glory which.neg acc ,

I shall wear no crowns and win no glory Unhohæsɑt nelomor moj t ɑ m w ɑt ɑ sej. fut.impfv.live and fut. pfv.die 1

stp.sg I.nom , stand.vbadv on assignment my acc .

I shall live and die at my post ɑ es moj ri ɑ tɑ t m m I.nom pres.impfv.be 1stp.sg sword.nom in darkness loc ,

I am the sword in the darkness ɑ m ŋ k I.nom pres.impfv.be 1stp.sg on wall loc pl ,

I am the watcher on the walls Tɑ m ɑ ŋ , wr t ɑ ɑ ŋ p t nlejemo drɑ I.nom pres.impfv.be 1stp.sg fire.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn 3rdp.sg against cold dat ,

I am the fire that burns against the cold A w ‘ɑ ɑ ŋ t light.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3rdp.sg sunrise gen ,

the light that brings the dawn ‘A k w t m k horn.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake 3rdp.sg sleeper acc pl ,

the horn that wakes the sleepers Sosrek, wrel so ol elhus is ek roltɑ t t . shield.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard 3rdp.sg realm acc pl person gen cltpl .

the shield that guards the realms of men ’ m t ɑ ŋ ɑ k ɑ ŋ t hæsɑtw t ur to nɑt ɑ is pres.impfv.pledge 1stp.sg I.nom Guard dat pl Night gen life and honor my acc

I pledge my life and honor to the Night's Watch ɑ ɑ ŋ l is hɑ ŋ k wɑm w k through night this acc and all acc night pl actpart.pres.prog.remain par pl yet .

for this night and all the nights to come.

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§2.4.6 The Litany Against Fear – e el ol p ot b nt lp it ŋ m t ɑ w w t t t m. pres.impfv.ought 1stp.sg neg I.nom feel inf fear inst .

I must not fear. t t ol skrɑ ɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg killer.nom mind gen .

Fear is the mind-killer. t t m p t w ‘ɑ t w t ɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg death.nom little.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald 3rdp.sg annihilation complete gen .

Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration. Undɑ m m t ɑ ɑ ɑ t t ɑt ɑ drɑ fut.pfv.turn 1

stp.sg I.nom toward fear my dat .

I will face my fear. Ungellɑ m t ɑ ɑ t k ŋ t ɑ t ɑ fut.pfv.allow 1stp.sg I.nom , that.conj subj fut.pfv.pass.over and fut.pfv.through.move 3rdp.sg through I acc .

I will permit it to pass over me and through me. p ŋ m wɑ tomlɑ m t ɑ tɑ ɑ t ɑ t t ŋ ɑ ɑ and when fut.pfv.move.past 3

rdp.sg it.nom , the.conj fut.pfv.look 1

stp.sg I.nom inward rflx dat see.sup way its acc .

And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path. p ŋ t t w ol sul runtsul. there , where fut.pfv.move.past 3rdp.sg fear.nom , fut.impfv.be 3rdp.sg neg what.neg.nom .

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. t w m t ɑ alone.adv fut.impfv.remain 1stp.sg I.nom .

Only I will remain.

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Chapter 3: Migration and Evolution

§3.1 Fictional Setting

§3.1.1 Linguistic Expansion Nærut N and its descendants are spoken on a world called Arnij in the mother language. The homeland of the language family is centered around the port city of u i j o i (Great Waters), along the river i .

The speakers of the language call themselves the l i, an o w “ ” w comes from the strong nautical tradition in their culture. It was this tradition, along with their incredible military prowess, that led to the expansion of their territory and the foundation of their extensive empire.

The area within the isogloss represents the original area where Nærut N was the predominant spoken language. This was no small area to begin with, owing to the fact that even before it became the native language of this zone, it was a powerful trade language. Over time, political expansions spread the use of the language to the north and the south, leading to dialect differentiation. Later, as the differences in the local speech became more pronounced, local standards were established. The lingua franca of the empire remained Nærut N , though in each area the local accent affected how it was pronounced.

Brewer 31

In the north and south, the dialects came to be known by their location relative to the original

homeland: nærut otmjóv (northern speech) and nærüt jul ób (southern speech). In the environs surrounding u i j o i, the spoken language started to be called Tifejóf, after the river adjacent to the city. In all three areas along the forming dialect continuum, the older speech came to be called N b xé (lit. our old). The pronunciation of the name varied according to local pronunciation, but it reflects the sound changes native to the area around the homeland.

32 Brewer

§3.1.2 The Growth of an Empire

This linguistic expansion accompanied the creation of a vast empire. This empire was divided

into three large administrative units that roughly correspond to the boundaries of the three major

dialect groups, though not precisely.

Brewer 33

Chapter 4: Nærut Otmjóv – The Speech of the North

§4.1 Phonological Changes

1. Cʰ [ t ] [ ] t ɑ ɑ t 2. Vᴮ VF ˈ_C C i, j; [ɑ ɑ ] [ ɛ ɛ ]; verbal person endings are affected in

the plural because of their secondary stress; ( ɑ hænhili, ofe ’i ofe ø ’ ) 3. Vʊ VF ˈ_C(C)i, j; [ɑʊ ɑ ʊ ʊ ʊ æʊ ʊ eʊ ʊ iʊ ʊ] [æy ɛy ɛ y ey y iy y] (ɑw w mɑ øydimɑ

4. Vː[j ʊ] V[j ʊ] / _C, _#; [ɑ ɑ ʊ ʊ j ʊ ʊ ʊ ] [ɑ ɑʊ ʊ æj æʊ ej eʊ iʊ æy øy] (tun tunojd)

5. ʔ #_ ‘ m m ‘ mmɑ hidemmɑ ‘ t hontel) 6. ʔ Ø / non- t w ’ɑ fweɑ ’ t t ’ m nejidem) 7. Unstressed Vᶫ(C)# ə(C)#; [ɑ ] [ə] (fweɑ fweə, wossɑ wossə, sulæ sulə, tɑ tə,

ɑ ə) 8. i# ɪ#; (demjøli demjølɪ ŋ ŋ ɪ) 9. ɑʊ oː; (fenɑ ɑ ɑ w ɑ w 10. ɑ ɑː; ( ɑ ɑ ɑ runɑ m ɑ menɑ ɑ nɑ 11. Leveling of new [oː ɑː] throughout nominal, pronominal, adjectival, and verbal paradigms. 12. ˈVC(C)Vː VC C ˈVː ˈ feˈn ̍ t roˈt ˈ t ˈt 13. VːC C ˈV ̍ VːC(C)V; (usually occurs with verbal prefixes) 14. VːC C ˈVC C Vː ̍ VːC(C)VC(C)Vː; (rare; usually occurs with verbal prefixes) 15. V[l ʎ r m n ɲ ŋ]# [ m ŋ ]# lezń, gwɑ m gwɑ , ɑ ɑm ɑ , hɑ hɑ ľ ŋ ozŋ m ŋ m ŋ )

16. Leveling of syllabic sonorants to the oblique cases; (ɑ ɑ ɑm ɑ ɑm ɑ is, ɑ lo)

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17. [b d g] [v ð ɣ] / V_V, L_V, V_L; except [d] / [l n]_, [ ] [m]_ [ ] [ŋ]_; (rodi roði, gwɑ gwɑ , reldus reldus)

18. V V C V C V wɑ gwɑ ŕm, gwɑ is gwɑ ŕmis) 19. Leveling of voiced and/or lenited consonants from oblique forms to the root; (sonrɑ t

hejð ɑ t zonrɑ t m t hejð ðemot ðemot, d d d ðis d ð) 20. Leveling of root-final fricatives that come from former aspirated stops to the nominative case or

verb root; (bist bisþis bisþ, hertot hertoþmoj hertoþ) 21. When a non-initial fricative precedes a stop, the stop is lenited and assimilated, becoming

identical to the fricative. This creates a geminate; (bist biss, bæsti bæssi, xrezg xrezz , xrestə xressə)

22. Final consonants devoice; (ð ð ð þ, sor ð þ t ð þ, wɑþ ð wɑþ þ, tunojð tunojþ t nd t t)

23. ə# Ø# (monosyllables excepted); (fweə fwe, rɑ ə rɑ , wossə woss, xettə xett, xressə xress, roltə t ŋ ə ŋ ə hex, þ ə þ m ə gemx, sixxə sixx, nɑ þə nɑ þ, nɑðenə nɑðen, lunə lun, hiðem hiðemmə hiðemm, sulə ɑðə ɑð ɲə ɲ, howmə howm, itenə iten, ælə m mmə mm ðimə øyðim)

24. #uː #wu, #iː # mŕn wumŕ ɑ ń jirɑ ń) 25. VrlV VrrV, VlrV VllV; (tarlń tarrń, holrex hollex) 26. (r)rVr (l)lVr; (rɑ m lɑ m t t 27. #wr #r; (wrel rel) 28. ʎ lj, ɲ nj; (þæle þælje, enneðń ennjeðń) 29. ɪ# Ø#; (ðemjølɪ ðemjøl, ŋ ɪ ŋŕ)

§4.2 Phonological Inventory § 4.2.1 Consonants

Bilabial Lab. Den. Interdental Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

Plosive p[ː] b[ː] t[ː]d[ː] k[ː] ɡ[ː] Nasal m[ː] m n[ː] ŋ[ː] ŋ

Fricative f[ː] v[ː] [ː] ð[ː] s[ː] z ʃ[ː] ʒ x[ː] ɣ[ː] h Affricate tʃ[ː] dʒ[ː]

Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː]

Lat. Approx. l[ː]

§ 4.2.2 Vowels: Monophthongs

Front Central Back High i[ː] y[ː] u[ː]

High-Mid e[ː] ø[ː] o[ː] Low-Mid ɛ[ː] ə

Low æ[ː] ɑ[ː]

Brewer 35

§ 4.2.3 Vowels: Diphthongs oj oʊ uj æj æʊ ej eʊ iʊ æy øj øy ɛj ɛy ey iy

§ 4.2.4 Orthography

Symbol IPA

A ɑ ɑ

O o o U u u

Æ æ æ

E e e I i i

ɑ ə Ё ɛ

Ø ø ø Y y y

P p p B b b

Symbol IPA T t t

D d d K k k

G g g

M m m N n n

Ŋ ŋ ŋ F f f

V v v Þ þ

Đ ð ð S s s

Symbol IPA Z z z

ʃ ʒ

X x x

ɣ H h h

tʃ dʒ

R r r W w w

J j j L l l

Long vowels are indicated by placing an acute accent (´) over the vowel grapheme.

Long consonants are indicated by a doubling of the consonant grapheme. Syllabic resonants are indicated by placing an acute accent over the grapheme for the consonant

(e.g. n ń, m , l ľ).

§4.3 Morphology

§4.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival

Case Singular Plural Collective Plural

Nominative Ø ek þ Accusative is izek isþ

Genitive oþ (N) / ot (PN) oþek oþþ Partitive lo / ro lowek / rowek loþ / roþ

Dative ðŕ / dŕ / zŕ ðrek / drek / zrek ðrɑþ / drɑþ / zrɑþ

Locative sej / psej / tsej / ksej /

zej sejek / psejek / tsejek / ksejek /

zejek sejþ / psejþ / tsejþ / ksejþ /

zejþ

Instrumental (e)m / (e)mek (e)mþ

Comitative (e)nts (e)ntsek (e)ntsþ

While in Nærut N the ending was only attached to the final constituent of a noun phrase unless marked for emphasis, in Nærut Otmjóv all constituents are marked. Over time, the

36 Brewer

meaning of multiple-constituent marking weakened to the point that it held no special meaning, instead only serving to tie each noun phrase together.

The accusative case endings can trigger fronting of the root vowel in monosyllabic roots. If the partitive ending follows a root ending in [r] or [ ], the initial [l] assimilates, producing {-ro}.


Singular

1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative þó den rom ær or

Accusative þæ s denjis rømis ærmis ormis Genitive þót denot romot ærmot ormot

Partitive þólo denlo romlo ær lo or lo

Dative þóðŕ dendŕ romðŕ ær ðŕ or ðŕ Locative þózej dentsej rompsej ær psej or psej

Instrumental þóm den romem ærmem ormem Comitative þówents denjents roments ærments orments

Dual


Nominative mor xett d þ Accusative w møris xettɑ d ðis

Genitive w t morot xettɑ t d ðot

Partitive morro xettɑ d ðlo Dative ðŕ morðŕ xettɑðŕ d ddŕ

Locative morzej xettɑzej d tsej Instrumental m mor xettɑm d ð

Comitative w t morents xettɑ t d ðents

Plural

1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural Nominative nɑ ru on þælje el

Accusative nɑ uwis ønis þæljejis eljis

Genitive nɑ wot onot þæljejot elot Partitive nɑ rulo onlo þæljelo ello

Dative nɑ ðŕ ondŕ þæljeðŕ dŕ Locative nɑ ruzej ontsej þæljezej elzej

Instrumental nɑ m on þæl el Comitative nɑ wents onents þæljejents eljents

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§4.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ɑ – man


Nominative ɑ ɑ mek ɑ þ Accusative ɑ mis ɑ mizek ɑ misþ

Genitive ɑ moþ ɑ moþek ɑ moþþ Partitive ɑ lo ɑ lowek ɑ loþ

Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑ ðrek ɑ ðrɑþ Locative ɑ psej ɑ psejek ɑ psejþ

Instrumental ɑ mem ɑ memek ɑ memþ

Comitative ɑ ments ɑ mentsek ɑ mentsþ dunoj – ceiling

Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunoj dunojek dunojþ

Accusative dunojis dunojizek dunojisþ Genitive dunojoþ dunojoþek dunojoþþ

Partitive dunojlo dunojlowek dunojloþ

Dative dunojðŕ dunojðrek dunojðrɑþ Locative dunojzej dunojzejek dunojzejþ

Instrumental dunojm dunojmek dunojmþ Comitative dunojents dunojentsek dunojentsþ

bisþ – hour


Nominative bisþ bisþek bisþþ Accusative bisþis bisþizek bisþisþ

Genitive bisþoþ bisþoþek bisþoþþ

Partitive bisþlo bisþlowek bisþloþ Dative bizzŕ bizzrek bizzrɑþ

Locative bissej bissejek bissejþ Instrumental bisþ bisþmek bisþ þ

Comitative bisþents bisþentsek bisþentsþ ɑ – cup

Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative ɑ ɑ k ɑheþ

Accusative ɑ ɑ zek ɑhejisþ

Genitive ɑ þ ɑ þek ɑ joþþ Partitive ɑ ɑhelowek ɑ þ

Dative ɑ ðŕ ɑheðrek ɑ ð ɑþ Locative ɑhezej ɑ zejek ɑ zejþ

Instrumental ɑhem ɑhemek ɑ mþ Comitative ɑhejents ɑhejentsek ɑ jentsþ

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§4.3.4 Verbal Affixes and Particles Non-finite Forms –

Active Infinitive: -ot / -jot / -wot

Passive Infinitive: -su / -zu

Supine: - - - Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mu- /

muw- (+ possible final voicing of fricatives and umlaut effects in single-syllable roots)

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hó- / hów- (+ possible final voicing of fricatives and umlaut effects in single-syllable roots)

Person Suffixes –

1st Person Singular, Active: -moj

2nd Person Singular, Active: -æn / -ń 3rd Person Singular, Active: -jľ / -ľ

1st Person Dual/Plural, Active: -møj

2nd Person Dual/Plural, Active: - n 3rd Person Dual/Plural, Active: -jøl / -øl

1st Person, Passive: - / -

2nd Person, Passive: -owe 3rd Person, Passive: -ŋ

Tense Prefixes –

Present: Ø-

Past: hej- Future: un- / Ø-

Superaspectual Prefixes –

Imperfective: Ø- (present) / [C]o- / lo- / ho- / o- / w- / u- (past and future)

Perfective: Ø- Progressive: ɑm -

Subaspectual Prefixes –

Inchoative: -en(n)- / -en(n)j-

Terminative: -rɑ- / -lɑ- Momentane: - ew-

Semeliterative: -mɑ - / -mɑ -

Durative o Short: -læs- o Long: - es-

Protractive: -led- / -leð-

Habitual: -jis- / - -

Conative o Neutral: -zos- o Negative: -wil(j)- o Positive: -rem-

Reversionary: -fɑ - Moods –

Indicative: Ø

Conditional: tiste

Subjunctive: þæn

Imperative: - (+ n)

Third-person verbal suffixes trigger jod coalescence in verbs whose roots end in [s z t d]. Monosyllabic verb roots experience fronting of the root vowel in the third person, unless

affected by jod coalescence.

The proper order of prefix affixation in (Imperative)-Tense-Superaspect-Subaspect-Root.

The inchoative and terminative have been reanalyzed as subaspects, reducing the superaspectual categories to the imperfective, perfective, and progressive.

The momentane and semeliterative subaspects only appear in the perfective and progressive superaspects and the perfective habitual only appears in the past.

When a verb root begins with the phoneme /r/, that phoneme morphs into /l/ in the negative conative and reversionary subaspects due to the progressive assimilation phenomenon these sounds experience when adjacent to each other. Conversely, when such verbs take the terminative or semeliterative subaspectual markers, they change from {-rɑ-} to {- ɑ-} and {-mɑ -} to {-mɑ -}, respectively, due to dissimilatory effects. This also causes the perfective

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superaspectual marker to become {lo-} when it appears on its own, without any subaspect, or when it appears with the positive conative marker before verb roots beginning with /l/.

Vowel initial roots yield {u-} in the imperfective superaspect before subaspects that are consonant-initial and {w-} before those that are vowel-initial. Roots that used to have an initial glottal stop /ʔ/ now take {ho-} in the neutral subaspect of the future, and {o-} in all other cases.

Only the {w-} and {o-} forms of the imperfective superaspectual marker are productive in newly formed words.

Of the four moods, the conditional and subjunctive are marked by separate words and the mp t t p -}, with the indicative being the unmarked form of the verb.

§4.3.5 Verbal Morphology

Verb Root – reldus- (to say) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their prefixes.)

Infinitive: relduzot Supine: relduz

Imperfective Verbal Adverb: murelduz Perfective Verbal Adverb: hórelduz

Past Present Future

Active Voice Imperfective Superaspect

Neutral (speak)

1st Person Sing. hejrorelduzmoj relduzmoj unrorelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejrorelduzń relduzń unrorelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejroreldu ľ reldu ľ unroreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejrorelduzmøj relduzmøj unrorelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrorelduz n relduz n unrorelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejroreldu øl reldu øl unroreldu øl Inchoative (start speaking)

1st Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzmoj enrelduzmoj unrowenrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejrowenrelduzń enrelduzń unrowenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrowenreldu ľ enreldu ľ unrowenreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejrowenrelduzmøj enrelduzmøj unrowenrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrowenrelduz n enrelduz n unrowenrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrowenreldu øl enreldu øl unrowenreldu øl Terminative (stop speaking)

1st Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzmoj lɑrelduzmoj unrolɑrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejrolɑrelduzń lɑrelduzń unrolɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolɑreldu ľ lɑreldu ľ unrolɑreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejrolɑrelduzmøj lɑrelduzmøj unrolɑrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolɑrelduz n lɑrelduz n unrolɑrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrolɑreldu øl lɑreldu øl unrolɑreldu øl Durative, Short (speak a little)

1st Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzmoj læzrelduzmoj unrolæzrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejrolæzrelduzń læzrelduzń unrolæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrolæzreldu ľ læzreldu ľ unrolæzreldu ľ

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1st Person D & P hejrolæzrelduzmøj læzrelduzmøj unrolæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrolæzrelduz n læzrelduz n unrolæzrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrolæzreldu øl læzreldu øl unrolæzreldu øl Durative, Long (speak for a while)

1st Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzmoj ezrelduzmoj unro ezrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejro ezrelduzń ezrelduzń unro ezrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejro ezreldu ľ ezreldu ľ unro ezreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejro ezrelduzmøj ezrelduzmøj unro ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejro ezrelduz n ezrelduz n unro ezrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejro ezreldu øl ezreldu øl unro ezreldu øl Protractive (speak on and on)

1st Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzmoj leðrelduzmoj unroleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejroleðrelduzń leðrelduzń unroleðrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejroleðreldu ľ leðreldu ľ unroleðreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejroleðrelduzmøj leðrelduzmøj unroleðrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejroleðrelduz n leðrelduz n unroleðrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejroleðreldu øl leðreldu øl unroleðreldu øl Habitual (usually speak)

1st Person Sing. herow m jizrelduzmoj unrow m 2nd Person Sing. herow relduzń jizrelduzń unrow relduzń

3rd Person Sing. herow reldu ľ jizreldu ľ unrow reldu ľ 1st Person D & P herow relduzmøj jizrelduzmøj unrow relduzmøj

2nd Person D &P herow relduz n jizrelduz n unrow relduz n

3rd Person D & P herow reldu øl jizreldu øl unrow reldu øl Conative, Neutral (try to speak)

1st Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzmoj zozrelduzmoj unrozozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrozozrelduzń zozrelduzń unrozozrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejrozozreldu ľ zozreldu ľ unrozozreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrozozrelduzmøj zozrelduzmøj unrozozrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejrozozrelduz n zozrelduz n unrozozrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrozozreldu øl zozreldu øl unrozozreldu øl Conative, Negative (try to speak [and fail])

1st Person Sing. hejrowillelduzmoj willelduzmoj unrowillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejrowillelduzń willelduzń unrowillelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejrowilleldu ľ willeldu ľ unrowilleldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejrowillelduzmøj willelduzmøj unrowillelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejrowillelduz n willelduz n unrowillelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrowilleldu øl willeldu øl unrowilleldu øl Conative, Positive (try to speak [and succeed])

1st Person Sing. hejloremrelduzmoj remrelduzmoj unloremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejloremrelduzń remrelduzń unloremrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejloremreldu ľ remreldu ľ unloremreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejloremrelduzmøj remrelduzmøj unloremrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejloremrelduz n remrelduz n unloremrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejloremreldu øl remreldu øl unloremreldu øl

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Reversionary (‘unsay’) 1st Person Sing. hejrofɑ m fɑ m unrofɑ m

2nd Person Sing. hejrofɑ elduzń fɑ elduzń unrofɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejrofɑ eldu ľ fɑ eldu ľ unrofɑ eldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejrofɑ relduzmøj fɑ elduzmøj unrofɑ elduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejrofɑ elduz n fɑ elduz n unrofɑ elduz n

3rd Person D & P hejrofɑ eldu øl fɑ eldu øl unrofɑ eldu øl

Perfective Superaspect Neutral (spoke)

1st Person Sing. hejrelduzmoj - unrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejrelduzń - unrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejreldu ľ - unreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejreldumøj - unrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejrelduz n - unrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejreldu øl - unreldu øl

Inchoative (started to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejenrelduzmoj - unenrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejenrelduzń - unenrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejenreldu ľ - unenreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejenreldumøj - unenrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejenrelduz n - unenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejenreldu øl - unenreldu øl

Terminative (stopped speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzmoj - unlɑrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejlɑrelduzń - unlɑrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlɑreldu ľ - unlɑreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejlɑreldumøj - unlɑrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejlɑrelduz n - unlɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejlɑreldu øl - unlɑreldu øl

Momentane (spoke once) 1st Person Sing. hej ewrelduzmoj - un ewrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hej ewrelduzń - un ewrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ewreldu ľ - un ewreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hej ewreldumøj - un ewrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hej ewrelduz n - un ewrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hej ewreldu øl - un ewreldu øl

Semeliterative (spoke once more) 1st Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzmoj - unmɑ erelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejmɑ erelduzń - unmɑlerelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejmɑlereldu ľ - unmɑ ereldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejmɑ ereldumøj - unmɑ erelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejmɑ erelduz n - unmɑ erelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejmɑ ereldu øl - unmɑ ereldu øl

Durative, Short (spoke a little) 1st Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzmoj - unlæzrelduzmoj

42 Brewer

2nd Person Sing. hejlæzrelduzń - unlæzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejlæzreldu ľ - unlæzreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejlæzreldumøj - unlæzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejlæzrelduz n - unlæzrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejlæzreldu øl - unlæzreldu øl Durative, Long (spoke for a while)

1st Person Sing. hej ezrelduzmoj - un ezrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hej ezrelduzń - un ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hej ezreldu ľ - un ezreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hej ezreldumøj - un ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hej ezrelduz n - un ezrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hej ezreldu øl - un ezreldu øl Protractive (spoke on and on)

1st Person Sing. hejleðrelduzmoj - unleðrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejleðrelduzń - unleðrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejleðreldu ľ - unleðreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejleðreldumøj - unleðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejleðrelduz n - unleðrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejleðreldu øl - unleðreldu øl Habitual (used to speak)

1st Person Sing. hej relduzmoj - - 2nd Person Sing. hej relduzń - -

3rd Person Sing. hej reldu ľ - -

1st Person D & P hej reldumøj - - 2nd Person D &P hej relduz n - -

3rd Person D & P hej reldu øl - - Conative, Neutral (tried to speak)

1st Person Sing. hejzozrelduzmoj - unzozrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejzozrelduzń - unzozrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejzozreldu ľ - unzozreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejzozreldumøj - unzozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejzozrelduz n - unzozrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejzozreldu øl - unzozreldu øl Conative, Negative (tried to speak [and fail])

1st Person Sing. hejwillelduzmoj - unwillelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejwillelduzń - unwillelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejwilleldu ľ - unwilleldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejwilleldumøj - unwillelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejwillelduz n - unwillelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejwilleldu øl - unwilleldu øl Conative, Positive (tried to speak [and succeed])

1st Person Sing. hejremrelduzmoj - unremrelduzmoj 2nd Person Sing. hejremrelduzń - unremrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejremreldu ľ - unremreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejremreldumøj - unremrelduzmøj

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2nd Person D &P hejremrelduz n - unremrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejremreldu øl - unremreldu øl

Reversionary (‘unsaid’) 1st Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzmoj - unfɑ elduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejfɑ elduzń - unfɑ elduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejfɑ eldu ľ - unfɑ eldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejfɑ eldumøj - unfɑ elduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejfɑ elduz n - unfɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejfɑ eldu øl - unfɑ eldu øl

Progressive Superaspect Neutral (be speaking)

1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl

Inchoative (be starting to speak) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzmoj ɑm jenrelduzmoj unɑm jenrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm jenrelduzń ɑm jenrelduzń unɑm jenrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm jenreldu ľ ɑm jenreldu ľ unɑm jenreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm jenrelduzmøj ɑm jenrelduzmøj unɑm jenrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm jenrelduz n ɑm jenrelduz n unɑm jenrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm jenreldu øl ɑm jenreldu øl unɑm jenreldu øl

Terminative (be stopping speaking) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzmoj ɑm lɑrelduzmoj unɑm lɑrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑrelduzń ɑm lɑrelduzń unɑm lɑrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm lɑreldu ľ ɑm lɑreldu ľ unɑm lɑreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm lɑrelduzmøj ɑm lɑrelduzmøj unɑm lɑrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm lɑrelduz n ɑm lɑrelduz n unɑm lɑrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm lɑreldu øl ɑm lɑreldu øl unɑm lɑreldu øl

Momentane (be speaking once) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzmoj ɑme wrelduzmoj unɑm wrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm wrelduzń ɑm wrelduzń unɑm wrelduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm wreldu ľ ɑm wreldu ľ unɑm wreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm wrelduzmøj ɑm wrelduzmøj unɑm wrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm wrelduz n ɑm wrelduz n unɑm wrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm wreldu øl ɑm wreldu øl unɑm wreldu øl

Semeliterative (be repeating once) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzmoj ɑm mɑ relduzmoj unɑm mɑ relduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ relduzń ɑm mɑ relduzń unɑm mɑ relduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm mɑ reldu ľ ɑm mɑ reldu ľ unɑm mɑ reldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm mɑ relduzmøj ɑm mɑ relduzmøj unɑm mɑ relduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm mɑ relduz n ɑm mɑ relduz n unɑm mɑ relduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm mɑ reldu øl ɑm mɑ reldu øl unɑm mɑ reldu øl

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Durative, Short (be speaking a little) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzmoj ɑm læzrelduzmoj unɑm læzrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm læzrelduzń ɑm læzrelduzń unɑm læzrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm læzreldu ľ ɑm læzreldu ľ unɑm læzreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑm læzrelduzmøj ɑm læzrelduzmøj unɑm læzrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm læzrelduz n ɑm læzrelduz n unɑm læzrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm læzreldu øl ɑmelæzreldu øl unɑm læzreldu øl

Durative, Long (be speaking for a while) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzmoj ɑm ezrelduzmoj unɑm ezrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm ezrelduzń ɑm ezrelduzń unɑm ezrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm ezreldu ľ ɑm ezreldu ľ unɑm ezreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑm ezrelduzmøj ɑm ezrelduzmøj unɑm ezrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm ezrelduz n ɑm ezrelduz n unɑm ezrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm ezreldu øl ɑm ezreldu øl unɑm ezreldu øl Protractive (be speaking on and on)

1st Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzmoj ɑm leðrelduzmoj unɑm leðrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm leðrelduzń ɑm leðrelduzń unɑm leðrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm leðreldu ľ ɑm leðreldu ľ unɑm leðreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑmeleðrelduzmøj ɑm leðrelduzmøj unɑm leðrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm leðrelduz n ɑm leðrelduz n unɑm leðrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm leðreldu øl ɑm leðreldu øl unɑm leðreldu øl Habitual (usually be speaking)

1st Person Sing. hejɑm relduzmoj ɑm relduzmoj unɑm relduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm relduzń ɑm relduzń unɑm relduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑm relduzmøj ɑm relduzmøj unɑm relduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm relduz n ɑm relduz n unɑm relduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm reldu øl ɑm reldu øl unɑm reldu øl Conative, Neutral (be trying to speak)

1st Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzmoj ɑm zozrelduzmoj unɑm zozrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm zozrelduzń ɑm zozrelduzń unɑm zozrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm zozreldu ľ ɑm zozreldu ľ unɑm zozreldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑm zozrelduzmøj ɑm zozrelduzmøj unɑm zozrelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm zozrelduz n ɑm zozrelduz n unɑm zozrelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm zozreldu øl ɑm zozreldu øl unɑm zozreldu øl Conative, Negative (be trying to speak [and failing])

1st Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzmoj ɑm willelduzmoj unɑm willelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm willelduzń ɑm willelduzń unɑm willrelduzń 3rd Person Sing. hejɑm willeldu ľ ɑm willreldu ľ unɑm willeldu ľ

1st Person D & P hejɑm willelduzmøj ɑm willelduzmøj unɑm willelduzmøj 2nd Person D &P hejɑm willelduz n ɑm willelduz n unɑm willelduz n

3rd Person D & P hejɑm willeldu øl ɑm willeldu øl unɑm willeldu øl Conative, Positive (be trying to speak [and succeeding])

1st Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzmoj ɑm remrelduzmoj unɑm remrelduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm remrelduzń ɑm remrelduzń unɑm remrelduzń

Brewer 45

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm remreldu ľ ɑm remreldu ľ unɑm remreldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑm remrelduzmøj ɑm remrelduzmøj unɑm remrelduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm remrelduz n ɑm remrelduz n unɑm remrelduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm remreldu øl ɑm remreldu øl unɑm remreldu øl

Reversionary (be ‘unspeaking’) 1st Person Sing. hejɑm fɑ elduzmoj ɑm fɑ elduzmoj unɑm fɑ elduzmoj

2nd Person Sing. hejɑm fɑ elduzń ɑm rfɑ elduzń unɑm fɑ elduzń

3rd Person Sing. hejɑm fɑ eldu ľ ɑm fɑ eldu ľ unɑm fɑ eldu ľ 1st Person D & P hejɑmefɑ elduzmøj ɑm fɑ elduzmøj unɑm fɑ elduzmøj

2nd Person D &P hejɑm fɑ elduz n ɑm fɑ elduz n unɑm fɑ elduz n 3rd Person D & P hejɑm fɑ eldu øl ɑm fɑ eldu øl unɑm fɑ eldu øl

Participle (Perfective Superaspect) Neutral xuwejreldus - xuwunreldus

Inchoative xuwejenreldus - xuwunenreldus Terminative xuwejlɑreldus - xuwunlɑreldus

Durative, Short xuwejlæzreldus - xuwunlæzreldus

Durative, Long xuwej ezreldus - xuwun ezreldus Protractive xuwejleðreldus - xuwunleðreldus

Habitual xuwej reldus - xuwun reldus Conative (Neutral) xuwejzozreldus - xuwunzozreldus

Conative (Negative) xuwejwilleldus - xuwunwilleldus Conative (Positive) xuwejremreldus - xuwunremreldus

Reversionary xuwejfɑ eldus - xuwunfɑ eldus

Passive Voice

Imperfect Superaspect Neutral (is spoken)

1st Person hejloreldu reldu unloreldu 2nd Person hejlorelduzowe relduzowe unlorelduzowe

3rd Person hejlo ŋ reldu ŋ unloreldu ŋ Inchoative (begins to be spoken)

1st Person hejrowenreldu enreldu unrowenreldu 2nd Person hejrowenrelduzowe enrelduzowe unrowenrelduzowe

3rd Person hejrowenreldu ŋ enreldu ŋ unrowenreldu ŋ

Terminative (stops being spoken) 1st Person hejrolɑ lɑreldu unrolɑreldu

2nd Person hejrolɑrelduzowe lɑrelduzowe unrolɑrelduzowe 3rd Person hejrolɑreldu ŋ lɑreldu ŋ unrolɑreldu ŋ

Durative, Short (is spoken a little) 1st Person hejrolæzreldu læzreldu unrolæzreldu

2nd Person hejrolæzrelduzowe læzrelduzowe unrolæzrelduzowe

3rd Person hejrolæzreldu ŋ læzreldu ŋ unrolæzreldu ŋ Durative, Long (is spoken a while)

1st Person hejro ezreldu ezreldu unro ezreldu 2nd Person hejro ezrelduzowe ezrelduzowe unro ezrelduzowe

3rd Person hejro ezreldu ŋ ezreldu ŋ unro ezreldu ŋ

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Protractive (is spoken on and on) 1st Person hejroleðreldu leðreldu unroleðreldu

2nd Person hejroleðrelduzowe leðrelduzowe unroleðrelduzowe 3rd Person hejroleðreldu ŋ leðreldu ŋ unroleðreldu ŋ

Habitual (is usually spoken) 1st Person hejrow jizreldu unrow

2nd Person hejrow zowe jizrelduzowe unrow zowe

3rd Person hejrow ŋ jizreldu ŋ unrow ŋ Conative, Neutral (tries to be spoken)*

1st Person hejrozozreldu zozreldu unrozozreldu 2nd Person hejrozozrelduzowe zozrelduzowe unrozozrelduzowe

3rd Person hejrozozreldu ŋ zozreldu ŋ unrozozreldu ŋ Conative, Negative (tries to be spoken [and fails])*

1st Person hejrowilleldu willeldu unrowilleldu 2nd Person hejrowillelduzowe willelduzowe unrowillelduzowe

3rd Person hejrowilleldu ŋ willeldu ŋ unrowilleldu ŋ

Conative, Positive (tries to be spoken [and succeeds])* 1st Person hejloremreldu remreldu unloremreldu

2nd Person hejloremrelduzowe remrelduzowe unloremrelduzowe 3rd Person hejloremreldu ŋ remreldu ŋ unloremreldu ŋ

Reversionary (is ‘unspoken’) 1st Person hejrofɑ fɑ unrofɑ leldu

2nd Person hejrofɑ zowe fɑ zowe unrofɑ zowe

3rd Person hejrofɑ ŋ fɑ ŋ unrofɑ ŋ

Perfective Superaspect Neutral (was spoken)

1st Person hejreldu - unreldu

2nd Person hejrelduzowe - unrelduzowe 3rd Person hej ŋ - un ŋ

Inchoative (started to be spoken) 1st Person hejenreldu - unenreldu

2nd Person hejenrelduzowe - unenrelduzowe 3rd Person hejen ŋ - unen ŋ

Terminative (stopped being spoken)

1st Person hejlɑ - unlɑ 2nd Person hejlɑrelduzowe - unlɑrelduzowe

3rd Person hejlɑ ŋ - unlɑ ŋ Momentane (was spoken once)

1st Person hej ewreldu - un ewreldu 2nd Person hej ewrelduzowe - un ewrelduzowe

3rd Person hej ewreldu ŋ - un w ŋ

Semeliterative (was spoken once again) 1st Person hejmɑ - unmɑ

2nd Person hejmɑ zowe - unmɑ zowe 3rd Person hejmɑ ŋ - unmɑ ŋ

Brewer 47

Durative, Short (was spoken a little) 1st Person hejlæzreldu - unlæzreldu

2nd Person hejlæzrelduzowe - unlæzrelduzowe 3rd Person hej ŋ - un ŋ

Durative, Long (was spoken a while) 1st Person hej ezreldu - un ezreldu

2nd Person hej ezrelduzowe - un ezrelduzowe

3rd Person hej ŋ - un ŋ Protractive (was spoken on and on)

1st Person hejleðreldu - unleðreldu 2nd Person hejleðrelduzowe - unleðrelduzowe

3rd Person hejleð ŋ - unleð ŋ Habitual (was usually spoken)

1st Person - un 2nd Person hej zowe - un zowe

3rd Person hej ŋ - un ŋ

Conative, Neutral (tried to be spoken)* 1st Person hejzozreldu - unzozreldu

2nd Person hejzozrelduzowe - unzozrelduzowe 3rd Person hej ŋ - un ŋ

Conative, Negative (tried to be spoken [and failed])* 1st Person hejwilleldu - unwilleldu

2nd Person hejwillelduzowe - unwillelduzowe

3rd Person hejwill ŋ - unw ŋ Conative, Positive (tried to be spoken [and succeeded])*

1st Person hejremreldu - unremreldu 2nd Person hejremrelduzowe - unremrelduzowe

3rd Person hej m ŋ - un m ŋ Reversionary (was ‘unspoken’)

1st Person hejfɑ - unfɑ

2nd Person hejfɑ zowe - unfɑ zowe 3rd Person hejfɑ ŋ - unfɑ ŋ

Progressive Superaspect Neutral (is being spoken)

1st Person hejɑm reldu ɑm reldu unɑm reldu 2nd Person hejɑm relduzowe ɑm relduzowe unɑm relduzowe

3rd Person hejɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ Inchoative (is starting to be spoken)

1st Person hejɑm enreldu ɑm enreldu unɑm enreldu 2nd Person hejɑm enrelduzowe ɑm enrelduzowe unɑm enrelduzowe

3rd Person hejɑm en ŋ ɑm en ŋ unɑm en ŋ

Terminative (is stopping being spoken) 1st Person hejɑm lɑ ɑm lɑreldu unɑm lɑreldu

2nd Person hejɑm lɑrelduzowe ɑm lɑrelduzowe unɑm lɑrelduzowe 3rd Person hejɑm lɑ ŋ ɑm lɑ ŋ unɑm lɑ ŋ

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Momentane (is being spoken once) 1st Person hejɑm ewreldu ɑm ewreldu unɑm ewreldu

2nd Person hejɑm ewrelduzowe ɑm ewrelduzowe unɑm ewrelduzowe 3rd Person hejɑm w ŋ ɑm w ŋ unɑm w ŋ

Semeliterative (is being spoken once again) 1st Person hejɑm mɑ ɑm mɑ und mɑ

2nd Person hejɑm mɑ zowe ɑm mɑ zowe unɑm mɑ zowe

3rd Person hejɑm mɑ ŋ ɑm mɑ ŋ unɑm mɑ ŋ Durative, Short (is being spoken a little)

1st Person hejɑm læzreldu ɑm læzreldu unɑm læzreldu 2nd Person hejɑm læzrelduzowe ɑm læzrelduzowe unɑm læzrelduzowe

3rd Person hejɑm læzr ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ Durative, Long (is being spoken a while)

1st Person hejɑm ezreldu ɑm ezreldu unɑm ezreldu 2nd Person hejɑm ezrelduzowe ɑm ezrelduzowe unɑm ezrelduzowe

3rd Person hejɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ

Protractive (is being spoken on and on) 1st Person hejɑm leðreldu ɑm leðreldu unɑm leðreldu

2nd Person hejɑm leðrelduzowe ɑm leðrelduzowe unɑm leðrelduzowe 3rd Person hejɑm leð ŋ ɑm leðrel ŋ unɑm leð ŋ

Habitual (is usually being spoken) 1st Person hejɑm ɑm j zreldu unɑm

2nd Person hejɑm zowe ɑm j zrelduzowe unɑm zowe

3rd Person hejɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑmej ŋ Conative, Neutral (is trying to be spoken)*

1st Person hejɑm zozreldu ɑm zozreldu unɑm zozreldu 2nd Person hejɑm zozrelduzowe ɑm zozrelduzowe unɑm zozrelduzowe

3rd Person hejɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm zozreldu ŋ Conative, Negative (is trying to be spoken [and failing])*

1st Person hejɑm willeldu ɑm willeldu unɑm willeldu

2nd Person hejɑm willelduzowe ɑm willelduzowe unɑm willelduzowe 3rd Person hejɑm w ŋ ɑm w ŋ unɑm wil ŋ

Conative, Positive (is trying to be spoken [and succeeding])* 1st Person hejɑm remreldu ɑm remreldu unɑm remreldu

2nd Person hejɑm remrelduzowe ɑm remrelduzowe unɑm remrelduzowe 3rd Person hejɑm m ŋ ɑm m ŋ unɑm m ŋ

Reversionary (is being ‘unspoken’)

1st Person hejɑm fɑ ɑm fɑ unɑm fɑ 2nd Person hejɑm fɑ zowe ɑm fɑ zowe unɑm fɑ zowe

3rd Person hejɑm fɑ ŋ ɑm fɑ ŋ unɑm fɑ ŋ Participle (Perfective Superaspect)

Neutral hæmejreldus - hæmunreldus Inchoative hæmejenreldus - hæmunenreldus

Terminative hæmejlɑ - hæmunlɑ

Durative, Short hæmejlæzreldus - hæmunlæzreldus

Brewer 49

Durative, Long hæmej ezreldus - hæmun ezreldus Protractive hæmejleðreldus - hæmunleðreldus

Habitual hæmej reldus - hæmun reldus Conative (Neutral) hæmejzozreldus - hæmunzozreldus

Conative (Negative) hæmejwilleldus - hæmunwilleldus Conative (Positive) hæmejremreldus - hæmunremreldus

Reversionary hæmejfɑ - hæmunfɑ

Some of these forms are extremely rare, completely unattested, or simply impossible with some verbs. This chart should be seen as an example of all the potential forms available to any given verb. Semantic constraints will regularly render some forms impossible, simply by virtue of their illogical meanings. For example, passive conatives do not usually occur with verbs that cannot govern an animate patient, as an inanimate patient cannot exhibit the necessary volition to try to accomplish something (e.g. an unusual p k ‘it is t t p k ’ [ɑm ŋ ] versus m k ‘it is trying to be

’ [ɑm ɑŋ ]).

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§4.3.6 Numerals and Fraction Terms The numerals one through ten govern the genitive case, singular with one, plural with all the others. For numbers higher than ten, the final number will determine whether the genitive singular or plural is used. These numerals cannot be used with groups of animates that number less than ten.

All numerals decline like nouns and adjectives, though in numbers higher than ten only the last number combines with a case particle. The numerals one through ten are stressed on the second syllable of the root. The numerals one through ten are:

gewɑ

jofɑ tw

miþɑ t ɑ tɑ

k ɑ

imɑ

rweþɑ

luksɑ t hojnɑ

sre ɑ t The collective numerals have become the only way to refer to groups of animates in Nærut j v. When used alone without any number, they inherently describe a group of people.

Though they inherently describe a plural group, they trigger singular agreement with verbs. When used in conjuction with a noun, the noun appears in the genitive case. As with regul ar numerals, the collective numerals are stressed on the second syllable.

While it is theoretically possible to use a collective numeral with a group of any size, in practice they are not used for groups larger than ten. Though they originally described groups larger than one, once the collective numerals became obligatory with animates the singular form added the m “ ” t t “ m t.”

w m t

two/pair/duo)

m þ three/trio) ɑ t four/quartet)

k five/quintet)

m six/sextet)

w þ seven/septet)

k eight/octet) nine/nonet)

sre ten/decet)

Fraction terms are also stressed on the second syllable of the root, and also decline in the same fashion as noun and adjectives, just as numerals do. They govern the partitive case, but unlike numerals, the object determines which grammatical number is used. The first ten fractions are:

getet (a whole)

jofet (a half)

miþet (a third)

ɑ t t t k t t

imet (a sixth)

rweþet (a seventh)

lukset (an eighth)

hojnet (a ninth) sre et (a tenth)

With the numeral roots for one through five, the suffix -x can be added to create frequentative adverbs (i.e. once, twice).

Brewer 51

§4.3.7 Methods of Derivation §4.3.7.1 Nouns from Verbs

Abstraction₁: verb root + dń / ðń + (case/number particles) Examples: ennje (begin) ennjeðń (beginning), rɑxo (end) rɑxoðń (ending)

Abstraction₂: verb root + + (case/number particles) Example: howmɑ (count) howmɑw t t ting)

Agent: verb root + res + (case/number particles) Examples: ðem (rule) demres (lord), hertoþ (throw) hertoþres (pitcher)

Patient: verb root + ľ + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) hortejľ (building), irń (plan) irɑ ľ (a plan)

Occupation: verb root + jŋ + (case/number particles) mp m t w k m ŋ (job), horte (build) hortejŋ (builder)

Location: verb root + sejn / zejn + (case/number particles) Examples: neontel (settle) neontelzejn (settlement), romes (learn) romessejn (school)

Instrument: verb root + r / ŕ + (case/number particles); though the original form of this morpheme was {-rek}, it was reduced to {-r} when {-ek} was reanalyzed as a plural marker. Examples: n rni (speak) n rnir (language), njæwr (spin) njæwrr (wheel)

Master: verb root + r / ŕm + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) horter t t ŋ t ŋ ŕm (master of combat)

§4.3.7.2 Verbs from Nouns

Method 1: ne + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: hontľ (place) neontel (settle), florń (time) nefloren (time [verb])

Method 2: som + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: poro (iron) somporo (forge), ɑ ľ (mind) somɑxel (understand)

Method 3: þ j / þ + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: ŋŕ (fire) þɑ ŋri (burn), ɑxľ (mind) þɑ ɑxel (know)


Active Participle: xu + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: þɑ ŋri (burn) xuþɑ ŋŕ (burning [pres. impfv.]), n rni (speak) xuwejnon rn (speaking [past pfv.])

Passive Participle: hæm + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: n rni (speak) hæmn rn (spoken [pres. impfv.] ɑ t hæmej ɑ (created [past pfv.])

Capability: verb root + / t Examples: hinjit (accept) hinjitɑ t (acceptable), horte (build) horteɑ t (buildable)

§4.3.7.4 Adverbs from Adjectives Quality: adjective root + rr / ŕŕ

Examples: tyr (whole) tyrirr (wholly), trefo (bright) treforr (brightly)

Positive Comparative: adjective root + ń Examples: tɑ t tɑ ń (more quickly), ime (good) imejń (better)

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Diminutive Comparative: adjective root + in (triggers umlaut in monosyllables; resists syllabification in polysyllables) Examples: tɑ t tɑ tt m k m imejin (a little better)

Negative Comparative: adjective root + lŋ Examples: tɑ t tɑ ŋ (less quickly), trefo (bright) trefolŋ (less brightly)

Augmentative Comparative: adjective root + Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑflej (much more quickly), ime (good) imej (much better)

Positive Superlative: adjective root + þń Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑfleþń (the most quickly), ime (good) imeþń (the best)

Negative Superlative: adjective root + ŕ / wŕ / jŕ Examples: tɑ t tɑ ŕ (the least quickly), trefo (bright), trefowŕ (the least brightly)

Elative: adjective root + mos Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑflemos (most quickly), ime (good) imemos (most well)

Enough: adjective root + tos Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t m imetos (well enough)

Very: adjective root + b / v t Examples: tɑ t tɑ t (very quickly), ime (good) imev t (very well)


ro + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: stir (important) t m tt t t

to become: hove + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: trefo (bright) hovetrefo (brighten), xi e (happy) hovexi e (become happy), onxi e (happier) hovejonxi e (become happier), mostɑfle [most quick (elative)] hovemostɑfle (become most quick)

make so: ne + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: zwɑ nezwɑ m k m nejime (make good)


Quality: Adjective root + emo / jemo Examples: þumń (dark) þumenjemo (darkness), ime (good) m m m (home) mm m mmɑ m m

Personal Embodiment: Adjective root + Examples: ser (brave) (daredevil), ɑ m ɑ m (giant)

§4.3.7.7 Verbal Adverbs

Imperfective: mu + verb root (final [s ] following a vowel are voiced, and words with stressed final syllables experience umlaut; verb roots ending t t w t ) Examples: ofes (be) muwofez (being), ðɑ m muðær (climbing), n rni (speak) mun p k

Perfective: h + verb root + i (final [s ] following a vowel are voiced, and words with stressed final syllables experience umlaut; t t t w t nærni (speak) h n p k hɑ (hit) h t m t w k h m t (having worked)

Brewer 53

§4.3.7.8 Nouns from Nouns Augmentative: noun root +

Examples: ŋŕ (fire) ŋ [sun (lit. big fire)], demres (lord) Demrez [The Lord (i.e. God)], diþń (spoon) diþɑ (shovel)

Diminutive: noun root + ń / n Examples: ɑ (man) ɑ ɑmń (boy), fen (woman) fenɑ n m (cat) z mń (kitten), hæzɑt hæzɑt ń (cottage)

Elemental/Essential: noun root + sre / zre Examples: ŋŕ (fire) ŋ z w þu (water) w þuzre (essence of water)

Abstract: noun root + (o)ss Examples: sor o (brother) sor oss (brotherhood), hijot (sister) hijotoss (sisterhood)

Master: tes / tez + noun root Examples: ri (sword) tezri (swordmaster), poro (iron) tesporo (blacksmith)

Decessive: verb root + o + (case/number particles) Examples: mɑ k mɑ w (former/dead king), dɑ ŕ (father) dæhjero (dead father)

Falseness: noun root + fos Examples: nærut (speech) t ŋ ɑ m ŋ ɑ

Nationality: noun root + ru / lu Examples: Jizrɑ l (Israel) Jizrɑ llu (Israelite)

Simple noun compounds are usually stressed on the first syllable of the second nominal element. Example: mɑ k + m mɑ ð m t

§4.3.7.9 Possessive Adjectives n + 1st syllable of pronoun (umlaut, if present in the root syllable, is eliminated)

Examples:o 1st singular: þ

þ nɑþ o 2nd singular: den nɑðen o 3rd singular, masculine:

rom nɑ m o 3rd singular, feminine: ær

nɑ o 3rd singular, neuter:

or nɑ o 1st dual, inclusive:

nɑ

o 1st dual, exclusive: mor nɑm

o 2nd dual: xett nɑxet o 3rd dual: dɑ þ nɑdɑ þ o 1st plural, inclusive:

nɑ nɑ ɑ o 1st plural, exclusive:

on nɑ on o 2nd plural: þælje nɑþæl o 3rd p el nɑ el

§4.3.7.10 Adjectives from Nouns Semblative Adjectives: noun root + / / (epenthetic voiceless stop appears after nasals)

mp z m (cat) mp (catlike), ɑ (man) ɑ ɑmp (manly)

Adjectives of Trait: noun root + j v (immune to final consonant devoicing in the nominative) Examples: ot (north) otɑm v (northern), þonnŕ (thunder) þonnorj v (thunderous)

Abessive Adjectives: noun root + m / Examples: hið (form) hið mm m m m mm m

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“- ” A t t + wŕ Examples: ot (north) otɑmwŕ (northish), ɑ (man) ɑ ɑmwŕ (mannish)

§4.3.8.11 Adjectives from Adjectives “- ” A t t t + wŕ

Examples: ælɑ w ælɑwŕ (slowish), ɑ m ɑ mwŕ (biggish)

§4.3.7.12 Degrees of Comparison

Positive Comparative: on + adjective root Examples: tɑfle (fast) ontɑfle (faster), æl (slow) onæl (slower)

Diminutive Comparative: in(j) + adjective root Examples: tɑ t intɑ tt t w injæl (a little slower)

Negative Comparative: liŋ + adjective root Examples: tɑ fast) ŋtɑ t w ŋ w

Augmentative Comparative: om + adjective root Examples: tɑ t omtɑ m t w omæl (much slower)

Positive Superlative: þen(j) + adjective root Examples: tɑfle (fast) þentɑfle (fastest), æl (slow) þenjæl (slowest)

Negative Superlative: h + adjective root Examples: tɑ t hɑ tɑ t t t w hɑ t t w

Elative: mos / moz + adjective root (triggers lenition in adjectives with initial stops) Examples: tɑ le (fast) mossɑfle (most fast), æl (slow) mozæl (most slow)

Enough: tos / toz + adjective root (triggers lenition in adjectives with initial stops) Examples: tɑ t tossɑ t w tozæl (slow enough)

Very: b t + adjective root Examples: tɑfle (fast) b ttɑfle (very fast), æl (slow) b tæl (very slow)

§4.3.7.13 Verbs from Verbs

completeness: l + verb root Examples: frezun (eat) frezun (consume), romes (learn) l m m t

desiderative: dri / dli / ðri / ðli + verb root Examples: frezun (eat) ðrifrezun (be hungry), nrowm (drink) ðrinrowm (be thirsty)

reflexive: þo(r) + verb root Examples: rojæs (have) þ ŋ m k þ ŋ m w

motion away: xr(e) / xle + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) xlerunɑ (walk away), xnel (go) xrexnel (go away)

motion toward: h + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) hɑ ɑ (walk toward), xnel (go) hɑxnel (go toward)

motion around/about: u + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) ɑ (walk around), xnel (go) xnel (go around)

motion over: + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) ɑ (walk over), xnel (go) xnel (go over)

motion under: in(je) + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) injerunɑ (walk under), xnel (go) injexnel (go under)


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motion out of: emi + verb root Examples: runɑ w k emirunɑ w k t emixnel (exit)

motion through: e(r) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k errunɑ w k t exnel (go through)

motion ahead: e(m) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k erunɑ w k w exnel (go forward)

motion onto: o(d) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k orunɑ w k t oxnel (go onto)

motion up: + verb root Examples: runɑ w k þ ɑ w k p þ p

motion down: he + verb root Examples: runɑ w k herunɑ w k w ) hexnel (go down)

motion past: pro / plo + verb root Examples: runɑ w k plorunɑ w k p t proxnel (go past)

§4.3.8 Honorifics Nærut N utilizes a complex set of honorific suffixes to indicate relative status.


me peers, simple politeness ŕ / or inferior to superior, respect

to inferior to superior, deep respect þľ / þil superior to inferior, respect

mń / min spouses ɑ children to parents

ń parents to children

student to teacher wes young person to older person (age difference of 25 years or more)

r / ŕ old person to younger person (age difference of 25 years or more) Honorific suffixes precede case endings. They are normally only used with personal names and personal pronouns, and they almost never appear in the 1st person. They can also serve a vocative function when used with a noun placed in sentence initial position.

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§4.4 Syntax

§4.4.1 Subject Dropping Nærut Otmjóv is pro-drop with subjects, since subject-verb agreement is obligatory. Verbs are only explicitly marked for focus and with dual subjects. Any verb that has a 2nd or 3rd person dual/plural ending and no explicit subject is marking a plural subject. First person plural subjects have to be marked because the inclusive/exclusive distinction is not marked on verbs.

§4.4.2 Basic Sentence Order

§4.4.2.1 Standard Word Order Standard word order in active voice is Verb-Subject-Object. Use of the syntactic case particles allows virtually any word order, but other syntactic orders are marked for focus.

Þintsemoj denjis. – I see you.

§4.4.2.2 Interrogative Syntax In interrogative sentences, the default sentence order is verb-second, with a clause-final interrogative particle o. Responses to questions place the information relevant to the inquiry in initial position.

Þæ s þintsejń – Do you see me?

Den þintsejń þ – Is it you that sees me?

§4.4.2.3 Passive Voice Standard word order in passive voice is Verb-Subject-(Agent), and the agent, when present, is marked by the instrumental case. Other word orders are possible, and are used to shift focus.

Am þɑ (den ). – I am being watched (by you).

R þɑ ( el ). – I am watched (by them).

§4.4.2.4 Stative Syntax In stative sentences that utilize the verb ofezot (to be), syntax often becomes Subject-Verb, since neither the subject nor its predicate descriptor is marked for case.

(Rom) ofe ľ betx – He is old. Arrmek ofe øl tɑflejek. – The men are fast.

§4.4.3 Syntactic Focus

§4.4.3.1 The Focus Position The sentence-initial position is used to indicate focus, and nominal constituents can be moved there to add emphasis to their role in the clause.

Hejfrezunjľ hɑw ŋ rylis. – The farmer ate the apple.

Hɑw ŋ hejfrezunjľ rylis. – It was the farmer that ate the apple.

Rylis hejfrezunjľ hɑw ŋ . – It was the farmer that the farmer ate.

Am ľ fenɑ m ki ezej. – The tall girl is running around the park.

Fenɑ ɑm ľ m ki ezej. – It is the tall girl who is running around the park.

m k ezej ɑm ľ fenɑ – t’ t p k that the tall girl is running.

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Hejmrækŋ ɑ ɑ ľm. – The cup was broken by the demon. Ahe hejmrækŋ ɑ ľm. – It was the cup that was broken by the demon.

A ľm hejmrækŋ ɑ – It was by the demon that the cup was broken.

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§4.5 Translations §4.5.1 The Tower of Babel – æ ik B vloþ

Ennjeðń 11:1-9 1 Tɑ florńtsejek no uþizej, hejlorojæ ľ hue tyr gew ris n rniroþ ur nærutis

time.loc.pl those.loc in , past.impfv.have.3rdp.sg world.nom whole.nom one.acc language.gen and speech.acc

Now the whole world had one language and a common welɑ is. common.acc .

speech. 2 Erðu hejɑm xneljøl roltɑþ hɑ hɑnľdŕ, hejzonrɑjøl ɑxmis tɑ inŕzej ur s l

while past.prog.go.3rdp.pl person.cltpl to east.dat , past.pfv.find.3rdp.pl plain.acc in Shinar.loc and there

As the people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled hejneonteljøl. past.pfv.settle.3

rdp.pl

there. 3 Hejreldu øl sorń lert ldŕ “ wældomøj horterizek ur d xrɑ zonmøj m ”

past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ach. o o h . a , “i p. ak .1stp.pl brick.acc.pl and imp.bake.1stp.pl they.acc oo .a v .”

They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” Hejvovæssijøl hortermek tontelzej domnoþek, ur mej tontelzej wɑþ ðoþ. past.impfv.use.3

rdp.pl brick.inst.pl for stone.gen.pl , and tar.inst for mortar.gen .

They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Wɑn hejreldu øl “ hortemøj ne þorðŕ jɑ nmis, murojæz pærikis, rel þæn

then past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ,”i p.buil .1stp.pl for rflx.dat city.acc , have.vbadv tower.acc , which.conj.nom subj

Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower undoðærjľ hɑ rɑ ɑðrek, ɑ -þæn unældomøj nɑ ru ne þorðŕ eŋxis; fut.impfv.climb.3rdp.sg to heaven.dat.pl , чтобы subj fut.pfv.make.1stp.pl we.inc.nom for rflx.dat name.acc ;

that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise tiljærzľ, wɑn unhertoþmøj nɑ ru þɑ n l zowis huejoþ tyrijoþ ” if.thus.not , then fut.pfv.scatter.1stp.pl we.inc.nom across fac .acc o l . hol . .”

we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 As hejxneljøl hex Demrez r þɑnr jɑ nmis ur pærikis, reljis hejɑmehortejøl

but past.pfv.go.3rdp.pl downward Lord.nom see.sup city.acc and tower.acc , which.conj.acc past.prog.build.3rdp.pl

But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were roltɑþ. person.cltpl .

building. 6 Hejreldu øl Demrez “ ste dre muwofez gew roltɑoþþ, reljek

past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl Lo . o ,”if.co h be.vbadv one.ani.nom person.gen.cltpl , which.conj.nom.pl

The Lord said, “If as one people n rnijøl n rnir kæj , hejenrøðijøl lis, wɑn þæn unwofe ľ pres.impfv.speak.3rdp.pl language.inst same.inst , past.pfv.inch.do.3rdp.pl this.acc , then subj fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg

speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then xuwunxoxɑ t ľ ne eldŕ runtsľ, reljis unwirɑnjøl røðijot. actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg for they.dat what.neg , which.conj.acc fut.impfv.plan.3rdp.pl do.inf .


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7 D xnelmøj hex ur d mentsomøj n rniris nɑ elɑis, ɑ -þæn untsozomɑxeljøl imp.go.1stp.pl downward and imp.confuse.1stp.pl language.acc their.acc , чтобы subj fut.impfv.understand.3rdp.pl

Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand sul sorń lert ” ach. o o h .acc .”

each other.” 8 Lɑne hejhertoþjøl Demrez xress l þɑ huejis tyrijis ur

therefore past.pfv.scatter.3rdp.pl Lord.nom they.acc from.there across world.acc whole.acc and

So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they hejrɑhortejøl jɑ nmis. past.pfv.term.build.3

rdp.pl city.acc

stopped building the city. 9 No u ofe ľ teðŕ, nɑ momɑzenjø m “Bɑ ľ” – ne no uðŕ , nɑ s l

that pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg reason , that.conj past.impfv.call.3rdp.pl i .acc “Bab l” –for that.dat , that.conj there

That is why it was called Babel – because there hejmentsojøl Demrez n rniris huejoþ tyrijoþ. Xress l hejhertoþjøl Demrez past.pfv.confuse.3rdp.pl Lord.nom language.acc world.gen whole.gen . from.there past.pfv.scatter.3rdp.pl Lord.nom

the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered eljis þɑ l zowis huejoþ tyrijoþ. they.acc across face.acc world.gen whole.gen .

them over the face of the whole earth.

§4.5.2 The Poem of the Ring – e i on o

Miþɑ þ k ne mɑ ð k ndrek inje three.nom ring.gen.pl for king.dat.pl Elf.dat.pl under sky.loc ,

Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, Rweþɑ ne demrezzrek Dwarvdrek tɑ tomezejek døminjóvzejek nɑ elɑ k seven.nom for lord.dat.pl Dwarf.dat.pl in hall.loc.pl stony.loc.pl their.loc.pl ,

Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Arr ðrek Lomorjóvdrek, reljek zuðɑ ŋ m nine.nom for Man.dat.pl Mortal.dat.pl , which.conj.nom.pl doom.3rdp.pass die.sup ,

Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, Gewɑ ne Demrezzŕ Þumńdŕ ót mɑ ð m þ mńzej nɑ mɑ One.nom for Lord.dat Dark.dat on throne.loc dark.loc his.loc

One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne Tɑ t Morðoroþ, hilj fozo øl jizek. in land.loc Mordor.gen , where lie.3rdp.pl shadow.pl .

In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ þ ð m ello, Gewɑ þ ɑ eljis, One.nom Ring.gen rule.sup all.acc they.par , One.nom Ring.gen find.sup they.acc ,

One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, Gewɑ þ m ello ur tɑ þumenjemozej eljis, One.nom Ring.gen bring.sup all.acc they.par and in darkness.loc bind.sup they.acc ,

One Ring to bring them all, and in the darkness bind them, Tɑ t Morðoroþ, hilj fozo øl jizek. in land.loc Mordor.gen , where lie.3rdp.pl shadow.pl .


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§4.5.3 e o e – Þ imindń Demrezoþ Dɑ ŕ nɑ on, reljek ofe øl tɑ rɑ ɑ Father.nom our.exc.nom , which.conj.nom.pl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl in heaven.loc ,

Our Father, who art in heaven, nure þæn ofe ľ ŋ ɑþæl. holy.nom subj pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg name.nom your.nom .

hallowed be thy name. Þæn hɑ ľ nemɑ wľ nɑþæl. subj pres.impfv.come.3rdp.sg kingdom.nom your.nom .

Thy kingdom come. Þæn røð ŋ ɑzznek nɑþælɑ k subj pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass wish.nom.pl your.nom.pl

Thy will be done ót monŕzej kæjrr, nɑ ð ŋ tɑ rɑ ɑ on earth.loc same.adv , that pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass in heaven.loc .

on earth as it is in heaven. ondŕ k k þ emjóvis nɑ onɑ imp.give.2

ndp.pl we.exc.dat today bread.acc daily.acc our.exc.acc ,

Give us this day our daily bread, mmɑ m w n ønis ɑ w þek nɑw ɑ þek, and imp.forgive.2ndp.pl we.exc.acc sin.gen.pl our.exc.gen.pl ,

and forgive us our trespasses, kæjrr nɑ mmɑ m m uþijis, reljek zomɑ p t ondŕ, same.adv that pres.impfv.forgive.1stp.pl those.acc , which.conj.nom.pl pres.impfv.sin.3rdp.pl against we.exc.dat ,

as we forgive those who trespass against us, w ðoz nzľ ønis tɑ wilzzń ŕ, and imp.lead.2ndp.pl.neg we.exc.acc in temptation.dat ,

and lead us not into temptation, yss wɑ n ønis xres sowoþ. but/rather imp.save.2ndp.pl we.exc.acc from evil.gen .

but deliver us from evil. Þæn os ofe ľ. subj thus pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg .

Amen.

§4.5.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – el nn i o v e

vo ek olt o le -het ɑm ø tɑ þ muwofez swɑ k k ðonjó k m m ɑ m k pres.impfv.be.born.3

rdp.pl all.nom person.par.cltpl be.vbadv free.nom.pl and equal.nom.pl dignity.inst and right.inst.pl .

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. mɑþjøl ɑ ótuwis ur iþozót w øl zrizot sorń t ŕ pres.impfv.possess.3rdp.pl reason.acc and conscience.acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged.3rdp.pl act.inf each.nom other.dat

They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another ɑem sor ossɑ þ spirit.inst brotherhood.gen .

in a spirit of brotherhood.

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§4.5.5 The Oath of t e i t t – Be ŕ o o ek o Ameþ ŋ ľ ɑ ŋŕ tɑ w lzej ɑm ľ zzń ɑþó; pres.prog.rflx.gather.3rdp.sg and in hour.loc this.loc pres.prog.inch.be.3rdp.sg watch.nom my.nom ;

Night gathers and now my watch begins Unurɑ ľ ľ mŕðŕ ɑþóðŕ fut.impfv.term.be.3rdp.sg.neg it.nom until death.dat my.dat .

It shall not end until my death Un o dm ľ ɑ ɑ t t fut.impfv.wed.1stp.sg.neg wife.com which.neg.com ,

I shall take no wife Un o mɑþm ľ ðuwizek esslizek, unþoþɑ ð m ľ w k k fut.impfv.possess.1stp.sg.neg land.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl , fut.impfv.father.1stp.sg.neg child.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl ;

Hold no lands, father no children Unþoþ w m ľ mɑ m xizek esslizek ur unzro km ľ þorðŕ ɑm fut.impfv.rflx.wear.1stp.sg.neg crown.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl and fut.impfv.win.1stp.sg.neg for rflx.dat glory.acc which.neg.acc ,

I shall wear no crowns and win no glory Unhohæzɑtm nelomormoj, munrøz ót ruwezej nɑþózej. fut.impfv.live.1

stp.sg and fut.pfv.die.1

stp.sg , stand.vbadv on assignment.loc my.loc .

I shall live and die at my post Þó ofezmoj ri tɑ þumenjemozej, I.nom pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg sword.nom in darkness.loc

I am the sword in the darkness Þó ofezmoj so ŋ t k I.nom pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg watcher.nom on wall.loc.pl ,

I am the watcher on the walls Þ m ŋŕ þɑ ŋ ľ p t nlejemoðŕ I.nom pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg fire.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg against cold.dat ,

I am the fire that burns against the cold Æ ŕ hɑ ľ ɑ ŋ þ light.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg sunrise ,

the light that brings the dawn Hɑ þ ľ m k horn.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake.3rdp.sg sleeper.acc.pl ,

the horn that wakes the sleepers ŕ ľ k roltɑ þþ. shield.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard.3rdp.sg realm.acc.pl person.gen.cltpl .

the shield that guards the realms of men w m ŋ ðrek Hɑ ŋ þ hæzɑtw t r tøwis nɑþ pres.impfv.pledge.1stp.sg Guard.dat.pl Night.gen life.acc and honor.acc my.acc

I pledge my life and honor to the Night's Watch Þɑ ɑ ŋ ljis hɑ ŋŕ w k wɑm w k through night.acc this.acc and all.acc night.par.pl actpart.pres.prog.remain.par.pl yet .


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§4.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – le el pr t b Entssulfriddŕ ŋm ľ n yrjowot entssulfriþ . pres.impfv.ought.1stp.sg.neg feel.inf fear.inst .

I must not fear. Entssulfriþ ofe ľ skrɑ ɑ þ. fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg killer.nom mind.gen .

Fear is the mind-killer. Entssulfriþ ofe ľ lomŕ peþń, rel hɑ ľ t w t þ þ. fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg death.nom little.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg annihilation.gen complete.gen .

Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration. Undɑ mm ɑŋ t ŕ nɑþóðŕ. fut.pfv.turn.1stp.sg toward fear.dat my.dat .

I will face my fear. Un ellɑ m ɑ þæn unrøjrikjľ ur un ŋrøvjľ þɑ þ . fut.pfv.all.1stp.sg , that.conj subj fut.pfv.pass.over.3rdp.sg and fut.pfv.move.through.3rdp.sg through I.acc .

I will permit it to pass over me and through me. Ur dre unp ŋ øvjľ or , wɑ tomlɑ m tɑ þorðŕ þɑ ŋøwis nɑ ɑ and when fut.pfv.move.past.3

rdp.sg it.nom , then.conj fut.pfv.look.1

stp.sg inward rflx.dat see.sup way.acc its.acc .

And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path. p ŋ øvjľ entssulfriþ, unwofe ľzľ runtsľ. there , where fut.pfv.move.past.3rdp.sg fear.nom , fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg.net what.neg.nom .

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. Wussorr unw m þó. alone.adv fut.impfv.remain.1stp.sg I.nom .

Only I will remain.

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Chapter 5: æ üt J l ób – The Speech of the South


1. Cʰ A [pʰ tʰ kʰ] [p t k ]; p t ɑ t ɑ ttɑ k ttɑ 2. Adjacent affricates simplify t tw t m t p m p t ej sepsej) 3. Raising of [o oː] in stressed monosyllables and by analogy their oblique forms to [u uː]; (rom

rum, romis rumis, mor mur, moris, muris) 4. Vowel harmony; high and low vowels in post-tonic syllables are fronted or backed depending on

the nature of the tonic vowel: Fronting: [u] [ʉ], [o] [ɵ], [ɑ] [æ]; triggered by [i] and [æ] Backing: [i] [ɨ], [e] [e], [æ] [ɑ] t [ ] [ɑ] Irregularities in the system are that [e] is immune to backing, and the high-mid vowels [e] and [o] do not trigger either fronting or backing. ɑ ŋ ɑ ŋ ɨ ŋ m ŋ mɵ, wt un wt ʉn, morpir morpir, ærom ærɵm)

5. Vː[j ʊ] V[j ʊ] t tunojd) 6. [ ] [iː] m t j m t wmɑ k j howmɑ k 7. lVr rVl; (slære loren rolen) 8. N# Ø#; ( rolen role, gwɑ m gwɑ wɑ wɑ t æn t m 9. [t ʃ ʒ] [ʃ ʒ] el, e ɑ orɑ ɑ ɑ 10. Short, back vowels in final, unstressed syllables become [ə]; (rɑ ɑ rɑ unos un s,

t t, nɑ nɑ ) 11. #ʔ #Ø, ʔ h in other environments; (‘ɑ ɑ ɑ’ t ɑ t w ’ weh ’

huhe) 12. A[w j] A[ ] wˈ ˈ ) 13. ArV AVr; when the vowel is a diphthong followed by a nasal, the diphthong simplifies, losing

its glide role rɑ ɑ t t t t) 14. VzV V V pt w w t V t

t l drez l) 15. Leveling in the nasal declensions and conjugations of the nasal archiphoneme; intervocalically it

becomes [n], when adjacent to a consonant it assumes its place of articulation; (de t ɑ ə ɑ mm ɑ ɑ ɲ l)

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16. Leveling of root-final affricates that come from former aspirated stops to the nominative case or verb root; (bist bist is bist , hertot hertot məj hertot )

17. Shift in the mid-high and high short vowels, [u o i e] [ʊ ɔ ɪ ɛ]; ( e ɛ əʊ jʊ əʊ, ime ɪmɛ orle ɔrlɛ)

18. Leveling of long vocalic allophones throughout declensions and conjugations. 19. Loss of quant t t w t t ɛ nujɛ w t ʉ w t ʉ, gewɑ gewɑ ɑ

jɑ ) 20. [k ] [x] / _C, _ Vᴮ; [ç] / _Vᶠ k ɛtt çɛtt k ɛl xnɛ k ɑʊ ɛ xɑʊ ɛ) 21. [sç] [ç] 22. Leveling of [əʊ] from old final [ɑː] to oblique forms; ( ɛn w ɛnɑɪ ɛn wɪs, jɛt w

jɛt ɑɪ jɛt wɪs) 23. Radical change in the accentual system, with substrates causing a shift to a pitch accent system;

the old stressed syllable now possesses a high pitch, with the foll owing syllable falling back down to the base pitch; pre-tonic syllables rise in pitch as they approach the high syllable; when the post-tonic low tone falls on [ə], it becomes [ɑ] ˈɑ ə ɑ rɑ ̍ tə r ltɑ ̍ ɪ ɛk n rnɪrɛk)

24. Leveling of this new low [ɑ] t t m jɑ nə jɑ nɑ jɑ nɑ ɪ ɑ nɑ t; tɛ dər tɛ dɑ tɛ dɑ ɪ tɛ dɑ ət)

25. [ɑ.o] [ɑ.ə] [ɑʊ] when unstressed; (roltɑ t roltɑwt t m ɑ t t m ɑwt) 26. [ɑ.i] [ɑ.ɨ] [ɑ ] w t ttɑ ttɑ ) 27. Initial fricatives voiced; ( e e, çettɑ ʝettɑ e ɑ e ɑ, sræle zræle) 28. s# Ø#; (denis deni, demres demre)

§5.2 Phonological Inventory

§ 5.2.1 Consonants

Bilabial Dental Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] b[ː] t[ː]d[ː] k[ː] ɡ[ː]

Nasal m[ː] n[ː] (ɲ[ː]) ŋ[ː]

Fricative s[ː] z[ː] ʃ[ː] ʒ[ː] ç[ː] (ʝ) x[ː] (ɣ) h Affricate p [ː] t [ː]

Tap ɾ [r] Approximant w[ː] j[ː]

Lat. Approx. l[ː] (ʎ[ː])

In addition, the loss of final nasals has yielded a special nasal phoneme /N/, which assumes either the pronunciation [n] when intervocalic or the position of an immediately following consonant.

An important part of the phonology Nærüt Jul ób is the feature of vowel harmony. Vowel harmony is triggered by the syllable that carried stress in Nærut N , which now carries a high pitch. Because of the fall in pitch after the high syllable, speakers of other dialects often perceive this as a shift in stress of one syllable toward the end of the word.

The dental affricate /t / is realized as /t/ in final position because of the loss of word-final /s/.

Brewer 65


Front Central Back

High i ɨ ʉ u High-Mid ɪ ʊ

Mid e ɵ o Low-Mid ɛ ə ɔ

Low æ ɑ


ɑj, ɑʊ, ɔj, ɔʊ, ɵj, ɵʊ, ʊj, ɨʊ, ʉj, æj, æʊ, ɛʊ, ɪʊ, əj, əʊ


Symbol IPA

A ɑ ɑ O o ɔ

Ó ó o

U u ʊ u

Æ æ æ E e ɛ

É é e I i ɪ

i ə

Ï ï ɨ

Symbol IPA

Ö ö ɵ Ü ü ʉ

P p p

p B b b

T t t t t , t

D d d K k k

x, ɣ, ç, ʝ G g g

M m m

Symbol IPA

N n n, ɲ Ŋ ŋ ŋ

S s s

Z z z ʃ

ʒ H h h

R r r W w w

J j j L l l, ʎ

As opposed to its sister tongue, Nærüt Jul ób has a far greater number of qualitative vowel distinctions, which thus requires a larger number of graphemes to represent each vowel quality.

The graphemes utilized in Nærut N to represent the aspirated stops are carried over in this language to represent the descendants of those sounds. In the case of the former bilabial and dental aspirates, they now represent affricates. The situation with the velar aspirate is more complicated, however. It lenited, becoming a fricative; before front vowels, it became the voiceless palatal fricative [ç], and before back vowels and consonants the voiceless velar fricative [x]. In initial position, both of these sounds have voiced allop m t t t p m t t p t t

p t t p m t p t t [t] w -final [s] has been lost.

Long consonants are indicated by a doubling of the consonant grapheme.

Though initial fricatives are voiced, this is not reflected in the orthography.

66 Brewer

§5.3 Morphology

§5.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal, and Adjectival


Masc. Fem. Neu. Masc. Fem. Neu. Masc. Fem. Neu.

Nominative (Backing) (Fronting) (Neutral) ek t ï t

Accusative ï / j i / j ïrek / jrek

irek / jrek ï t ï t ï

t t

Partitive lo / lɑ lö lo / lɑ lowek löwek lowek t ï t t Dative

(Inanimate) t ɑt

/ t wt t

t / ɑt t wt

t k wt k

t k t k wt k

tt ï wtt ï

tt (in.)

tt wtt

Dative (Animate)

drɑ r dræ drɑ drek drɑt ï t drɑt

Locative s t s k t k k ek

t ï / t t ï t ï / t ï

t / t t t / t

Instrumental (Inanimate)

he henek t ï t

Instrumental (Animate)

ent entsek

While in Nærut N the ending was only attached to the final constituent of a noun

phrase unless marked for emphasis, in Nærüt Jul ób all constituents are marked. Over time, the meaning of multiple-constituent marking weakened to the point that it held no special meaning, instead only serving to tie each noun phrase together.

The genitive and dative languages have merged in Nærüt Jul ób into a single dative case, used for both indirect objects and possession. The old dative endings have been maintained with pronouns and animate nouns, whereas the old genitive endings have displaced those of the dative with inanimate nouns. Adjectives modifying animate nouns agree in animacy with their head noun.

The comitative and instrument cases have merged as well, with the pronouns and animate nouns being marked with the old comitative endings and inanimate nouns with the original instrumental case markers. Adjectives modifying animate nouns agree in animacy with their head noun.

The endings of the locative case are immune to vowel harmony, as the phoneme /iː/ originated in the diphthong / /.

The bilabial and velar variants of the locative case have disappeared, since with the loss of final nasals the form that the nasal phoneme /N/ assumes can only be the dental [n]. This means that the only epenthetic voiceless stop needed would be /t/.

Word roots ending in [ɑ] t k t t m pheme {-j} in the singular when the [ɑ] w final in Nærut N a, regardless of gender.

Any noun or adjective that ended in the phoneme /s/ in Nærut N a will now have a stem morpheme {-s-} that appears before any case endings are attached.

Brewer 67


§5.3.2.1 Case Morphology

Singular 1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu.

Nominative t ɑw de ru ærö orɑ Accusative t ɑwï deni runï æröni orɑ i

Partitive t ɑwlɑ denlɑ runlɑ ærönlö orɑ l Dative t ɑwdrɑ dendrɑ rundrɑ æröndræ orɑ dr

Locative t ɑw dents ru t ærö t orɑ t

Instrumental t ɑwent denent runent ærönent orɑ ent

Plural

1st Plural Inclusive –

Masc. 1st Plural Exclusive – Fem.

and Neu. 2nd Plural – Masc.

and Neu. 3rd Plural –

Fem. Nominative nɑ ɑ mor ttɑ dæd

Accusative nɑ ɑwï mori ettɑj dædi Partitive nɑrɑl morlɑ ttɑl dædlæ

Dative nɑ ɑdr mordrɑ ttɑdr dæddræ Locative nɑrɑ m ttɑ dæts

Instrumental nɑ ɑw t morent ttɑent dædent

1st Plural Inclusive – Fem.

and Neu. 1st Plural Exclusive –

Masc. 2nd Plural –

Fem. 3rd Plural – Masc.

and Neu.

Nominative e ɑ u t æle el Accusative e ɑwi unï t æleji eli

Partitive e ɑl unlɑ t ælelö ellɑ Dative e ɑdr undrɑ t æledræ eldrɑ

Locative e ɑ unts t æle Instrumental e ɑwent unent t ælejent elent

§5.3.2.2 The Evolution of Gender After the appearance of the vowel harmony system, each of the three harmony patterns came to be associated with one of the third person singular pronouns: masculine, feminine, and neuter. This gave rise to a gender system, with those nouns that experienced backing becoming masculine, those with fronting becoming feminine, and those that remained neutral becoming neuter.

This reassociation of vowel harmony patterns with gender caused a reanalysis of the plural and dual pronouns as well. The dual category has disappeared, and the pronouns now serve to distinguish groups that are exclusively male, exclusively female, or of mixed company. Whichever pronoun is neuter is used to denote mixed groups.

Gender assignment is almost completely arbitrary. However, there are cases where nouns that denote people or animals have begun to take, rather than the ending appropriate to the ir vowel harmony, that appropriate to their real-world gender. For example, the word m hj (mother) should, following the vowel-backing paradigm, take the form *m hj ï in the accusative case. Instead, it takes the ending appropriate to the gender of a mother, namely feminine. This yields the form m hj i.

68 Brewer

Anaphoric pronouns agree with their antecedent in gender, so that masculine nouns are always referred to with ru, feminine nouns with ærö, and neuter nouns with or .

There are some signs that adjectives are beginning to take case endings that agree in gender w t t m t t t t ’ w m p tt t t t t point a relatively new and rare phenomenon, and is looked down on by educated speakers of th e language.

§5.3.2.3 Negative Pronouns Unlike in its sister languages, where the negative particle sul became a verbal affix, in Nærüt Jul ób it attached to the subject pronouns. It is thought that this is because of the strong non-pro-drop tendency in Nærüt Jul ób as opposed to its sisters.

All of this occurred before the syntactic realignment from VSO to SVO, so the forms were carried over, despite the fact that these pronouns no longer came after any verbs. However, because stative k “ ” “ pp ” p t V t t t w t t t begin with, and therefore never fused with the post-positive negative particle. When the sentence order for non-statives shifted, stative verbs were unaffected, and are therefore still marked with the negative particle sul even with pronominal subjects.

B t ’ t t m p k t m k both the subject pronoun and the verb as negative in all cases, stative verbs included. This is not yet standard, but it has become so common in the spoken language that it will likely begin to bleed into the written language in the near future.

These forms of the pronouns only appear in the subject position, and only take the nomin ative case. The exact form that the negative pronoun takes depends on the initial sound of the positive pronoun: if it is a vowel, it takes the phonetic form [zl], written <sl>; before consonants it is [zəl], written <s l>. The stress falls in the same place as in the positive forms.

Positive Form Negative Form

1st Person Singular t ɑw s lt ɑw 2nd Person Singular de s lde

3rd Person Singular, Masculine ru s lru

3rd Person Singular, Feminine ærö slærö 3rd Person Singular, Neuter orɑ slorɑ

1st Person Plural Inclusive, Masculine nɑ ɑ s lnɑ ɑ 1st Person Plural Inclusive, Feminine and Neuter e ɑ s l e ɑ

1st Person Plural Exclusive, Masculine and Neuter mor s lmor 1st Person Plural Exclusive, Feminine u s l u

2nd Person Plural, Masculine and Neuter ttɑ s ttɑ

2nd Person Plural, Feminine t s t 3rd Person Plural, Masculine and Neuter dæd s ldæd

3rd Person Plural, Feminine el s l el

Brewer 69

§5.3.3 Nominal and Adjectival Morphology ɑ ɑ – man (masc.)


Nominative ɑ ɑ ɑ ɑ k ɑ ɑ t ï Accusative ɑ ɑ ï ɑ ɑ ïrek ɑ ɑnï t ï

Partitive ɑ ɑ ɑ ɑnlowek ɑ ɑ t ï Dative ɑ ɑ ɑ ɑndrek ɑ ɑndrɑt ï

Locative ɑ ɑ t ɑ ɑnts jek ɑ ɑnts t ï Instrumental ɑ ɑ ent ɑ ɑnentsek ɑ ɑnent ï

dunɑ – sky (masc.)

Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative dunɑ dunɑ k dunɑ t ï

Accusative dunɑ ï dunɑ ïrek dunɑ t ï Partitive dunɑ dunɑ w k dunɑ t ï

Dative dunɑ t dunɑ t k dunɑ tt ï Locative dunɑ dunɑ jek dunɑ t ï

Instrumental dunɑ dunɑ k dunɑjhent ï

t – hour (fem.)


Nominative t t k tt Accusative t t k bist t

Partitive t ö t öwek t öt Dative t öt t öt k bi t ött

Locative t t jek t t Instrumental t t k t t

ɑ – cup (masc.)


Nominative ɑ ɑhejek ɑ t ï

Accusative ɑ ï ɑ jïrek ɑ t ï Partitive ɑhel ɑhelowek ɑ t ï

Dative ɑ t ɑ t k ɑ tt ï Locative ɑ ɑ jek ɑ t ï

Instrumental ɑ ɑ ek ɑhehent ï Unlike in Nærut Nɑ ɑ ɑ t p t t ɑ ób. This is widely considered to be an areal effect associated with some of the languages native to the area, which operate on an SOV alignment. This same tendency is thought to be the reason that the basic syntactic alignment has changed to SVO, and some scholars even believe that this may represent an early stage i n a complete shift to the same SOV system seen in the surrounding languages.

70 Brewer

§5.3.4 The Definite Article

The old singular, distal demonstrative pronoun from Nærut N has been reanalyzed as a definite article, with its plural falling into disuse after replacements were borrowed from neighboring L B j. The definite article is affixed to the end of the noun after any inflections for case and/or number, and does not itself inflect, taking the form {-no}. It does not attach to any adjectives modifying a definite noun. Its vowel does not reduce, but rather possesses its own high pitch, and it prevents any preceding vowels from experiencing vowel reduction. It is also immune to fronting by vowel harmony, and therefore does not change according to gender. The special nasal phoneme /N/ is realized as [n] when it precedes the definite article. The /s/ in the accusative singular reappears with the definite article. Examples: ɑ ɑ m m ɑ ɑ t m ɑ ɑ k m ɑ ɑ k t m hɑ rɑm w t (agreement, an agreement) hɑ rɑm w tno (the agreement), hɑ ɑm w tek (agreements) hɑ ɑm w tekno t hortejunno, hortejunek (builders) hortejunekno (the builders) Definite Declensions: nno – the cat (fem.)

Case Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative nekno t

Accusative nirekno t Partitive öno nlöwekno t

Dative æno ndrekno t

Locative k t Instrumental entsno nentsekno t

ɑ no – the cup (masc.)


Nominative ɑ ɑ k ɑ t Accusative ɑ ɑ k ɑ t

Partitive ɑ ɑ w k ɑ t

Dative ɑ t ɑ t k ɑ tt Locative ɑ ɑ k ɑ t

Instrumental ɑ ɑ k ɑ t

– the time (neu.)

Case Singular Plural Collective Plural Nominative lenekno t

Accusative izno irekno t Partitive lono lowekno lot

Dative t t k tt

Locative k t Instrumental heno henekno t

Brewer 71

§5.3.5 Verbal Affixes

Non-Finite Forms –

Active Infinitive: - / -rï - -ïr - -ï

Passive Infinitive: -s - - -sü / -zü / -rü / -sɑ - ɑ - ɑ

Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mu- + -i - -ï

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw- + - - / -ï

Person Suffixes –

1st P. Singular, Active: -mɑj / -möj / -m j / -moj-

2nd P. Singular, Active: -æ / -ɑ / - 3rd P. Singular, Active: -jɑl / -jöl / -j l /

-jol-

1st P. Plural, Active: -mɑjhi / -möjhi / -mojhï / -mojhi

2nd P. Plural, Active: -ænhi / -ɑ ï 3rd P. Plural, Active: -jɑlhi / -jölhi / -jolhï

/ -jolhi

1st Person, Passive: - e / - e

2nd Person, Passive: -ohe / -öhe 3rd Person, Passive: -ŋ / -ŋü

Tense Prefixes –

Present: Ø- Past: -

Future: un- Aspect Prefixes –

Imperfective: Ø- (present) / [C]o- / w- / ro- (past and future)

Perfective: Ø-

Progressive: ɑm - Mood Prefixes –

Conditional: ste-

Subjunctive: t æn-

Imperative -

Verbal suffixes exhibit multiple forms because they are always post-tonic, and therefore affected by vowel harmony. Prefixes, on the other hand, will only ever have one form because they are inherently pre-tonic.

Second-person and gerundive verbal suffixes trigger rhotacism in verbs whose roots end in [Vz] .

Third-person verbal suffixes trigger jod coalescence in verbs whose roots end in [s z t d], and verbs ending in the sequence [st] mutate further to [-ssVl], with whichever vowel is required for harmony.

The inchoative and terminative have lost their status as separate aspects, and the verbs enne (to begin/start) and r orï (to end/finish) are now used in conjunction with an infinitive.

Verbs that begin with [z] take the imperfective marker {ro-} in the past tense, as intervocalic rhotacism changes the reduplicated imperfective marker {zo-} into {ro-}. These verbs also experience rhotacism of their initial consonants in all of the past perfective and progressive forms, along with the present active perfective participle. This prevents rhotacism of the root initial [z], as two rhotacized fricatives cannot follow one another.

The supine morpheme has displaced the old active infinitive ending, and is now used for all the functions that both forms originally encompassed. It is metathesized when it appears after an affricate.

When the negative clitic is added to the end of a word, it can restore a reduced vowel to its previous full grade. This occurs with the infinitive and the 1st and 3rd person singular endings that are realized with / /. As it is a clitic and not a full-fledged part of the word it attaches to, it resists fronting through vowel harmony.

72 Brewer

§5.3.6 Verbal Morphology

§5.3.6.1 Neutral Conjugation: Verb Root – op es (to be) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their prefixes.)

Infinitive: o ez Imperfective Verbal Adverb: muwo

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw

Past Present Future Active Voice

Imperfective

1st Person Sing. w ezm j ezm j unw ezm j 2nd Person Sing. w eræ eræ unw eræ

3rd Person Sing. w e l e l unw e l 1st Person D & P w ezmojhi ezmojhi w ezmojhi

2nd Person D &P wo erænhi erænhi w erænhi 3rd Person D & P w e olhi e olhi w e olhi

Perfective 1st Person Sing. ezm j - ezm j

2nd Person Sing. æ - æ

3rd Person Sing. e l - e l 1st Person D & P ezmojhi - ezmojhi

2nd Person D &P erænhi - erænhi 3rd Person D & P e olhi - e olhi

Progressive 1st Person Sing. ɑm ezm j ɑm ezm j unɑm ezm j

2nd Person Sing. ɑm eræ ɑm eræ unɑm eræ

3rd Person Sing. ɑm e l ɑm e l unɑm e l 1st Person D & P ɑm ezmojhi ɑm ezmojhi unɑm ezmojhi

2nd Person D &P ɑm erænhi ɑm erænhi unɑm erænhi 3rd Person D & P ɑm e olhi ɑm e olhi unɑm e olhi

Participles Imperfective uw w e uwo e uwunw e

Perfective w j - w

Progressive w ɑm wɑm w ɑm Passive Voice

Imperfective 1st Person w e e e unw e e

2nd Person w erohe ohe unw erohe 3rd Person w e ŋ ŋ unw ŋ

Perfective

1st Person e - e 2nd Person ohe - ohe

3rd Person ŋ - ŋ Progressive

1st Person ɑm e e ɑm e e unɑm e e

Brewer 73

2nd Person ɑm erohe ɑm erohe unɑm erohe 3rd Person ɑm e ŋ ɑm e ŋ unɑm e ŋ

Participles Imperfective hæm w e m e hæmunw e

Perfective m - hæmun Progressive m ɑm hæmɑm hæmunɑm

§5.3.6.2 Back Conjugation: Verb Root – b tï ( e) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their prefixes.)

Infinitive: bɑ tïrï Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mubɑ tïjï

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw ɑ tïjï

Past Present Future

Active Voice Imperfective

1st Person Sing. ɑ tïm j bɑ tïm j unbobɑ tïm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑ tïj bɑ tïj unbobɑ tïj

3rd Person Sing. ɑ tïj l bɑ tïj l unbobɑ tïj l

1st Person D & P ɑ tïmojhï bɑ tïmojhï unbobɑ tïmojhï 2nd Person D &P ɑ tïjɑ ï bɑ tïjɑ ï unbobɑ tïjɑ ï

3rd Person D & P ɑ tïjolhï bɑ tïjolhï unbobɑ tïjolhï Perfective

1st Person Sing. ɑ tïm j - unbɑ tïm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑ tïj - unbɑ tïj

3rd Person Sing. ɑ tïj l - unbɑ tïj l

1st Person D & P ɑ tïmojhï - unbɑ tïmojhï 2nd Person D &P ɑ tïjɑnhï - unbɑ tïjɑ ï

3rd Person D & P ɑ tïjolhï - unbɑ tïjolhï Progressive

1st Person Sing. ɑm bɑ tïm j ɑm bɑ tïm j unɑm bɑ tïm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑm bɑ tïj ɑm bɑ tïj unɑm bɑ tïj

3rd Person Sing. ɑm bɑ tïj l ɑm bɑ tïj l unɑm bɑ tïj l

1st Person D & P ɑm bɑ tïmojhï ɑm bɑ tïmojhï unɑm bɑ tïmojhï 2nd Person D &P ɑm bɑ tïjɑnhï ɑm bɑ tïjɑnhï unɑm bɑ tïjɑnhï

3rd Person D & P ɑm bɑ tïjolhï ɑm bɑ tïjolhï unɑm bɑ tïjolhï Participles

Imperfective uw bobɑ tï ubɑ tï uwunbobɑ tï Perfective w bɑ tï - uwunbɑ tï

Progressive w ɑm ɑ tï wɑm ɑ tï w ɑm ɑ tï

Passive Voice Imperfective

1st Person ɑ tïm j bɑ tïm j unbobɑ tïm j 2nd Person ɑ tïj bɑ tïj unbobɑ tïj

3rd Person ɑ tïj l bɑ tïj l unbobɑ tïj l

74 Brewer

Perfective 1st Person ɑ tïm j - unbɑ tïm j

2nd Person ɑ tïj - unbɑ tïj 3rd Person ɑ tïj l - unbɑ tïj l

Progressive 1st Person jɑm bɑ tïm j ɑm ɑ tïm j unɑm ɑ tïm j

2nd Person jɑm ɑ tïj ɑm ɑ tïj unɑm ɑ tïj

3rd Person jɑm ɑ tïj l ɑm ɑ tïj l unɑm ɑ tïj l Participles

Imperfective hæm bobɑ tï hæmbɑ tï hæmunbobɑ tï Perfective hæm ɑ tï - hæmunbɑ tï

Progressive hæm ɑm ɑ tï hæmɑm ɑ tï hæmunɑm ɑ tï

§5.3.6.3 Front Conjugation: Verb Root – nærni (speak) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their prefixes.)

Infinitive: Imperfective Verbal Adverb: munærn

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hɑw

Past Present Future Imperfective

1st Person Sing. möj nærnimöj unnonærnimöj 2nd Person Sing. æ nærnijæ unnonærnijæ

3rd Person Sing. öl nærnijöl unnonærnijöl 1st Person D & P möjhi nærnimöjhi unnonærnimöjhi

2nd Person D &P ænhi nærnijænhi unnonærnijænhi

3rd Person D & P ölhi nærnijölhi unnonærnijölhi Perfective

1st Person Sing. möj - unnærnimöj 2nd Person Sing. æ - unnærnijæ

3rd Person Sing. öl - unnærnijöl 1st Person D & P möjhi - unnærnimöjhi

2nd Person D &P ænhi - unnærnijænhi

3rd Person D & P ölhi - unnærnijölhi Progressive

1st Person Sing. ɑm nærnimöj ɑm möj unɑm möj 2nd Person Sing. ɑm æ ɑm æ unɑm æ

3rd Person Sing. ɑm öl ɑm öl unɑm öl 1st Person D & P ɑm möjhi ɑm möjhi unɑm möjhi

2nd Person D &P ɑm ænhi ɑm ænhi unɑm ænhi

3rd Person D & P ɑm ölhi ɑm ölhi unɑm ölhi Participles

Imperfective uw nonærni unærni uwunnonærni Perfective uw nærni - uwunnærni

Progressive uw ɑm uwɑm uwunɑm

Brewer 75

Passive Voice Imperfective

1st Person e nærni e unnonærni e 2nd Person öhe nærnijöhe unnonærnijöhe

3rd Person ŋ nærniŋ unnonærniŋ Perfective

1st Person e - unnærni e

2nd Person öhe - unnærnijöhe 3rd Person ŋ - unnærniŋ

Progressive 1st Person jɑm nærni e ɑm e unɑm e

2nd Person jɑm öhe ɑm öhe unɑm öhe 3rd Person jɑm rniŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ

Participles Imperfective hæm nonærni hæmnærni hæmunnonærni

Perfective hæm - hæmunnærni

Progressive hæm ɑm hæmɑm hæmunɑm

76 Brewer

§5.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms

The numerals one through ten govern the dative case, singular with one, plural with all the others. For numbers higher than ten, the final number will determine whether the genitive singular or plural is used.

The numerals one through ten are stressed on the second syllable of the root in the nominative, and on the first syllable of the desinence in the oblique cases.

All numerals decline like nouns and adjectives, though in numbers higher than ten only the last number combines with a case particle. The numerals one through ten are:

o gewɑ (one) o ɑ tw o m t ɑ t o ɑ tɑ o kon ɑ

o imɑ o rwet ɑ (seven) o luksɑ t o hojnɑ o sre ɑ t

Fraction terms are also stressed on the second syllable of the root, and also decline in the same fashion as noun and adjectives, just as numerals do. They govern the partitive case, but unlike numerals, the object determines which number is used. The first ten fractions are:

o getet (a whole) o jo et (a half) o mit et (a third) o ɑ t t t o kon et (a fifth)

o imet (a sixth) o w t t (a seventh) o lukset (an eighth) o hojnet (a ninth) o sre et (a tenth)

With the numeral roots for one through five, the suffix - can be added to create frequentative adverbs (i.e. once, twice). §5.3.8 Methods of Derivation

(When a derivational suffix is added to a word root that ends in the archiphoneme [N], it is realized in the form it held in Nærut Nɑ ɑ ɑ, as the derivation precedes the sound change.)

§5.3.8.1 Nouns from Verbs A t t ₁ t + d / dö + (case/number particles)

Examples: enne (begin) enned (beginning), rɑ o (end) rɑ (ending)

A t t ₂ t + + (case/number particles) Example: howmɑ t howmɑw t t t

Agent: verb root + re / er + (case/number particles) Examples: de(N) (rule) demre (lord), hertot t w t t er (pitcher)

Patient: verb root + l l l + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) hortej l (building), iræ(N) (plan) irænöl (a plan)

Occupation: verb root + j j j (N) + (case/number particles) mp m t w k m (job), horte (build) hortej (builder)

Location: verb root + s + (case/number particles) Examples: nehontel (settle) nehontelz (settlement), romes (learn) romess (school)

Brewer 77

Instrument: verb root + rek / erk + (case/number particles) Examples: nærni (speak) nærnirek (language), njæwr (spin) njæwrrek (wheel)

Master: verb root + r + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) t t t ŋ ros (fight) ŋ master of combat)

§5.3.8.2 Verbs from Nouns Method 1: ne + noun root + (person/number particles)

Examples: ontel (place) neh t tt leN (time) N (time [verb])

Method 2: som + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: porɑ (iron) somporo (forge), ɑ m somɑ t

Method 3: j + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: ɑŋ ï (fire) t ɑ ɑŋ ï (burn), ɑ m t ɑ ɑ k w

§5.3.8.3 Adjectives from Verbs Active Participle: u + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles)

mp t ɑ ɑŋ ï (burn) t ɑ ɑŋ ï (burning [pres. impfv.]), nærni (speak) nærni (speaking [past pfv.])

Passive Participle: hæm + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: nærni (speak) hæmnærni (spoken [pres. impfv]), orɑ t m orɑ (created [past pfv.])

Capability: verb root + h h t / hæt Examples: init (accept) inithæt (acceptable), horte (build) horte t (buildable)


Quality: adjective root + r r / rr / rr / ürr Examples: turï (whole) turïr w t ɑ (bright) t or r (brightly)

Positive Comparative: adjective root + / ö Examples: tɑ (fast) tɑ (more quickly), ime (good) imejö (better)

Diminutive Comparative: adjective root + i / ï Examples: tɑ t tɑ ï (a little more quickly), ime (good) imeji (a little better)

Negative Comparative: adjective root + li / lï Examples: tɑ t tɑ ï k t ɑ t t

Augmentative Comparative: adjective root + n / ön (resists final nasal dropping) Examples: tɑ t tɑ n (much more quickly), ime (good) imejön (much better)

Positive Superlative: adjective root + Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t m t k m m t t t

Negative Superlative: adjective root + har / hær / h r Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t k t ɑ ht) t r (the least brightly)

Elative: adjective root + m m mö Examples: tɑ t tɑ m (most quickly), ime (good) imemö (most well)

Enough: adjective root + t Examples: tɑ t tɑ t t m good) imetö (well enough)

Very: adjective root + b b b Examples: tɑ t tɑ wt (very quickly), ime (good) imebæwt (very well)

78 Brewer

§5.3.8.5 Verbs from Adjectives ro + adjective root + (person/number particles)

Examples: stiri (important) t m tt t robet (age)

to become: obe + adjective root + (person/number particles) mp t ɑ t t o t e (happy) m pp e (happier) e (become happier), mostɑ [m t k t ] obemostɑ (become most quick)

make so: ne + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: swɑ nezwɑ m k m nejime (make good)

§5.3.8.6 Nouns from Adjectives Quality: Adjective root + / j jmö

mp t m k t m m k m imejemö (goodness), e (home) emmɑ (homeless) emmɑjm m

Personal Embodiment: Adjective root + æw / Examples: ser (brave) ser ɑw ɑ ɑ m ɑw t

§5.3.8.7 Verbal Adverbs Imperfective: mu + verb root + i / ï (triggers rhotacism in verb roots ending in the sequence

[Vz] pp w t t-harmony verbs whose roots end in /i/) Examples: rojæs (have) murojær m w ri (being), nærni (speak) m p k

Perfective: h + verb root + i / ï (triggers rhotacism in verb roots ending in the sequence [Vz] pp w t t-harmony verbs whose roots end in /i/) Examples: nærni (speak) hɑw p k k ɑ k hɑw k ɑ ï (having killed)

§5.3.8.8 Nouns from Nouns Augmentative: noun root +

Examples: ɑŋ ï (fire) ɑŋ ïj [sun (lit. big fire)], demre (lord) Demres [ ] t ɑ p t ɑ (shovel)

Diminutive: noun root + i / ï / j Examples: ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑmï ɑw (woman) ɑjN r t m (kitten), hæræts (house) hæræts ni (cottage)

Elemental/Essential: noun root + sre / zre Examples: ɑŋ ï (fire) Aŋ w t ü (water) w t re (essence of water)

Abstract: noun root + (o)ssa / (ö)ssæ / (o)ss Examples: sor ɑ t sor oss (brotherhood), hihöt (sister) hihötössæ (sisterhood)

Master: tes / tez + noun root Examples: ri æ (sword) tezri æ (swordmaster), porɑ (iron) tesporɑ (blacksmith)

Decessive: verb root + h h / hö + (case/number particles) Examples: mɑ ɑ (king) mɑ (former/dead king), dɑ r (father) dɑ (dead father)

Falseness: noun root + ö S Examples: nærüt (speech) nærüt ö ŋ ɑ m ŋ ɑ (alias)

Nationality: noun root + r ü / r Examples: Jizrɑh l (Israel) Jizrɑh lrɑ (Israelite)

Brewer 79

Simple noun compounds are usually stressed on the second syllable of the second nominal element. When this results in the cluster [s ] or [ s], a second sound assimilates to the first. Example: mɑ ɑ k + ɑm mɑ ɑm (throne)

§5.3.8.9 Possessive Adjectives

n + 1st syllable of pronoun + / æ Examples:

o 1st t ɑw m t ɑ nɑt ɑw

o 2nd singular: de nɑ ɑ o 3rd singular, masculine:

ru nɑ mɑ o 3rd singular, feminine: ærö

nɑ æ o 3rd singular, neuter:

oro nɑ ɑ o 1st plural, inclusive, masc.:

nɑ ɑ nɑ ɑ ɑ o 1st plu., inc., fem. and neu.:

e ɑ nɑ e ɑ

o 1st plural, exc., fem. and neu.: mor nɑm ɑ

o 1st plural, exclusive, masculine: u nɑ onɑ

o 2nd plu., masc. and neu. ttɑ nɑ tɑ

o 2nd plu., feminine t nɑt

o 3rd plural, feminine: dæd nɑdædæ

o 3rd plural, masc. and neu.: el nɑ elɑ

§5.3.8.10 Adjectives from Nouns Semblative Adjectives: noun root + i / ï / i / ï (epenthetic voiceless stop appears after nasals)

mp t r mp i (catlike), ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑmp ï (manly)

Adjectives of Trait: noun root + j b / jöb Examples: otɑN (north) otɑm t t ɑ t t b (thunderous)

Abessive Adjectives: noun root + m / mæ Examples: ide (form) idemmæ (formless), e (home) emmɑ (homeless)

“- ” A t t + w r / wær Examples: otɑ (north) otɑmw r (northish), ɑ ɑ m ɑ ɑmw r (mannish)

§5.3.8.11 Adjectives from Adjectives

“- ” A t t t + w r / wær Examples: ælæ (slow) ælæwær (slowish), ɑ ɑ mwɑ

§5.3.8.12 Degrees of Comparison Positive Comparative: on + adjective root

Examples: tɑ t ontɑ t æ (slow) onælæ (slower)

Diminutive Comparative: in + adjective root Examples: tɑ t intɑ tt t w inælæ (a little slower)

Negative Comparative: liŋ + adjective root Examples: tɑ t ŋtɑ t w ŋ w

Augmentative Comparative: om + adjective root Examples: tɑ t omtɑ m t w omælæ (much slower)

Positive Superlative: + adjective root Examples: tɑ t t tɑ t t (slow) t æ (slowest)

80 Brewer

Negative Superlative: + adjective root Examples: tɑ t ɑ tɑ t t t æ (slow) ɑ t t w

Elative: mos + adjective root (triggers rhotacism when preceding an adjective beginning with a vowel) Examples: tɑ t mostɑ m t t æ (slow) morælæ (most slow)

Enough: tos + adjective root (triggers rhotacism when preceding an adjective beginning with a vowel) Examples: tɑ t tostɑ t w torælæ (slow enough)

Very: b + adjective root Examples: tɑ t) bɑwttɑ t w bɑwt w


completeness: + verb root mp erzu(N) (eat) erzu(N) (consume), romes (learn) m m t

semeliterative: m + verb root Examples: orɑm (be born) mɑ orɑm m mɑ m

durative (short): læs / læz / lær + verb root mp t tt m læzromes (to learn a little)

durative (long): es / ez / er + verb root Examples: entsori (play) erenstori (play a while), sulje(N) (sleep) essulje(N) (sleep a while)

protractive: led + verb root mp t ɑ(N) (watch) t ɑ(N) (watch on and on)

habitual (customary action): / iz / ir + verb root Examples: m j (I run) m j (I usually run), jɑl (ruled [perfective]) denjɑl (used to rule [perfective])

negative conative (attempted action implying failure): wil + verb root Examp m u(N) (jump over) w mo u(N) (try to jump over [and fail]), romes (learn) wilromes (try to learn [and fail])

neutral conative (attempted action with no implied outcome): sos / soz / sor + verb root Examples: ældö (make) sorældö (try to make), romes (learn) sozromes (try to learn)

positive conative (attempted action implying success): rem + verb root Examples: ældö (make) remældö (try to make [and succeed]), romes (learn) remromes (try to learn [and succeed])

reversionary: l + verb root Examples: rodi (do) ɑ ö (make) ɑ ö (disassemble)

momentane: gew + verb root Examples: mo u(N) (jump) gewmo u(N) (jump once), ilzos (annoy) gewilzos (momentarily annoy)

desiderative: dri + verb root mp ɑ t ɑ w k drinrow(N) (be thirsty)

reflexive: o + verb root Examples: rojæs (have) t ŋ m (N) (ask) t ŋ m (N) (wonder)

motion away: er + verb root Examples: runɑ w k errunɑ w k w er w

Brewer 81

motion toward: h + verb root Examples: runɑ w k hɑ ɑ w k t w hɑ t w

motion around/about: u(m) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k urunɑ w k (go)

motion over: + verb root Examples: runɑ w k ɑ w k

motion under: in(e) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k inerunɑ w k


motion out of: emi + verb root Examples: runɑ w k emirunɑ w k t m t

motion through: e(r) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k errunɑ w k t t

motion ahead: ge(m) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k gerunɑ w k w w

motion onto: o(d) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k orunɑ w k t t

motion up: + verb root Examples: runɑ w k t ɑ w k p t p

motion down: he + verb root Examples: runɑ w k herunɑ w k w w

motion past: pro + verb root Examples: runɑ w k prorunɑ w k p t p p t

§5.3.9 Honorifics ul b utilizes a complex set of honorific particles to indicate relative status.


me peers, simple politeness or / r / ör inferior to superior, respect

to / t / tö inferior to superior, deep respect t t ïl superior to inferior, respect

min / mi / mïn / mï spouses ɑ e / ɑ children to parents

æn / æ / ɑ ɑ parents to children

ü student to teacher wes / we young person to older person (age difference of 25 years or more)

er old person to younger person (age difference of 25 years or more) Honorific particles precede case particles. They are normally only used with personal names and personal pronouns, and they almost never appear in the 1st person. They can also serve a vocative function when used with a noun placed in sentence initial position. They can also be added to the imperative form a verb in lieu of the old verbal endings.

82 Brewer

§5.4 Syntax

In Nærut N , the standard sentence order was Verb-Subject-Object. However, in stative sentences with the verb o (to be), sentence order became Subject-Verb. In Nærüt Jul ób, this syntax has generalized to all cases, and the unmarked sentence order is now Subject-Verb-Object.

Standard word order in passive voice is Verb-Subject-(Agent), and the agent, when present, is marked by the instrumental case. Other word orders are possible, and are used to shift focus.

However, any sentence order is possible because the grammatical endings always make syntactic roles clear.

As in earlier forms of the language, in interrogative sentences, syntax is verb-second. Responses to questions place the information relevant to the inquiry in initial position.

While its sister languages have a strong pro-drop tendency, Nærüt Jul ób almost always keeps its subjects.

Brewer 83

§5.5 Translations

§5.5.1 The Tower of Babel – kno B bel t

nne -9 1 Tɑ lït orlents ek, turï huheno rorojæ l gewɑ ï nærnireköt ɑ welɑ

in those.loc time.loc.pl , whole.nom world.nom.def past.impfv.have.3rdp.sg one.acc language.dat and common.acc

Now the whole world had one language and a common nærüti. speech.acc .

speech. 2 Erdɑ oltɑt ino neljolhi hɑ ɑnel t , el ronrɑjolhi ɑ enï tɑ ɑr s l

while person.cltpl.def past.impfv.go.3rdp.pl to east.dat , they.nom past.pfv.find.3rdp.pl plain.acc in Shinar.loc and there

As the people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled nehonteljolhi. past.pfv.settle.3rdp.pl

there. 3 el olhi sorɑ t ldrɑ “ wældömöjhi horterekirek ɑ ɑ mm ï

they.nom past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl each.nom other.dat.def , “i p. ak .1stp.pl brick.acc.pl and imp.bake.1stp.pl

They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake eli imerü ” el bobɑstïjolhï horterekhenek ɑ dominhenek, ɑr mehe ɑ wɑt dhe. h y.acc oo .a v .” h y. o past.impfv.use.3rdp.pl brick.inst.pl for stone.inst.pl , and tar.inst for mortar.inst .

them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Wɑ el reldu “ hortemojhi ne t ordrɑ ɑ ɑ ï, murojæri pɑ ïkï, wrel

then they.nom past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ,”i p.buil .1

stp.pl for rflx.dat city.acc , have.vbadv tower.acc , which.nom

Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower t nundodɑrjɑ ɑ rɑ ɑwt kno, ɑ nɑ ɑ t nunældömöjhi ne t ordrɑ eŋ ɑj; ti subj.fut.impfv.climb.3rdp.sg to heaven.dat.pl.def , чтобы we.inc.nom subj.fut.pfv.make.1stp.pl for rflx.dat name.acc ; if

that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise ræl sɑ wɑ nɑ ɑ unhertot mojhi t ɑ r löwizno turïj t huhejot no ” thus not , then we.inc.nom fut.pfv.scatter.1

stp.pl across face.acc.def whole.dat world.dat.def .”

we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 A Demrezonno neljolhi he ɑ t t jɑ ɑ ïzno ɑ pɑrïkïzno, wreli roltɑt ino

but Lord.nom.def past.pfv.go.3rdp.pl downward see.inf city.acc.def and tower.acc.def , which.acc person.cltpl.def

But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were ɑmehortejolhi. past.prog.build.3rdp.pl .

building. 6 Demrezonno “ dre stemuwo eri gewɑ tɑdrɑt i, wrelek

Lord.nom.def past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ,”if when cond.be.vbadv one.nom person.dat.cltpl , which.nom.pl

The Lord said, “If as one people nærnijölhi kæjhe nærnirekhe, el ennejolhi rodi lï, wɑ pres.impfv.speak.3rdp.pl same.inst language.inst , they.nom past.pfv.do.3rdp.pl do.inf this.acc , then

speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then uwun ɑhɑts l t unwo e l sul ne eldrɑ runtsɑ w el actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg subj.fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg neg for they.dat what.neg , which.acc they.nom

nothing they plan to do will be impossible

84 Brewer

unwirænjölhi fut.impfv.plan.3rdp.pl do.inf for them.

7 D nelmojhi he ɑ ɑ mentsomojhi nɑdædæj nærnireki, ɑ el imp.go.1

stp.pl downward and imp.confuse.1

stp.pl their.acc language.acc, чтобы they.nom

Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand t nuntsoromɑ eljolhï sɑ ɑ t lizno ” subj.fut.impfv.understand.3rdp.pl neg each.nom other.acc.def .”

each other.” 8 Lɑne Demrezonno hertot jolhi eli erss l t ɑ turïjï huhejïzno ɑ el

therefore Lord.nom.def past.pfv.scatter.3rd

p.pl they.acc from.there across whole.acc world.acc.def and they.nom

So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they rɑ jolhi horte jɑ ɑ ïzno. past.pfv.stop.3rdp.pl build.inf city.acc.def .

stopped building the city. 9 Lï o e l tedɑ no, nɑj el momɑrenjolhi runï “Bɑ ” neno udr nɑj

that.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg reason.def , that.conj they.nom past.impfv.call.3rdp.pl 3rdm c.acc “Bab l” , because

That is why it was called Babel – because s l Demrezonno mentsojolhi nærnirekizno turïj t t . erss l there Lord.nom.def past.pfv.confuse.3rdp.pl language.acc.def whole.dat world.dat.def . from.there

there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there Demrezonno hertot jolhi eli t ɑ r löwizno turïj t t . Lord.nom.def past.pfv.scatter.3rdp.pl they.acc across face.acc.def whole.dat world.dat.def .

the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.

§5.5.2 The Poem of the Ring – Re i o no lno k t no

Mit ɑ t k ne Elbendrek mɑ k ine three.nom ring.dat.pl for Elf.dat.pl king.dat.pl.def under sky.loc.def ,

Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, Rwet ɑ ne Dwɑ pdrek demrezdrekno tɑ nɑ elɑ ek m ek t m k, seven.nom for Dwarf.dat.pl lord.dat.pl.def in their.neu.loc.pl stony.loc.pl hall.loc.pl ,

Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Lomorjóbdrek Arrɑ k w k ɑ ŋ m nine.nom for Mortal.dat.pl Man.dat.pl , which.nom.pl doom.3rdp.pass die.sup ,

Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, Gewɑ ne m Demrezdrɑ ód nɑ mɑ t m mɑ ɑm one.nom for Dark.dat Lord.dat.def on his.loc dark.loc throne.loc

One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne Tɑ t t k olhi. in land.loc.def Mordor.dat , where shadow.pl.def lie.3rdp.pl

In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ ɑt ellɑ, Gewɑ ɑt ɑ eli, One.nom Ring.dat rule.inf all.acc they.neu.par , One.nom Ring.dat find.inf they.neu.acc ,

One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, Gewɑ ɑt ellɑ ɑ tɑ t m m u ïrï eli, One.nom Ring.dat bring.inf all.acc they.neu.par and in darkness.loc.def bind.inf they.neu.acc ,

One Ring to bring them all, and in the darkness bind them,

Brewer 85

Tɑ t t k olhi. in land.loc.def Mordor.dat , where shadow.pl.def lie.3rdp.pl


§5.5.3 e o e – imin o nno Demrez no

Nɑmorɑ Dɑ w k olhi tɑ rɑ ɑ our.exc.nom Father.nom , which.nom.pl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl heaven.loc in ,

Our Father, who art in heaven, nɑt ŋ ɑ t your.nom name.nom subj.pres.impfv.be.3

rdp.sg holy.nom .

hallowed be thy name. Nɑt nemɑ w t ɑ ɑ your.nom kingdom.nom subj.pres.impfv.come.3rdp.sg .

Thy kingdom come. Nɑt k ɑ ɑ k t ŋ your.nom.pl wish.nom.pl subj.pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass

Thy will be done ód m k ɑ ŋ tɑ rɑ ɑ on earth.loc same.adv , that 3rdsg.masc.nom pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass in heaven.loc .

on earth as it is in heaven. ɑ m ɑ ɑw e nɑm ɑ t m keki, imp.give.2ndp.pl we.exc.neu.dat today our.exc.neu.acc daily.acc bread.acc ,

Give us this day our daily bread, ɑ ærümmæjemöhi mori nɑm ɑwt k ɑ w t k and imp.forgive.2ndp.pl we.exc.neu.acc our.exc.neu.dat.pl sin.dat.pl ,

and forgive us our trespasses, kæjrür nɑ m ærümmæjemömöjhi t , wrelek somɑ p t mordrɑ, same.adv that we.exc.neu.nom pres.impfv.forgive.1stp.pl those.acc , which.nom.pl pres.impfv.sin.3rdp.pl against we.exc.neu.dat

as we forgive those who trespass against us, ɑ widöshizül mori tɑ wilzönöt , and imp.lead.2ndp.pl.neg we.exc.acc in temptation.dat ,

and lead us not into temptation, t wɑ m sowɑt but/rather imp.save.2ndp.pl we.exc.acc from evil.dat .

but deliver us from evil. subj.pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg so .

Amen.

86 Brewer

§5.5.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – nn t o b Reldurolno e bot ek olt dr t i 1-het G le t

tɑ t orɑm m w wɑ k ɑ k önjö k önhe ɑ ɑ k. all.nom person.par.cltpl pres.impfv.be.born.3rdp.pl be.vbadv free.nom.pl and equal.nom.pl dignity.inst and right.inst.pl .

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. el mɑt ï ɑ ɑwt wï ɑ t öræwtüwi, ɑ erjölhi æzriz they.neu.nom pres.impfv.possess.3

rdp.pl reason.acc and conscience.acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged.3

rdp.pl act.inf

They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards sorɑ t ɑ sor ossɑwt each.nom other.dat.def spirit.inst brotherhood.dat .

one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

§5.5.5 e t o t e i t t – Bezrekno So ndrekno ot no

Hɑŋɑ ɑm t ŋ ɑ tɑ t nɑt ɑw sozdɑ ɑm l; night.nom pres.prog.rflx.gather.3rdp.sg and in this.loc hour.loc my.nom watch.nom pres.prog.begin.3rdp.sg ;

Night gathers and now my watch begins Slorɑ rorɑ nɑt ɑwt lomɑ t . neg.3neu.nom fut.impfv.end.3rdp.sg until my.dat death.dat .

It shall not end until my death S lt ɑw o e eldmɑ estsɑ t ɑ ɑ t neg.I.nom fut.impfv.wed.1stp.sg which.neg.inst wife.inst,

I shall take no wife Un o mɑt m estsɑ k uduwïrek, unt t ɑ ɑ m j estsɑ k öwirek, fut.impfv.possess.1stp.sg which.neg.acc.pl land.acc.pl , fut.impfv.father.1stp.sg which.neg.acc.pl child.acc.pl ,

Hold no lands, father no children S lt ɑw t t ömöj estsɑ k mɑ m k ɑ zrozrikmö t ɑ estsɑ lɑmï, neg.I.nom fut.impfv.rflx.wear.1stp.sg which.ng.acc.pl crown.acc.pl and fut.impfv.win.1stp.sg for rflx.dat which.ng.acc glory.acc

I shall wear no crowns and win no glory ɑw hohærætmöj ɑ nelomorm j, munrozi ód nɑt ɑw w I.nom fut.impfv.live.1stp.sg and fut.pfv.die.1stp.sg , stand.vbadv on my.loc assignment.loc .

I shall live and die at my post ɑw m j ri ɑ tɑ t m m I.nom pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg sword.nom.def in darkness.loc.def ,

I am the sword in the darkness ɑw m j so ɑ k I.nom pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg watcher.nom.def on wall.loc.pl.def ,

I am the watcher on the walls ɑw m j ɑŋ ï w t ɑ ɑŋ ïj l p t nlejemow t , I.nom pres.impfv.be.1

stp.sg fire.nom.def , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn.3

rdp.sg against cold.dat ,

I am the fire that burns against the cold A ïrno, wrel ɑ l ɑŋ ï t light.nom.def , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg sunrise.dat.def ,

the light that brings the dawn A k w t ɑ m ïrekno, horn.nom.def , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake.3rdp.sg sleeper.acc.pl.def ,

the horn that wakes the sleepers

Brewer 87

Sozrekno, wrel so ɑ k roltɑdrɑt . shield.nom.def , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard.3rdp.sg realm.acc.pl.def person.dat.cltpl .

the shield that guards the realms of men ɑw m j So ɑ ekno Hɑŋɑ t nɑt ɑwï tw t ɑ t wï I.nom pres.impfv.pledge.1

stp.sg Guard.dat.pl.def Night.d .def my.acc life.acc and honor.acc

I pledge my life and honor to the Night's Watch ɑ ulï hɑŋɑ ï ɑ li wɑm w k hɑŋɑ w k through this.acc night.acc and all.acc night.par.pl.def actpart.pres.prog.remain.par.pl yet .

for this night and all the nights to come. §5.5.6 The Litany Against Fear – e el olno p ot b nt lp i t öt

S t ɑw mm j næwrjö t t neg.I.nom pres.impfv.ought.1stp.sg feel.inf fear.inst .

I must not fear. t t l skrɑ ɑ t fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg killer.nom.def mind.dat.def .

Fear is the mind-killer. t t l p t lomɑ w ɑ l ɑ ïj t t w t t . fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg little.nom death.nom.def , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg total.dat annihilation.dat .

Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration. ɑw dɑ mmɑ ɑŋ ɑ nɑt ɑwt t töt . I.nom fut.pfv.turn.1stp.sg toward my.dat fear.dat .

I will face my fear. ɑw gellɑ m j, nɑ ö t k l ɑ t n ŋ ɑ t ɑ t ɑwï. I.nom fut.pfv.allow.1stp.sg , that.conj 3fm.nom subj.fut.pfv.pass.over.3rdp.sg and subj.fut.pfv.move.through.3rdp.sg through I.acc

I will permit it to pass over me and through me. Ar dre ærön unp ŋ ɑ wɑ t ɑw t m ɑmm j tɑ ɑ t ɑ t t nɑ ŋ w and when she.nom fut.pfv.move.past.3rdp.sg , then.conj I.nom fut.pfv.look.1stp.sg inward rflx.dat see.inf her.acc way.acc .

And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path. t t np ŋ ɑ w l sul runtsɑ there , where fear.nom.def fut.pfv.move.past.3rdp.sg , fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg neg what.neg.nom .

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. t r t ɑw w m j. alone.adv I.nom fut.impfv.remain.1stp.sg .

Only I will remain.

88 Brewer

Chapter 6: Tifejóf – The Speech of the Homeland


1. [pʰ tʰ kʰ] [ t ] t t t ɑ tsɑ t xitse) 2. Vᴮ Vᶠ ˈ_C C i, j; [ɑ ɑː o oː u uː æ æː] [æ æː ø øː y yː ɛ ɛː] ( tsi tsi, hɑ hænhili) 3. Vʊ Vᶠ ˈ_C(C)i, j; [ɑʊ ɑːʊ oʊ oːʊ æʊ æːʊ eʊ eːʊ iʊ iːʊ] [æy æːy øy øːy ɛy ɛːy ey eːy iy iːy]

(ɑwtsin æytsin, owdimɑ øydimɑ 4. ʔ ‘ m m ’ t nehontel) 5. Vː[j ʊ] V[j ʊ] t tunojd) 6. [lh] [ɬ]; (ofe olhi ofe oɬi) 7. [ɑʊ] [oː]; (fenɑ fen tsɑ ts 8. [ɑ ] [ɑː]; (tsɑ tsɑ ɑ nɑ

Brewer 89

9. VN# ˑ#, producing the nasal archiphoneme [N]; (hidem hideń, gwɑ m gwɑ ń, tsɑ tsɑ ń)

10. [t ʃ ʒ] [ʃ ʒ]; ( el, o e o ɑs orɑs ɑ ń ɑ ń) 11. [ ] [ ] m t j m t jofe ol ol) 12. ˈVC(C)Vː VC C ˈVː ˈ feˈn ̍ r t roˈt ˈ t ˈt 13. VːC C ˈV ̍ VːC(C)V; (usually occurs with verbal prefixes) 14. VːC C ˈVC C Vː ̍ VːC(C)VC(C)Vː; (usually occurs with verbal prefixes) 15. [ɑ.o] [ɑ .o] [ɑ] [ɑ ] w t (mærɑ t mærɑt sonrɑot sonrɑt) 16. Short, back vowels in final, unstressed syllables become [ɐ]; (rɑ ɑ rɑ sunos Tsun s) 17. VzV V V pt w w V 18. V[l ʎ r]# [ ]# ɑ hɑ ľ) 19. Leveling of syllabic sonorants to the oblique cases, with loss of syllabicity when followed by a

vowel; (hɑ ľ hɑ 20. Leveling in the nasal declensions and conjugations of the nasal archiphoneme; intervocalically it

becomes [n], when adjacent to a consonant it assumes its place of articulation. 21. [x] [ç] / _Vᶠ; (xett çett ) 22. [sç] [ç]; (sxær xær, nesxær nexær) 23. Leveling of root-final fricatives and affricates that come from former aspirated stops to the

nominative case or verb root; (bist bistsis bists, hertot hertotsmɐj hertots) 24. [b d g] [v ð ɣ] / V_V, L_V, V_L; except [d] / [l n]_ [ ] [m]_ [ ] [ŋ]_; (rødi røði, gwɑ ń gwɑ ń, reld s reld s)

25. Leveling of voiced and/or lenited consonants from oblique forms to the root; (sonrɑt zonrɑt) 26. [ɐ]# Ø#; (fweh fweh, rɑ rɑ , t t 27. Final consonants devoice; (rɑ rɑ ) 28. Verbal endings in plural change; (-møjhi -møç, -ɛnhi -ɛŋ -jøɬi -jøɬ) 29. VrlV VrrV, VlrV VllV; (tɑ tɑ hollex) 30. [ʎ ɲ] [lj nj]; (tsæle tsælje, enneð ennjeð) 31. Initial fricatives voiced, except for [h]; (xett ett) 32. #[uː iː] [w ] mŕ wumŕ ɑ ɑ jirɑ ɑ ) 33. [ɑ.e] [ɑ ] emmɑ m emmɑ m ærummɑ m ærummɑ m 34. [h]# [x]#; (vweh vwex) 35. [s] [ʂ] / [Vᴮ Vᶜ]_, [ç] / [Vᶠ]_; (Tsunɐs Tsunɐś, pærikis pærikiś) 36. [i iː] / _(C)# [e eː]; (pærikiś pærikeś w m t w m t )

Tifejóf came to be in an area where the isoglosses of some of the sound changes from both Nærut Otmjóv and Nærüt Jul ób overlapped. It therefore has features in common with both, though the combination of the two led to greater vowel reduction and syncope in the desinences, causing the language to take on a more fusional character than either of its sister tongues, especially Nærut Otmjóv.

90 Brewer

§6.2 Phonological Inventory

§ 6.2.1 Consonants

Bilab. Lab. Dent. Interdent. Dent. P.-Alv. Retro. Pal. Velar Glottal Plosive p[ː] b[ː] t[ː]d[ː] k[ː] ɡ[ː]

Nasal m[ː] n[ː] ŋ[ː] Fricative f[ː] v[ː] ( ) ð[ː] s[ː] z[ː] ʃ[ː] ʒ[ː] ʂ[ː] ç[ː] (ʝ) x[ː] ɣ[ː] h

Affricate t [ː] Tap ɾ [r]

Approximant w[ː] j[ː]

Lat. Approx. l[ː] Lat. Fricative ɬ [ː]

Just as in Nærüt Jul ób, the loss of final nasals has yielded a nasal archiphoneme [N], which assumes either the pronunciation [n] when intervocalic or the position of any following consonant. When ending a word, the nasal phoneme is realized as nasality on the preceding vowel if the next word begins with a consonant or it is phrase-final, and it is rendered as [n] when the following word begins with a vowel.


Front Central Back High i[ː] y[ː] u[ː]

High-Mid e[ː] ø[ː] o[ː]

Low-Mid ɛ[ː] Low æ[ː] ɐ ɑ[ː]

The character of the schwa ([ɐ]) is noticeably lower than in the sister languages.


oj oʊ uj æj æʊ eʊ iʊ æy øj øy ɛj ɛy ey iy ɐj ɐʊ

The inventory of diphthongs is virtually identical to that of Nærut Otmjóv, which the exception that [ ] is missing, as it has become [iː].

Brewer 91

§ 6.2.4 Vowels: Nasals

Oral Vowels Nasal Counterpart

ɐ, ɑ ɑː ɑ ˑ æ, e, eː, æj ɛ ˑ

o, u, oː, uː ˑ oj, uj, ɐj ɑ ɛ ˑ

oʊ, ɐʊ ɑ ʊ ˑ æʊ, eʊ ɛ ʊ ˑ

ɛ, i, ø, y, æː, iː, øː, yː Ø

iʊ, æy, øj, øy, ɛj, ɛy, ey, iy Ø

Eighteen out of the total thirty-four possible monophthongs and diphthongs in the language are capable of experiencing nasalization.

The vowels /ɛ, i, ø, y/ do not have nasalized counter parts because they cannot appear in word-final syllables. Umlauts only appear in polysyllabic words in the tonic syllable, and therefore cannot experience word final nasalization. All word-final instances of /i/, long and short, have changed to /e/.

Since most diphthongs cannot appear in final syllables (as half of them generally only exist in stressed, umlauted syllables and back diphthongs reduce to /ɐj/ or /ɐʊ/ in final syllables), there are only three nasal diphthongs.

All nasalized vowels are slightly longer than their oral counterparts, but they lose any kind of length distinction once nasalized. Therefore, for example, both long /eː/ and short /e/ are nasalized to /ɛ ˑ/.

92 Brewer


Symbol IPA

A ɑ ɑ

O o o U u u

Æ æ æ E e e

I i i

ɐ Ё ɛ

Ø ø ø Y y y

P p p B b b

Symbol IPA T t t

D d d K k k

G g g M m m

N n n

Ŋ ŋ ŋ F f f

V v v Đ ð ð

S s s Z z z

Symbol IPA ʃ

ʒ X x x ç

ɣ ʝ H h h

R r ɾ

W w w J j j

L l l Ł ł ɬ

Ś ś ʂ ç ń _

Long vowels are indicated by placing an acute accent (´) over the vowel grapheme.

Nasal vowels are indicated by placing the <ń> grapheme after the vowel grapheme. Long consonants are indicated by a doubling of the consonant grapheme.

Syllabic resonants are indicated by placing an acute accent over the grapheme for the consonant (e.g. r ŕ, l ľ).

Final consonant devoicing is generally reflected in the orthography, with the exception of [ ], which only occurs as a unvoiced allophone of [ð] in word-final position.

Likewise, initial fricative voicing is reflected in the orthography.

The graphemes < x> and < > represent velar fricatives when preceding a back vowel or a consonant, and palatal fricatives when preceding a front vowel.

The grapheme <ś> only occurs word-finally, and represents a voiceless retroflex fricative when following a back vowel or a consonant, and a voiceless palatal fricative when following a front vowel.

§6.3 Morphology

§6.3.1 Grammatical Endings – Nominal, Pronominal and Adjectival

Case Singular Nominal Plural Adjectival Plural

Nominative Ø ek / jk / wk / k tse Accusative eś / ś irk / rk / isk istse

Genitive ts / ts otsk / tsk ottse / ttse Partitive l / ľ / r / ŕ lowk / rowk lotse / rotse

Dative ðŕ / dŕ ðrek / drek ðrɑtse / drɑt Locative s / ts / r / z s k / ts k / r k / z k s t / ts t / r t t

Instrumental heń ł ń heŋk ł ŋk hentse ł t

Comitative ents / nts entsk enttse

Brewer 93

While in Nærut N the ending was only attached to the final constituent of a noun phrase unless marked for emphasis, in Tifejóf all constituents are marked. Over time, the meaning of multiple-constituent marking weakened to the point that it held no special meaning, instead only serving to tie each noun phrase together.

The desinences exhibit much greater phonological reduction in Tifejóf than in either of its sister languages. This gives the language a much more fusional character.

The collective plural has become an obsolete category in Tifejóf, and its endings were transferred to the marking of adjectival plurals, with the exception of possessive adjectives. Its presence in nouns is restricted to a few cases where a semantic shift has occurred, giving the collective plural a special meaning [e.g. rolt (person), roltek (persons), roltɑtse (people); erðek (tree), erðekek (trees), erðektse (forest)]. These old collectives became new nominative singulars, which could be pluralized like any other noun [e.g. roltɑt k p p erðektsek (forests)].

The accusative case endings can trigger fronting of the root vowel in monosyllabic roots.

The bilabial and velar variants of the locative case have disappeared, since with the loss of final nasals the form that the nasal archiphoneme [N] assumes can only be the dental [n]. The means that the only epenthetic voiceless stop needed would be [t].

If the partitive desinence follows a root ending in [ɾ] or [ɾ ], the initial [l] assimilates, producing {-r(owk)}.

Following roots ending in [l] or [ ], the initial [h] of the instrumental case mutates to [ɬ].


Singular

1st Singular 2nd Singular 3rd Sing. Masc. 3rd Sing. Fem. 3rd Sing. Neu. Nominative tsó deń roń ær ń or ń

Accusative ts ś denjeś røneś æroneś oroneś Genitive tsɑ ts den ts ron ts æron ts oron ts

Partitive tsɑ l denľ ronľ æronľ oronľ Dative tsɑ ðŕ dendŕ rondŕ ærondŕ orondŕ

Locative tsɑ dents ronts æronts oronts

Instrumental tsɑ heń denheń ronheń æronheń oronheń Comitative tsɑ nts denjents ronents æronents oronents

Dual


Nominative e mor ett d ð Accusative e oweś møreś ettɑś d ðeś

Genitive e ow ts mor ts ettɑts dæð ts Partitive e ol morr ettɑl dæðľ

Dative e oðŕ morðŕ ettɑðŕ dæððŕ

Locative e or morz ettɑr dæts Instrumental e oheń morheń ettɑheń dædheń

Comitative e owents morents ettɑnts dæðents

94 Brewer

Plural 1st Plural Inclusive 1st Plural Exclusive 2nd Plural 3rd Plural

Nominative nɑ oń tsælje el

Accusative nɑ weś øneś tsæljejeś eljeś Genitive nɑ w ts on ts tsæljej ts el ts

Partitive nɑ rul onľ tsæljel ell Dative nɑ ðŕ ondŕ tsæljeðŕ eldŕ

Locative nɑ ruz onts tsæljer elz Instrumental nɑ heń onheń tsæljeheń ełeń

Comitative nɑ wents onents tsæljejents eljents

§6.3.3 Nominal Morphology ɑ ń – man

Singular Plural

Nominative ɑ ń ɑ ɑŋk

Accusative ɑ ɑ ś ɑ ɑ irk Genitive ɑ ɑ ts ɑ ɑ otsk

Partitive ɑ ɑ ľ ɑ ɑ wk Dative ɑ ɑndŕ ɑ ɑndrek

Locative ɑ ɑ t ɑ ɑ t k Instrumental ɑ ɑ eń ɑ ɑ ŋk

Comitative ɑ ɑ t ɑ ɑ entsk

dun j – ceiling Singular Plural

Nominative dun j dunoj(e)k

Accusative dunojeś dunoj(i)rk Genitive dunoj ts dunoj(o)tsk

Partitive dunojl dunojlowk Dative dunojðŕ dunojðrek

Locative dunojr dunojr k Instrumental dunojheń dunojheŋk

Comitative dunojents dunojentsk

§6.3.4 Adjectival Morphology

tyre – whole

Singular Plural

Nominative tyre tyritse Accusative tyreś tyristse

Genitive tyrij ts tyrijottse Partitive tyrijľ tyrilotse

Dative tyriðŕ tyriðrɑt

Locative tyriz t t Instrumental tyriheń tyrihentse

Comitative tyrijents tyrijenttse

lerænj – wooden Singular Plural

Nominative lerænj lerænjoftse Accusative lerænjoveś lerænjovistse

Genitive lerænjov ts lerænjovottse Partitive lerænjovľ lerænjovlotse

Dative lerænjovdŕ lerænjovdrɑt

Locative lerænjovz lerænjov t Instrumental lerænjovheń lerænjovhentse

Comitative lerænjovents lerænjoventtse

Brewer 95

§6.3.5 Verbal Affixes Non-Finite Forms –

Active Infinitive: - t / -w t - t / -t (with possible rhotacism)

Passive Infinitive: -s / -z / -r

Supine: -r / - Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mu- + -e

(with possible rhotacism and umlaut)

Perfective Verbal Adverb: hó- + -e (with possible rhotacism and umlaut)

Person Suffixes –

1st Person Singular, Active: -m j

2nd Person Singular, Active: -æń (with possible rhotacism)

3rd Person Singular, Active: -jľ / -ľ 1st Person Plural, Active: -møś

2nd Person Plural Active: - ŋ (with possible rhotacism)

3rd Person Plural, Active: -jøł / -øł

1st Person, Passive: - eń / - eń

2nd Person, Passive: -ohe (with possible rhotacism)

3rd Person, Passive: -ŋ Tense Prefixes –

Present: Ø-

Past: - Future: un-

Superaspectual Prefixes –

Imperfective: Ø- (present) / [C]o- / ro- / w- / o- (past and future)

Perfective: Ø-

Progressive: ɑm - Subaspectual Prefixes –

Inchoative: -en(n)-

Terminative: -rɑ- / -r-

Semeliterative: -mɑ -

Durative: -l(j)æs- / -l(j)æz- / -l(j)ær- Prospective: gew-

Habitual: - - - - - - - - - - - -

Conative: -wil(j)- Mood Prefixes –

Indicative: Ø-

Conditional: zde- Subjunctive: tsæn-

Imperative - Object/Agent Suffixes –

1st Person, Singular: -ke 2nd Person, Singular: -no

3rd Person, Sing. Masc.: -ro

3rd Person, Sing. Fem.: -xɑ 3rd Person, Sing. Neut.: -ro

1st Person Inc., Dual/Plural: - oń

1st Person Exc., Dual/Plural: -pje 2nd Person, Dual/Plural: -mɑ

3rd Person, Dual/Plural: -tu

Reflexive: -tso Null Indirect Object: - -

Second-person, infinitival and gerundive verbal suffixes trigger rhotacism in verbs whose roots end in [Vz].

Third-person verbal suffixes trigger jod coalescence in verbs whose roots end in [s z t d].

Monosyllabic verb roots experience fronting of the root vowel in the third person, unless affected by jod coalescence.

Plural verbal suffixes are the result of a mixture of the endings from the northern and southern dialects.

The objects suffixes were almost entirely borrowed from neighboring Humuremeti, with only the inclusive 1st-person marker being added to the system from native vocabulary in order to fill a semantic hole.

The perfective superaspect only appears in the past and future tenses.

96 Brewer

The prospective subaspect only appears in the future tense of the perfective superaspect , and the perfective habitual likewise only in the past tense, though the present tense forms have supplanted those of the original past tense. The prospective is unmarked for superaspect, but is traditionally grouped with the perfectives.

The conative subaspect causes root-initial /ɾ/ to assimilate to /l/.

The object affixes may only attach to finite verb forms. They can be used to mark both direct and indirect objects, and when both are used, the indirect object is marked first. When only the direct object is marked, it is preceded by the morpheme {- -}, which indicates the absence of an indirect object.

The object affixes do not cause any instances of the vowel /ɐ/ to return to its previous character, as they were borrowed and/or developed after that change had already run its course. They do, however, cause any instance of the phoneme /ś/ to revert to /s/.

The null indirect object suffix {- -} does not cause voicing of any intervocalic fricatives that it w t t t t w p m t t m t t m p m ’ pp

The object affixes can also be used in the passive voice for indirect object marking, but when the null indirect morpheme {- -} is used, the endings have been retasked to indicate the agent.

The reduplicative prefix used to mark the imperfective superaspect is no longer productive, and any newly-coined or borrowed words in Tifejóf are marked for the perfective with the morpheme {o-}, which takes the form {w-} before vowel-initial roots.

In words that do make use of the reduplicative morpheme, those with root initial [z] take the imperfective marker {ro-} in the past tense, as intervocalic rhotacism changes the reduplicated perfective marker {zo-} into {ro-}. This prevents rhotacism of the root initial [z], as two rhotacized fricatives cannot follow one another.

Brewer 97

§6.3.6 Verbal Morphology Verb Root – reldus (to speak) (This table represents the indicative mood. Other moods are indicated through the use of their prefixes)

Infinitive: reldur t Supine: relduzr

Imperfective Verbal Adverb: mureldure Perfective Verbal Adverb: hóreldure

Past Present Future

Active Voice

Imperfective Superaspect Neutral (speak)

1st Person Sing. rorelduzm j relduzm j unrorelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. rorelduræń relduræń unrorelduræń 3rd Person Sing. roreldu ľ reldu ľ unroreldu ľ

1st Person D & P rorelduzmøś relduzmøś unrorelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P roreldur ŋ reldur ŋ unroreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P roreldu øł reldu øł unroreldu øł Inchoative (start speaking)

1st Person Sing. rowenrelduzm j enrelduzm j unrowenrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. rowenrelduræń enrelduræń unrowenrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. rowenreldu ľ enreldu ľ unrowenreldu ľ

1st Person D & P rowenrelduzmøś enrelduzmøś unrowenrelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P rowenreldur ŋ enreldur ŋ unrowenreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P rowenreldu øł enreldu øł unrowenreldu øł Terminative (stop speaking)

1st Person Sing. rorɑ zm j rɑ zm j unrorɑ zm j

2nd Person Sing. rorɑ æń rɑ æń unrorɑ æń 3rd Person Sing. rorɑ ľ rɑ ľ unrorɑ ľ

1st Person D & P rorɑ zmøś rɑ zmøś unrorɑ zmøś 2nd Person D &P rorɑ ŋ rɑ ŋ unrorɑ ŋ

3rd Person D & P rorɑ øł rɑ øł unrorɑ øł Semeliterative (speak again)

1st Person Sing. romɑ zm j mɑ zm j unromɑ zm j

2nd Person Sing. romɑ æń mɑ æń unromɑ æń 3rd Person Sing. romɑ ľ mɑ ľ unromɑ ľ

1st Person D & P romɑ elduzmøś mɑ zmøś unromɑ zmøś 2nd Person D &P romɑ ŋ mɑ ŋ unromɑ ŋ

3rd Person D & P romɑ øł mɑ øł unromɑ øł Durative (speak a while)

1st Person Sing. rolæzrelduzm j læzrelduzm j unrolæzrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. rolæzrelduræń læzrelduræń unrolæzrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. rolæzreldu ľ læzreldu ľ unrolæzreldu ľ

1st Person D & P rolæzrelduzmøś læzrelduzmøś unrolæzrelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P rolæzreldur ŋ læzreldur ŋ unrolæzreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P rolæzreldu øł læzreldu øł unrolæzreldu øł

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Habitual (usually speak) 1st Person Sing. row zm j jizrelduzm j unrow zm j

2nd Person Sing. row relduræń jizrelduræń unrow æń 3rd Person Sing. row reldu ľ jizreldu ľ unrow ľ

1st Person D & P row relduzmøś jizrelduzmøś unrow zmøś 2nd Person D &P row reldur ŋ jizreldur ŋ unrow ŋ

3rd Person D & P row reldu øł jizreldu øł unrow ldu øł

Conative (try to speak) 1st Person Sing. rowillelduzm j willelduzm j unrowillelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. rowillelduræń willelduræń unrowillelduræń 3rd Person Sing. rowilleldu ľ willeldu ľ unrowilleldu ľ

1st Person D & P rowillelduzmøś willelduzmøś unrowillelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P rowilleldur ŋ willeldur ŋ unrowilleldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P rowilleldu øł willeldu øł unrowilleldu øł

Perfective Superaspect Neutral (spoke) 1st Person Sing. h relduzm j - unrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. h relduræń - unrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. h reldu ľ - unreldu ľ

1st Person D & P h relduzmøś - unrelduzmøś

2nd Person D &P h reldur ŋ - unreldur ŋ 3rd Person D & P h reldu øł - unreldu øł

Inchoative (started speaking) 1st Person Sing. zm j - unenrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. æń - unenrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. ľ - unenreldu ľ

1st Person D & P zmøś - unenrelduzmøś

2nd Person D &P ŋ - unenreldur ŋ 3rd Person D & P øł - unenreldu øł

Terminative (stopped speaking) 1st Person Sing. rɑ zm j - unrɑ zm j

2nd Person Sing. rɑ æń - unrɑ æń 3rd Person Sing. rɑ ľ - unrɑ ľ

1st Person D & P rɑ zmøś - unrɑrelduzmøś

2nd Person D &P ɑ ŋ - unrɑ ŋ 3rd Person D & P ɑ øł - unrɑ øł

Semeliterative (spoke again) 1st Person Sing. mɑ zm j - unmɑ zm j

2nd Person Sing. mɑ æń - unmɑ æń 3rd Person Sing. mɑ ľ - unmɑ ľ

1st Person D & P mɑ zmøś - unmɑ zmøś

2nd Person D &P mɑ ŋ - unmɑ ŋ 3rd Person D & P mɑ øł - unmɑ øł

Durative (spoke a while) 1st Person Sing. ljæzrelduzm j - unlæzrelduzm j

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2nd Person Sing. ljæzrelduræń - unlæzrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. ljæzreldu ľ - unlæzreldu ľ

1st Person D & P ljæzrelduzmøś - unlæzrelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P ljæzreldur ŋ - unlæzreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P ljæzreldu øł - unlæzreldu øł Prospective (about to speak)

1st Person Sing. - - gewrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. - - gewrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. - - gewreldu ľ

1st Person D & P - - gewrelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P - - gewreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P - - gewreldu øł Habitual (used to speak)

1st Person Sing. j zm j - - 2nd Person Sing. j æń - -

3rd Person Sing. j ľ - -

1st Person D & P j zmøś - - 2nd Person D &P j ŋ - -

3rd Person D & P j øł - - Conative (tried to speak)

1st Person Sing. w zm j - unwillelduzm j 2nd Person Sing. w æń - unwillelduræń

3rd Person Sing. w ľ - unwilleldu ľ

1st Person D & P w zmøś - unwillelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P w ŋ - unwilleldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P w øł - unwilleldu øł

Progressive Superaspect Neutral (is speaking) 1st Person Sing. ɑm relduzm j ɑm relduzm j unɑm relduzm j

2nd Person Sing. ɑm relduræń ɑm relduræń unɑm relduræń 3rd Person Sing. ɑm reldu ľ ɑm reldu ľ unɑm reldu ľ

1st Person D & P ɑm relduzmøś ɑm relduzmøś unɑm relduzmøś 2nd Person D &P ɑm reldur ŋ ɑm reldur ŋ unɑm reldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm reldu øł ɑm reldu øł unɑm reldu øł

Inchoative (is starting to speak) 1st Person Sing. ɑm enrelduzm j ɑm enrelduzm j unɑm enrelduzm j

2nd Person Sing. ɑm enrelduræń ɑm enrelduræń unɑm enrelduræń 3rd Person Sing. ɑm enreldu ľ ɑm enreldu ľ unɑm enreldu ľ

1st Person D & P ɑm enrelduzmøś ɑm enrelduzmøś unɑm enrelduzmøś 2nd Person D &P ɑm enreldur ŋ ɑm enreldur ŋ unɑm enreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm enreldu øł ɑm enreldu øł unɑm enreldu øł

Terminative (is stopping speaking) 1st Person Sing. ɑm rɑ zm j ɑm rɑrelduzm j unɑm rɑ zm j

2nd Person Sing. ɑm rɑ æń ɑm rɑ æń unɑm rɑ æń 3rd Person Sing. ɑm rɑ ľ ɑm rɑ ľ unɑm rɑ ľ

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1st Person D & P ɑm rɑ zmøś ɑm rɑ zmøś unɑm rɑ zmøś 2nd Person D &P ɑm rɑ eldur ŋ ɑm rɑ ŋ unɑm rɑ ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm rɑ øł ɑm rɑ øł unɑm rɑ øł Semeliterative (is speaking again)

1st Person Sing. ɑm mɑ zm j ɑm mɑ zm j unɑm mɑ zm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑm mɑ æń ɑm mɑ æń unɑm mɑ æń

3rd Person Sing. ɑm mɑ ľ ɑm mɑ ľ unɑm mɑ ľ

1st Person D & P ɑm mɑ zmøś ɑm mɑ zmøś unɑm mɑ zmøś 2nd Person D &P ɑm mɑ ŋ ɑm mɑ ŋ unɑm mɑ ŋx

3rd Person D & P ɑm mɑ øł ɑm mɑ øł unɑm mɑ øł Durative (is speaking a while)

1st Person Sing. ɑm ljæzrelduzm j ɑm ljæzrelduzm j unɑm ljæzrelduzm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑm ljæzrelduræń ɑm ljæzrelduræń unɑm ljæzrelduræń

3rd Person Sing. ɑm ljæzreldu ľ ɑm ljæzreldu ľ unɑm ljæzreldu ľ 1st Person D & P ɑm ljæzrelduzmøś ɑm ljæzrelduzmøś unɑm ljæzrelduzmøś

2nd Person D &P ɑm ljæzreldur ŋ ɑm ljæzreldur ŋ unɑm ljæzreldur ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm ljæzreldu øł ɑm ljæzreldu øł unɑm ljæzreldu øł Habitual (is usually speaking)

1st Person Sing. ɑm zm j ɑm zm j unɑm zm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑm æń ɑm æń unɑm æń

3rd Person Sing. ɑm ľ ɑm ľ unɑm ľ 1st Person D & P ɑm zmøś ɑm zmøś unɑm zmøś

2nd Person D &P ɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm øł ɑm øł unɑm øł Conative (is trying to speak)

1st Person Sing. ɑm w zm j ɑm w zm j unɑm w zm j 2nd Person Sing. ɑm w æń ɑm w æń unɑm w æń

3rd Person Sing. ɑm w ľ ɑm w ľ unɑm w ľ 1st Person D & P ɑm w zmøś ɑm w zmøś unɑm w zmøś

2nd Person D &P ɑm w ŋ ɑm w ŋ unɑm w ŋ

3rd Person D & P ɑm w øł ɑm w øł unɑm w øł Participles (Perfective Superaspect)

Neutral uh reld ś - uwunreld ś Inchoative u ś - uwunenreld ś

Terminative u ɑ ś - uwunrɑ ś Semeliterative u mɑ ś - uwunmɑ ś

Durative u ljæzreld ś - uwunlæzreld ś

Prospective - - u ewreld ś Habitual u j ś - -

Conative u w ś - uwunwilleld ś

Passive Voice

Imperfective Superaspect Neutral (is spoken)

1st Person roreldu eń reldu eń unroreldu eń

2nd Person roreldurohe reldurohe unroreldurohe

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3rd Person roreldu ŋ reldu ŋ unroreldu ŋ Inchoative (starts to be spoken)

1st Person rowenreldu eń enreldu eń unrowenreldu eń 2nd Person rowenreldurohe enreldurohe unrowenreldurohe

3rd Person rowenreldu ŋ enreldu ŋ unrowenreldu ŋ Terminative (stops being spoken)

1st Person rorɑreldu eń rɑreldu eń unrorɑreldu eń

2nd Person rorɑreldurohe rɑreldurohe unrorɑreldurohe 3rd Person rorɑreldu ŋ rɑreldu ŋ unrorɑreldu ŋ

Semeliterative (is spoken again) 1st Person romɑ reldu eń mɑ reldu eń unromɑ reldu eń

2nd Person romɑ reldurohe mɑ reldurohe unromɑ reldurohe 3rd Person romɑ reldu ŋ mɑ reldu ŋ unromɑ reldu ŋ

Durative (is spoken a while) 1st Person rolæzreldu eń læzreldu eń unrolæzreldu eń

2nd Person rolæzreldurohe læzreldurohe unrolæzreldurohe

3rd Person rolæzreldu ŋ læzreldu ŋ unrolæzreldu ŋ Habitual (is usually spoken)

1st Person row reldu eń jizreldu eń unrow reldu eń 2nd Person row reldurohe jizreldurohe unrow reldurohe

3rd Person row reldu ŋ jizreldu ŋ unrow reldu ŋ Conative (tries to be spoken)

1st Person rowilleldu eń willeldu eń unrowilleldu eń

2nd Person rowilleldurohe willeldurohe unrowilleldurohe 3rd Person rowilleldu ŋ willeldu ŋ unrowilleldu ŋ

Perfective Superaspect Neutral (was spoken)

1st Person eń - unreldu eń 2nd Person ohe - unreldurohe

3rd Person ŋ - unreldu ŋ Inchoative (started to be spoken)

1st Person enreldu eń - unenreldu eń 2nd Person enreldurohe - unenreldurohe

3rd Person enreldu ŋ - unenreldu ŋ

Terminative (stopped being spoken) 1st Person rɑreldu eń - unrɑreldu eń

2nd Person rɑreldurohe - unrɑreldurohe 3rd Person rɑreldu ŋ - unrɑreldu ŋ

Semeliterative (was spoken again) 1st Person mɑ reldu eń - unmɑ reldu eń

2nd Person mɑ reldurohe - unmɑ reldurohe

3rd Person mɑ reldu ŋ - unmɑ reldu ŋ Durative (was spoken a while)

1st Person ljæzreldu eń - unlæzreldu eń 2nd Person ljæzreldurohe - unlæzreldurohe

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3rd Person ljæzreldu ŋ - unlæzreldu ŋ Prospective (is about to be spoken)

1st Person - - ewreldu eń 2nd Person - - ewreldurohe

3rd Person - - ewreldu ŋ Habitual (used to be spoken)

1st Person j eń - -

2nd Person j ohe - - 3rd Person j ŋ - -

Conative (tried to be spoken) 1st Person willeldu eń - unwilleldu eń

2nd Person willeldurohe - unwilleldurohe 3rd Person willeldu ŋ - unwilleldu ŋ

Progressive Superaspect Neutral (is being spoken)

1st Person ɑm eń ɑm eń unɑm eń 2nd Person ɑm ohe ɑm ohe unɑm ohe

3rd Person ɑm ŋ ɑm ŋ unɑm ŋ Inchoative (is starting to be spoken)

1st Person ɑm jenreldu eń ɑm jenreldu eń unɑm jenreldu eń

2nd Person ɑm jenreldurohe ɑm jenreldurohe unɑm jenreldurohe 3rd Person ɑm jenreldu ŋ ɑm jenreldu ŋ unɑm jenreldu ŋ

Terminative (is stopping being spoken) 1st Person ɑm rɑreldu eń ɑm rɑreldu eń unɑm rɑreldu eń

2nd Person ɑm rɑreldurohe ɑm rɑreldurohe unɑm rɑreldurohe 3rd Person ɑm rɑreldu ŋ ɑm rɑreldu ŋ unɑm rɑreldu ŋ

Semeliterative (is being spoken again)

1st Person ɑm mɑ reldu eń ɑm mɑ reldu eń unɑm mɑ reldu eń 2nd Person ɑm mɑ reldurohe ɑm mɑ reldurohe unɑm mɑ reldurohe

3rd Person ɑm mɑ reldu ŋ ɑm mɑ reldu ŋ unɑm mɑ reldu ŋ Durative (is speaking a while)

1st Person ɑm ljæzreldu eń ɑm ljæzreldu eń unɑm ljæzreldu eń 2nd Person ɑm ljæzreldurohe ɑm ljæzreldurohe unɑm ljæzreldurohe

3rd Person ɑm ljæzreldu ŋ ɑm ljæzreldu ŋ unɑm ljæzreldu ŋ

Habitual (is usually spoken) 1st Person ɑm reldu eń ɑm reldu eń unɑm reldu eń

2nd Person ɑm reldurohe ɑm reldurohe unɑm reldurohe 3rd Person ɑm reldu ŋ ɑm reldu ŋ unɑm j reldu ŋ

Conative (is trying to be spoken) 1st Person ɑm willeldu eń ɑm willeldu eń unɑm willeldu eń

2nd Person ɑm willeldurohe ɑm willeldurohe unɑm willeldurohe

3rd Person ɑm willeldu ŋ ɑm willeldu ŋ unɑm willeldu ŋ Participles (Perfective Superaspect)

Neutral hæmh reld ś - hæmunreld ś Inchoative hæm enreld ś - hæmunenreld ś

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Terminative hæm rɑreld ś - hæmunrɑreld ś Semeliterative hæm mɑ reld ś - hæmunmɑ reld ś

Durative hæm ljæzreld ś - hæmunljæzreld ś Prospective - - hæm ewreld ś

Habitual hæm j reld ś - - Conative hæm willeld ś - hæmunwilleld ś

Some of these forms are extremely rare, completely unattested, or simply impossible with some verbs. This chart should be seen as an example of all the potential forms available to any given verb. Semantic constraints will regularly render some forms impossible, simply by virtue of their illogical meanings. For example, passive conatives do not usually occur with verbs that cannot govern an animate patient, as an inanimate patient cannot exhibit the necessary volition to try to accomplish something (e.g. an unusual p k ‘ t t t p k ’ [ɑm w ŋ ] m k ‘it is trying to be

’ [ɑm w ɑŋ

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§6.3.7 Numerals and Fraction Terms

The numerals one through ten govern the genitive case, singular with one, plural with all the

others. For numbers higher than ten, the final number will determine whether the genitive singular or plural is used.

The numerals one through ten are stressed on the second syllable of the root.

All numerals decline like nouns and adjectives, though in numbers higher than ten only the last number combines with a case particle. The numerals one through ten are:

o gewɑ o jofɑ tw o mitsɑ t o ɑ tɑ o kon ɑ

o imɑ o rwetsɑ (seven) o luksɑ t o hojnɑ o zre ɑ t

Fraction terms are also stressed on the second syllable of the root, and also decline in the same fashion as noun and adjectives, just as numerals do. They govern the partitive case, but unlike numerals, the object determines which number is used. The first ten fractions are:

o getet (a whole) o jofet (a half) o mitset (a third) o ɑ t t t o kon et (a fifth)

o imet (a sixth) o rwetet (a seventh) o lukset (an eighth) o hojnet (a ninth) o zre et (a tenth)

With the numeral roots for one through five, the suffix -x can be added to create frequentative adverbs (i.e. once, twice).

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§6.3.8 Methods of Derivation (When a derivational suffix is added to a word root that ends in the archiphoneme [N], it is realized in the form it held in Nærut Nɑ ɑ ɑ, as the derivation precedes the sound change.)

§6.3.8.1 Nouns from Verbs Abstraction₁: verb root + d ń / ð ń+ (case/number particles)

Examples: ennje (begin) ennjeð ń (beginning), rɑxo (end) rɑ oð ń (ending)

Abstraction₂: verb root + w t + (case/number particles) Example: howmɑ (count) howmɑw t (act of counting)

Agent: verb root + reś + (case/number particles) Examples: ðeń (rule) demreś (lord), hertots (throw) hertotsreś (pitcher)

Patient: verb root + ľ / l + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) hort l (building), irɑń (plan) irɑ ľ (a plan)

Occupation: verb root + j ń + (case/number particles) Examples: m t w k m ń (job), horte (build) hortej ń (builder)

Location: verb root + s ń ń ń + (case/number particles) Examples: nehontel (settle) nehontelz ń (settlement), romes (learn) romess ń (school)

Instrument: verb root + r / ŕ + (case/number particles) Examples: n rni (speak) n rnir (language), njæwr (spin) njæwrr (wheel)

Master: verb root + r ń + (case/number particles) Examples: horte (build) t ń t t ŋ t ŋ ń (master of combat)

§6.3.8.2 Verbs from Nouns Method 1: ne + noun root + (person/number particles)

Examples: hontel (place) nehontel (settle), floreń (time) nefloreń (time [verb])

Method 2: zom + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: por (iron) zompor (forge), ɑ ľ (mind) zomɑ el (understand)

Method 3: ts ts j + noun root + (person/number particles) Examples: ŋ e (fire) tsɑ ŋ ɑ ľ (mind) tsɑ ɑxel (know)


Active Participle: u + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: tsɑ ŋ utsɑ ŋ e (burning [pres. impfv.]), n rni (speak) n rne (speaking [past pfv.])

Passive Participle: hæm + (tense/aspect prefixes) + verb root + (case/number particles) Examples: n rni (speak) hæmn rne (spoken [pres. impfv.]), orɑ t hæm or ś (created [past pfv.])

Capability: verb root + h t Examples: hinjit (accept) hinjith t (acceptable), horte (build) horteh t (buildable)


Quality: adjective root + rr / ŕŕ Examples: tyre (whole) tyrirr (wholly), tref (bright) treforr (brightly)

Positive Comparative: adjective root + n (resists nasalization) Examples: tɑ t tɑ (more quickly), ime (good) imej (better)

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Diminutive Comparative: adjective root + eń Examples: tɑ t tɑ ń (a little more quickly), ime (good) imej ń (a little better)

Negative Comparative: adjective root + leń Examples: tɑ t tɑ ń (less quickly), tref (bright) trefoleń (less brightly)

Augmentative Comparative: adjective root + ń Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑflej ń (much more quickly), ime (good) imej ń (much better)

Positive Superlative: adjective root + tseń Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑfletseń (the most quickly), ime (good) imetseń (the best)

Negative Superlative: adjective root + hŕ Examples: tɑ t tɑ ŕ (the least quickly), tref (bright) trefohŕ (the least brightly)

Elative: adjective root + m ś Examples: tɑfle (fast) tɑflem ś (most quickly), ime (good) imem ś (most well)

Enough: adjective root + t ś Examples: tɑ t tɑ t ś (fast enough), ime (good) imet ś (well enough)

Very: adjective root + b t / v t Examples: tɑ t tɑ t (very quickly), ime (good) imev t (very well)


ro + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: stire (important) rostiri (matter), betx (old) t

to become: hove + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: tref(bright) hovetref (brighten), i e (happy) hovexi e (become happy), onxi e (happier) hovejonxi e (become happier), mostɑfle [most quick (elative)] hovemostɑfle (become most quick)

make so: ne + adjective root + (person/number particles) Examples: swɑ nezwɑ m k m nejime (make good)


Quality: Adjective root + em / jem / jm Examples: tsumeń (dark) tsumenjem (darkness), ime (good) imejem (goodness), eń (home) emm (homeless) emmɑjm (homelessness)

Personal Embodiment: Adjective root + Examples: zer (brave) zer (daredevil), ɑ m ɑ m (giant)

§6.3.8.7 Verbal Adverbs

Imperfective: mu + verb root + e / (triggers rhotacism in verb roots ending in the sequence [Vz] t t k t ) Examples: rojæs (have) murojære (having), ofes (be) muwofere (being), n rni (speak) mun p k

Perfective: h + verb root + e / (triggers rhotacism in verb roots endin t [V ] t t k t Examples: horte (build) h horteje (having built), n rni (speak) h n p k

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§6.3.8.8 Nouns from Nouns

Augmentative: noun root + ń Examples: ŋ e (fire) ŋrij ń [sun (lit. big fire)], demres (lord) Demrez ń [The Lord (i.e. God)], dits ń (spoon) ditsɑ ń (shovel)

Diminutive: noun root + (e/i)ń Examples: ɑ ɑń (man) ɑ ɑmeń (boy), ven (woman) venɑ ń ń (cat) r meń (kitten), hærɑt ń (house) hærɑt neń (cottage)

Elemental/Essential: noun root + sre / zre Examples: ŋ (fire) ŋ w t (water) w t re (essence of water)

Abstract: noun root + (o)śś Examples: zor (brother) zor ośś ( t t (sister) hihotośś (sisterhood)

Master: tes / tez / ter + noun root Examples: ri (sword) tezri (swordmaster), por (iron) tespor (blacksmith)

Decessive: verb root + x ([ho] in oblique cases) + (case/number particles) Examples: mɑ k mɑ x (former/dead king), dɑ ŕ (father) dæhjerx (dead father)

Falseness: noun root + f ś mp t p t ś ŋ m ŋ ɑ ś (alias)

Nationality: noun root + r / ŕ / l / ľ Examples: Jizrɑ h l (Israel) Jizrɑ h ll (Israelite)

Simple noun compounds are usually stressed on the first syllable of the second nominal element. When this results in the cluster [s ] or [ s], a first sound assimilates to the second. Example: mɑ k + m mɑ ðæme (throne)

§6.3.8.9 Possessive Adjectives n + 1st syllable of pronoun (no final nasalization)

Examples:o 1st singular: ts

(old form t ɑ nɑt ó o 2nd singular: deń nɑðen o 3rd singular, masculine:

roń nɑ m o 3rd singular, feminine: æroń nɑ o 3rd singular, neuter:

oroń nɑ o 1st dual, inclusive:

e nɑ e

o 1st dual, exclusive: mor nɑm

o 2nd dual: ett nɑxet o 3rd dual: d ð nɑð ð o 1st plural, inclusive:

nɑ nɑ ɑ o 1st plural, exclusive:

oń nɑ on o 2nd plural: tsælje nɑt o 3rd plural: el nɑ el

§6.3.8.10 Adjectives from Nouns

Semblative Adjectives: noun root + e / e (epenthetic voiceless stop appears after nasals) mp r ń (cat) r mp e (catlike), ɑ ɑń (man) ɑ ɑmp e (manly)

Adjectives of Trait: noun root + j f Examples: otɑń (north) otɑm f (northern), tsonnŕ (thunder) tsonnorj f (thunderous)

Abessive Adjectives: noun root + m Examples: hiðeń (form) hiðemm (formless), eń (home) emm (homeless)

“- ” A t t + wŕ Examples: ot ń (north) otɑmwŕ (northish), ɑ ń (man) ɑ ɑmwŕ (mannish)

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§6.3.8.11 Adjectives from Adjectives “- ” A t t t + wŕ

Examples: æl (slow) ælɑwŕ (slowish), ɑ ń (big) ɑ mwŕ (biggish)

§6.3.8.12 Degrees of Comparison

Positive Comparative: on + adjective root Examples: tɑfle (fast) ontɑfle (faster), æl (slow) onæl (slower)

Diminutive Comparative: in(j) + adjective root Examples: tɑ t intɑ tt t w injæl (a little slower)

Negative Comparative: liŋ + adjective root Examples: tɑ t ŋtɑ t w ŋ w

Augmentative Comparative: om + adjective root Examples: tɑ t omtɑ m t w omæl (much slower)

Positive Superlative: tsen(j) + adjective root Examples: tɑfle (fast) tsentɑfle (fastest), æl (slow) tsenjæl (slowest)

Negative Superlative: h + adjective root Examples: tɑ t hɑ tɑ t t t w hɑ (the least slow)

Elative: mos + adjective root (triggers rhotacism when preceding an adjective beginning with a vowel) Examples: tɑfle (fast) mostɑfle (most fast), æl (slow) moræl (most slow)

Enough: tos + adjective root (triggers rhotacism when preceding an adjective beginning with a vowel) Examples: tɑ t tostɑ t w toræl (slow enough)

Very: b t + adjective root Examples: tɑ t b ttɑ t w b tæl (very slow)


completeness: + verb root Examples: frezuń (eat) frezuń (consume), romes (learn) m m t

protractive: led / leð + verb root mp leð þɑń (watch) þɑń (watch on and on)

reversionary: f l + verb root (triggers l-mutation in verb roots that begin with /ɾ/) Examples: røði (do) fɑ løði (undo), ældo (make) fɑ m

desiderative: dri / ðri + verb root Examples: vrezuń (eat) ðrifresuń (be hungry), nrowń (drink) ðrinrowń (be thirsty)

reflexive: tso(r) + verb root Examples: rojæs (have) ts ŋ m ń (ask) ts ŋ m ń (wonder)

motion away: r(e) + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) rerunɑ (walk away), nel (go) rexnel (go away)

motion toward: h + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) hɑ ɑ (walk toward), nel (go) hɑ nel (go toward)

motion around/about: u + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) ɑ (walk around), nel (go) nel (go around)

motion over: / ð) + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) ɑ (walk over), nel (go) nel (go over)

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motion under: in(je) + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) injerunɑ (walk under), nel (go) injexnel (go under)

motion into: t( + verb root Examples: runɑ w k tɑ ɑ w k t nel (go) tɑ t

motion out of: emi + verb root Examples: runɑ w k emirunɑ w k t nel (go) emixnel (exit)

motion through: e(r) + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) errunɑ (walk through), nel (go) exnel (go through)

motion ahead: e(m) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k erunɑ w k w nel (go) exnel (go forward)

motion onto: o(d) + verb root Examples: runɑ w k orunɑ w k t nel (go) oxnel (go onto)

motion up: ts + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) ts ɑ (walk up), nel (go) ts xnel (go up)

motion down: he + verb root Examples: runɑ (walk) herunɑ (walk down), nel (go) hexnel (go down)

motion past: pro + verb root Examples: runɑ w k prorunɑ w k p t proxnel (go past)

§6.3.9 Honorifics Nærut N utilizes a complex set of honorific particles to indicate relative status.

Honorific Relationship me peers, simple politeness

or / ŕ inferior to superior, respect to / t inferior to superior, deep respect

tsil / tsľ superior to inferior, respect min / meń spouses

ɑze / ɑ children to parents

æn / æń parents to children x student to teacher

weś young person to older person (age difference of 25 years or more) r / ŕ old person to younger person (age difference of 25 years or more)

Honorific particles precede case particles. They are normally only used with personal names and personal pronouns, and they almost never appear in the 1st person. They can also serve a vocative function when used with a noun placed in sentence initial position.

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§6.4 Syntax

Standard syntax is Verb-Subject-Object. The presence of the grammatical case endings allows virtually any word order, but other syntactic orders are marked for focus.

Standard word order in passive voice is Verb-Subject-(Agent), and the agent, when present, is marked by the instrumental case. Other word orders are possible, and are used to shift focus.

In stative sentences that utilize the verb ofer t (to be), syntax often becomes Subject-Verb, since neither the subject nor its predicate descriptor is marked for case.

In interrogative sentences, syntax is verb-second. Responses to questions place the information relevant to the inquiry in initial position.

Indirect objects are marked with the appropriate suffix on the verb when they are pronouns. Explicit marking with the dative case is needed for nouns and is used on pronouns to indicate syntactic focus.

Tifejóf has a very strong pro-drop tendency, as most important syntactic relationships are marked explicitly on the verb. Subject agreement is obligatory, and the use of the object suffixes is strongly favored with direct and indirect objects over the use of a separate pronoun.

Different intensities of focus can be achieved through the interplay of verbal marking and the presence or absence of an explicit subject, direct object, or indirect object.

o You gave it to her. – H luzrɑ ænxɑ . (neutral) o You gave it to her. – Deń luzrɑ ɑ t o You gave it to her. – H luzrɑ ɑ ndŕ. (indirect object focus) o You gave it to her. – H luzrɑ ɑ ærondŕ. (emphatic indirect object focus) o You gave it to her. – H luzrɑ xɑ oroneś t t o You gave it to her. – luzrɑ ɑ ś. (emphatic direct object focus) o You gave it to her. – luzrɑ ɑ o. (strong auditory emphasis for verbal focus) o You gave it to her! – ń luzrɑ ɑ ærondŕ ś. (exclamatory emphasis)

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§6.5 Translations §6.5.1 The Tower of Babel – Pærek B vl t

nn e n 11:1-9 1 T v t k t rorojæ ľ huhe tyre gew ś t t ś

in time.loc.pl those.loc , past.impfv.have.3rdp.sg world.nom whole.nom one.acc language.gen and speech.acc

Now the whole world had one language and a common welɑ ś common.acc .

speech. 2 ð xoxneljľ roltɑt hɑń hɑ ľdŕ ronrɑ ł ɑ ś t inŕ r z

while past.impfv.go.3rdp.sg people.nom to east.dat , past.pfv.find.3rdp.pl plain.acc in Shinar.loc and there

As the people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled t ł. past.pfv.settle.3rdp.pl

there. 3 øł ń t ŕ “ w m ś t sk ɑ zommøs tu

past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ach. o o h . a , “i p. ak .1stp.pl brick.acc.pl and imp.bake.1stp.pl.Øind.3rdpldir

They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake m ” vovæstijøł t ŋk t hontel m t k m ń t hontel wɑt ð t oo .a v .” pa .i pfv.u .3rdp.pl brick.inst.pl for stone.gen.pl , and tar.inst for mortar.gen.

them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Wɑń øł “ t m t jɑ ś m p k ś w

then past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl ,”i p.buil .1stp.pl.rflxind city.acc , have.vbadv tower.acc , which.nom

Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower tsænundoðɑ ľ hɑń rɑ ɑð k, t m t nɑ ŋ ɑś subj.fut.impfv.climb.3

rdp.sg to heaven.dat.pl , чтобы subj.fut.pfv.make.1

stp.pl.rflxind we.inc.nom name.acc ;

that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise tiljærzľ, wɑń t t m ś ɑ tsɑ ń w ś t t t ” if.thus.not , then fut.pfv.scatter.1stp.pl we.inc.nom across fac .acc o l . hol . .”

we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 Aś ł m ń t ɑ ɑ ś p k ś w ś ɑm t ľ

but past.pfv.go.3rd

p.pl downward Lord.nom see.sup city.acc and tower.acc , which.acc past.prog.build.3rd

p.sg

But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were roltɑt people.nom .

building. 6 øł m ń “ dre zdemuwofere gewɑ tɑtsej ts, wrel n rnijľ

past.pfv.say.3rdp.pl Lo . o ,”if h co .be.vbadv one.nom people.gen , which.nom pres.impfv.speak.3rdp.sg

The Lord said, “If as one people speaking n rnirheń kæjheń, h ð ł ś wɑń tsænunwofe ľtu language.inst same.inst , past.pfv.inch.do.3rdp.pl this.acc , then subj.fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg.3rdplind

the same language they have begun to do this, then uwunxoxɑ ɑt ľ runtsľ w ś wirɑ ł røðij t. actpart.fut.impfv.able.neg what.neg , which.acc fut.impfv.plan.3rdp.pl do.inf .


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7 m ś m t m ś ś ɑ elɑś imp.go.1stp.pl downward and imp.confuse.1stp.pl language.acc their.acc , чтобы

Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand tsænuntsoromɑ łsľ z ń t ś ” subj.fut.impfv.understand.3

rdp.pl. ach. o o h .acc .”

each other.” 8 Lɑ t t ł t m ń tsɑ ń ś t ś

therefore past.pfv.scatter.3rdp.pl.Øind.3rdpldir Lord.nom from.there across world.acc whole.acc and

So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped ɑ t ł jɑ ś past.pfv.term.build.3

rdp.pl city.acc .

building the city. 9 No ofe ľ teðŕ, nɑ h momɑ ł ro “Bɑ ľ” – ne no uðŕ, nɑ

that pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg reason , that.conj past.impfv.call.3rdp.pl. Øind.3rdsgneudir “Bab l” – for that.dat , that.conj

That is why it was called Babel – because m t ł m ń n ś t t t there past.pfv.confuse.3rdp.pl Lord.nom language.acc world.gen whole.gen . from.there

there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered hertotsjøł t m ń tsɑ ń w ś t t t past.pfv.scatter.3rdp.pl.Øind.3rdpldir Lord.nom across face.acc world.gen whole.gen .

them over the face of the whole earth.

§6.5.1 The Poem of the Ring – Ressiron t Mitsɑ t ek ne mɑ ðrek Elvendrɑt inje three.nom ring.gen.pl for king.dat.pl Elf.dat.pl under sky.loc ,

Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, Rwetsɑ ne demrezdrek Dwɑ ɑt t t m k øminjo t ɑ elɑ k, seven.nom for lord.dat.pl Dwarf.dat.pl in hall.loc.pl stony.loc.pl their.loc.pl ,

Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, Hojnɑ ne Arrɑndrek Lomorjovdrɑt w k ðɑ ŋ m nine.nom for Man.dat.pl Mortal.dat.pl , which.nom.pl doom.3rdp.pass die.sup ,

Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, Gewɑ ne Demrezdŕ Tsumendŕ ót mɑ ð m t me ɑ mɑ one.nom for Lord.dat Dark.dat on throne.loc dark.loc his.loc

One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne T j t Morð t , hilje voro øł k in land.loc Mordor.gen where lie.3rdp.pl shadow.pl .

In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. Gewɑ t ð ś ell, Gewɑ t ɑ elj ś, One.nom Ring.gen rule.sup all.acc they.par , One.nom Ring.gen find.sup they.acc ,

One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, Gewɑ t ś ell t t m m y elj ś One.nom Ring.gen bring.sup all.acc they.par and in darkness.loc bind.loc they.acc ,

One Ring to bring them all, and in the darkness bind them, t Morð t , hilje voro øł k in land.loc Mordor.gen where lie.3rdp.pl shadow.pl .

In the land of Mordor where the shadows lie.

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§6.5.3 e o e – imin n em e t Dɑ ŕ nɑ on, wreljek ofe ł t rɑ ɑ , Father.nom our.exc.nom , which.nom.pl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl in heaven.loc ,

Our Father, who art in heaven, nure tsænofe ľ ŋ ɑtsæl. holy.nom subj.pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg name.nom your.nom .

hallowed be thy name. Tsænhɑ ľ nemɑ wľ nɑt subj.pres.impfv.come.3rdp.sg kingdom.nom your.nom .

Thy kingdom come. ð ŋ ɑ k ɑt ɑk subj.pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass wish.nom.pl your.nom.pl

Thy will be done ót monŕz kæjrr, nɑ ð ŋ t rɑ ɑ . on earth.loc same.adv , that pres.impfv.do.3rdp.pass in heaven.loc .

on earth as it is in heaven. ɑ ŋ pje ɡ k k ś t ɡ m o ś ɑ onɑś imp.give.2

ndp.pl.1

stplexcindir today bread.acc daily.acc our.exc.acc

Give us this day our daily bread, ne ærummɑ m w ŋ p w t k ɑ onɑtsk, and imp.forgive.2ndp.pl.Øind.1stplexcdir sin.gen.pl our.exc.gen.pl ,

and forgive us our trespasses kæjrr nɑ ne ærummɑ m m ś t ś w k mɑ ł p t p ondŕ, same.adv that pres.impfv.forgive.1st p.pl those.acc , which.nom.pl pres.impfv.sin.3rdp.pl agains.we.exc.dat ,

as we forgive those who trespass against us, w ðor ŋ p ľ t wilzdondŕ, and imp.lead.2ndp.pl.Øind.1stplexcdir.neg in temptation.dat ,

and lead us not into temptation, t wɑ ŋ p ɡ ś w t but/rather imp.save.2ndp.pl.Øind.1stplexcdir from evil.gen .

but deliver us from evil. Tsænofe ľ ś subj.pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg so .

Amen.

§6.5.4 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article One – el nn t i o e

vot k olt t e le t -het orɑm øł tɑt m w wɑ t r kæjðonjo t onheń r frɑ ŋk pres.impfv.be.born.3

rdp.pl all.nom people.par be.vbadv free.nom.pl and equal.nom.pl dignity.inst and rights.inst.pl .

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. mɑt jøł ɑ ótuweś r itsorótuweś, r li erjøł zriz t t ŕ pres.impfv.possess.3rdp.pl reason.acc.pl and conscience.acc , and pres.impfv.be.obliged.3rdp.pl act.in each.nom other.dat

They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another duxerheń zor ossɑt spirit.inst brotherhood.gen . in a spirit of brotherhood.

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§6.5.5 e t o t e i t t – Be ŕ o ot k t Am t ŋ ľ hɑ ŋŕ t t w ɑm ľ zozd ń nɑtsó; pres.prog.rflx.gather.3rdp.sg night.nom and in hour.loc this.loc pres.prog.inch.be.3rdp.sg watch.nom my.nom

Night gathers and now my watch begins Unorofe ľzľ or ń do lomŕðŕ nɑt ɑ ðŕ. fut.impfv.term.be.3rdp.sg.neg it.nom until death.dat my.dat .

It shall not end until my death Un o e ofeldm jzľ venɑ ɑ t estslents, fut.impfv.wed.1stp.sg.neg wife.com which.neg.com ,

I shall take no wife Un o mɑt m jzľ uðuwirk estslirk, untsotsɑ ðæhjerm jzľ ilowirk estslirk, fut.impfv.possess.1stp.sg.neg land.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl , fut.impfv.father.1stp.sg.neg child.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl

Hold no lands, father no children Untsotsohæhom jzľ mɑ m k t k zrozrikmojtsozľ lɑm ś estsleś, fut.impfv.rflx.wear.1stp.sg.neg crown.acc.pl which.neg.acc.pl and fut.impfv.win.1stp.sg.rflxind.neg glory.acc which.neg.acc ,

I shall wear no crowns and win no glory Unhohærɑtm j unnelomorm j, munrøze ót ruwer nɑt ɑ r . fut.impfv.live.1

stp.sg and fut.pfv.die.1

stp.sg , stand.vbadv on assignment.loc my.loc .

I shall live and die at my post Ofezm j ri t tsumenjemor , pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg sword.nom in darkness.loc ,

I am the sword in the darkness Ofezm j zo ń ót brover k, pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg watcher.nom on wall.loc.pl

I am the watcher on the walls Ofezm ŋŕ, wrel tsɑ ŋ ľ p t p nlejemoðŕ, pres.impfv.be.1stp.sg fire.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg against cold.dat

I am the fire that burns against the cold Æ ŕ, wrel hɑłeljľ ɑ ŋ ej ts, light.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg sunrise.gen ,

the light that brings the dawn Hɑł w t ľ zyljemrezirk, horn.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.wake.3rdp.sg sleeper.acc.pl ,

the horn that wakes the sleepers Zozŕ, wrel zo ľ ł k roltɑtt . shield.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.guard.3rdp.sg realm.acc.pl people.gen .

the shield that guards the realms of men m j Zo undrek Hɑ ŋ ts hærɑtw t ś tøweś nɑt ś pres.impfv.1stp.sg Guard.dat.pl Night.gen life.acc and honor.acc my.acc

I pledge my life and honor to the Night's Watch Tsɑ ń hɑ ŋ ś yleś ś hɑ ŋŕrowk uwɑm exlowk nor. through night.acc this.acc and all.acc night.par.pl actpart.pres.prog.remain.par.pl yet .


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§6.5.6 – The Litany Against Fear – Marerel p te p nt l i ŕ Orommojrľ n yrjow t entssulfritsheń. pres.impfv.ought.1stp.sg.neg feel.inf fear.inst .

I must not fear. Entssulfrets ofe ľ skrɑ ś ɑ ts. fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg killer.nom mind.gen .

Fear is the mind-killer. Entssulfrets ofe ľ lomŕ petseń, wrel hɑłejľ t w t t w ts. fear.nom pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg death.nom little.nom , which.conj.nom pres.impfv.herald.3rdp.sg annihilation.nom total.nom .

Fear is the little-death that brings total obliteration. Undɑ mm j hɑŋ t dŕ nɑt ɑ ðŕ. fut.pfv.turn.1stp.sg toward fear.dat my.dat .

I will face my fear. Un ellɑ m j, nɑ t røjrikjľ r tsænun ŋ øvjľ tsɑ ń t ś. fut.pfv.allow.1stp.sg , that.conj subj.fut.pfv.pass.over.3rdp.sg and subj.fut.pfv.move.through.3rdp.sg through I.acc .

I will permit it to pass over me and through me. r dre unp ŋ øvjľ, wɑń untomlɑmm jtso tɑ t ɑ ŋøweś nɑ ɑś. and when fut.pfv.move.past.3

rdp.sg , then.conj fut.pfv.look.1

stp.sg.rflxind inward see.sup way.acc its.acc .

And when it has gone past I will turn the inner eye to see its path. np ŋ øvjľ entssulfrets, unwofe ľzľ runtsľ. there , where fut.pfv.move.past.3rdp.sg fear.nom , fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg.neg what.neg.nom .

Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. Wustorr unw exm j tsó. alone.adv fut.impfv.remain.1stp.sg I.nom .

Only I will remain.

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Chapter 7: The Wheel of Fire

*Image taken from http://tuiing.com/abstract-fire-3-full-hd-wallpapers, an open-source image site.

http://tuiing.com/abstract-fire-3-full-hd-wallpapers

Brewer 117

The Wheel of Fire is an original work, written by Ian Brewer and translated by Scott Brewer, which was created as a basis for the religious beliefs of the culture represented by speakers of Nærut Nɑ ɑ ɑ and its descendants. It serves as their creation myth, and tells of how all things in reality are created and destroyed by the turning of the Wheel of Fire.

The Wheel of Fire

The first principle of everything is Fire. Fire always burns. Fire assumes forms and consumes forms. It is the formed and the formless. The forged fire is a wheel. The center of the wheel is the Formless Flame. For every form along the wheel, there are two spokes. The first is the Forging Flame. The Forging Flame creates each formed fire of the wheel. The second spoke is the Consuming Flame. The Consuming Flame is the end of every form. Our world was forged in a time beyond memory. Its form will be the slightest turning of the wheel. But just as a fire of the night can be reborn in the morning, so all forms are consumed and reforged. Just as the fire of the morning ignites upon its extinguishment, so a ll forms begin as they ended.

The forged fire of the wheel comes from spokes beyond number. The work of the Formless Flame through the Forging Flame and the Consuming Flame never ends. The Formless Flame never began. The Formless Flame burns behind all things.

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The Wheel of Fire – Translation without Gloss Nj wrrek risre jot Nj wrrek ri rejoþ Nj wrrekno r rej t Njæwrrek ri rej ts

t wɑ t t m t ŋ ɑ ɑ ŋ ŋ D wm ‘ m ‘ m k ‘ m k ŋ m ol m ’ d m ‘ demmɑ ŋ mp mp w k t w k t ol Rrɑwt ‘ demmɑ ‘ ɑ wɑ t t k hɑ ‘ m t ɑ bɑ njæwrrek sej. Gewɑ t ol Rrɑwt wɑm mp ɑ ol Rrɑwt wɑm mp ɑ ŋ m ’ dem t w k ot. Wɑ t ɑ t ol Rrɑwt wɑm ɑwt wɑm ol rɑ ‘ m t t ‘ mp w t ’ nɑ ɑ ɑ t tɑ t one ɑ ɑ t ‘ m ɑ ɑ unw w t t njæwrrek ot. As kæjrur nɑ ɑ’ɑ mɑ ɑme jot t ɑ ŋ ɑ ŋ t ‘ m w k ‘ m hæmmɑ mp ɑ t ɑ ɑ ŋ ɑ ŋ t hul rɑt ɑ ɑ ŋ ɑ ɑ ‘ ‘ m w k k ɑ

Xiþe gewɑ t þ loþ ofe ľ ŋ Þɑ ŋ ľ ŋ Ðæwmerjľ hiðmem k ľ hiðmizek ŋ Ofe ľ hæmnejið ur hiðemm. ŋ Hæmpsomporo ofe ľ njæwrrek. Fojnt njæwrrekoþ ofe ľ Rr þe Hiðemm. Ofe øl jofɑ wɑ þþ k hɑ hið ðŕ t nddŕ bɑ njæwrreksej. Gewɑ t ľ Rr þe Xuwɑm mp ɑ ľ Rr þe Xuwɑm mp ŋ hæmnejiðmis t ndis njæwrrekoþ. Wɑ þ ɑ t ľ Rr þe Xuwɑm ń. Rr þe Xuwɑm ń ofe ľ rɑ ðń hiðmoþ t ndoþ. Hejljexjľ mp w t þ nɑ ɑ ɑ þ tɑ florńtsej one jirɑ ɑndńtsej. Hið nɑ wofe ľ njæwrðń þentsul njæwrrekoþ. As kæjrr nɑ ɑ ľ mɑ ɑm t xor þ ŋŕ hɑ ŋ þ hið lowek ofe øl hæmr ń ur hæmmɑ mp ɑ enþɑ ŋ ľ ŋŕ þ hul rɑþɑ ŋ ð ɑ ɑ ennofe ø ð lowek kæjrr, nɑ hejrɑofe ø el. Nepolerjľ ŋ mp mp Njæwrrekoþ xres wɑ þþ k k

Gewɑ t t rilɑt ɑ t Aŋ ï Aŋ ï t ɑ ɑŋ ïj Aŋ ïzre dæwmerjöl idenhenek ɑ erzunj l idenirek. Ru l hæmnehidenno ɑ demmæno. Hæmpsomporɑ Aŋ ï w k t njæwrreköt l Idemmæ Rrɑwt ɑ wɑ t t k olhi hɑ t ɑt idenöt bɑ njæwrr k wɑ t l wɑm mp ɑ Rrɑwt wɑm mp ɑ Rrɑwt orɑ l t ï hæmnehideni ɑŋ ïjï njæwrreköt ɑ t wɑ ɑt l wɑm ɑ Rrɑwt wɑm ɑ Rrɑwt l rɑ t ɑt idenöt mp w t nɑ e ɑwt huhej t ɑ tɑ t one ö t ɑ mɑ n unw l t t ɑ njæwrdɑ njæwrreköt no. A kæjrür nɑ ɑŋ ï hɑŋɑ t ɑ ɑ l mɑ orɑm ɑ öt idenlöwek m ɑ ɑ mmɑ mp ɑ ür nɑ ɑŋ ï öt

itse gewɑ t ts noronlowk ofe ľ ŋ . Tsɑ ŋ ľ ŋ . Ðæwmerjľ hiðen ŋk ľ hiðenirk ŋ . Ofe ľ hæmnehiðeń r hiðemm. ŋ Hæmpsompor ofe ľ njæwrrek. Fojnt njæwrrek ts ofe ľ Rr tse Hiðemm. Ofe øł ɑ wɑ t t k hɑń hiðendŕ t nddŕ bɑń njæwrreks . Gewɑ t ľ Rr tse uwɑm mp orɑ ľ Rr tse uwɑm mp ŋ ś hæmnehiðeneś t ndeś njæwrrek ts. Wɑ ts jofɑ t ofe ľ Rr tse uwɑm ń. Rr tse uwɑm ń ofe ľ rɑ ð ń hiðen t t nd ts. ljexjľ zomporow t huhej ts nɑ ɑ ts t vlorents one jirɑ ɑ t . Hiðeń nɑ unwofe ľ w ń tsentsulæ njæwrrek ts. Aś kæjrr nɑ ɑ ɑ ľ mɑ orɑm t ts ŋ hɑ ŋ t ð wk ofe øł m ń r hæmmɑ mpor. Kæjrr nɑ t ɑ ŋ ľ ŋ

ts rɑt ɑ ŋ ð ś nɑ ɑś, lær ennofe øł hiðenlowk kæjrr, nɑ orofe øł Nepolerjľ ŋ Hæmpsompor Njæwrrek ts ś wɑ t t k

Brewer 119

‘ rɑ ‘ Nepoler ŋ Hæmpsomporo Njæwrrek ot wɑ t t k w k ‘ one howmɑw t ɑ m t ɑwt ‘ mmɑ t er Rrɑwt wɑm mp ‘ m ɑwt wɑm ‘ m ‘ enne jol dresul Rrɑwt ‘ mmɑ ɑ ɑ ŋ jol Rrɑwt ‘ mmɑ sik m t

ofe øl one howmɑw t ɑ ľ drezľ m t ń Rr þejoþ Hiðemmɑ þ er Rr þej Xuwɑm mp w ur Rr þej Xuwɑm ń . Hejennofe ľ drezľ Rr þe Hiðemm. Þɑ ŋ ľ Rr þe Hiðemm sik loþ.

t ɑ ɑŋ ïrï hɑ nɑ mɑ rɑt ɑ ɑŋ ïdonï öwek ennejolhi kæjrür, nɑ el rɑ Hæmpsomporɑ Aŋ ïzreno Njæwrreköt p l wɑ t t k w k olhi one howmɑw t Rrɑwt t t mm öt er wɑm mp Rrɑwt ɑ wɑm Rrɑwt ɑ l drezɑ Idemmæ Rrɑwt ennej l drezɑ mm Rrɑwt t ɑ ɑŋ ïj l sik t

wreljek ofe øł one howmɑw t . Rofe ľ drezľ m t ń Rr t t ð mm t er Rr tseheń uwɑm mp ń r Rr tseheń uwɑm ń ľ drezľ Rr tse Hiðemm. Tsɑ ŋ ľ Rr tse Hiðemm zik noronlowk.

Brewer 120

The Wheel of Fire – Translation with Gloss Nærut N n r Nærut Otmjóv Nærüt Jul ób Tifejóf

t wɑ t ot principle first all gen m t ol thing par cltpl pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg ŋ ɑ ɑ ŋ jol fire.essence . pres.impfv.burn 3rdp.sg ŋ always fire.essence . D wm ‘ m ‘ m ek pres.impfv.assume 3

rdp.sg form inst pl

jol and pres.impfv.consume 3rdp.sg

‘ m is k ŋ form acc pl fire.essence . m ol it pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg m ’ dem ur passpart.pres.impfv.form and

‘ demmɑ ŋ formless . fire.essence

Hæmpsomporo

passpart.pres.impfv.forge ol njæwrrek. pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg wheel . t njæwrrek ot center wheel gen ol Rrɑwt ‘ mmɑ pres.impfv.be 3rdp.sg Flame Formless . ol ‘ ɑ pres.impfv.be 3

rdp pl two

wɑ t t k hɑ ‘ m t drɑ spoke gen pl to form every dat bɑ njæwrrek sej. Gewɑ t along wheel loc . first

Xiþe gewɑ t þ principle.nom first.nom all.gen nor loþ ofe ľ thing.par.cltpl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg ŋ Þɑ ŋ ľ fire.essence.nom . pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg ŋ always fire.essence.nom . Ðæwmerjľ hiðmemek pres.impfv.assume.3

rdp.sg form.inst.pl

ľ and pres.impfv.consume.3rdp.sg hiðmizek ŋ form.acc.pl fire.essence.nom . Ofe ľ pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg hæmnejið ur passpart.pres.impfv.form.nom and hiðemm. ŋ formless.nom . fire.essence.nom Hæmpsomporo passpart.pres.impfv.forge.nom ofe ľ njæwrrek. pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg wheel.nom . Fojnt njæwrrekoþ center.nom wheel.gen ofe ľ Rr þe pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Hiðemm. Ofe øl Formless.nom . pres.impfv.be.3

rdp.pl

jofɑ wɑ þþ k hɑ hið ðŕ two.nom spoke.gen.pl to form.dat t nddŕ bɑ njæwrreksej. every.dat along wheel.loc .

Gewɑ t t rilɑt first.nom principle.nom.def all.dat norɑ t thing.par.cltpl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg Aŋ ï Aŋ ïzre fire.essence.nom . fire.essence.nom rildre t ɑ ɑŋ ïj l. always pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg . Aŋ ïzre fire.essence.nom

dæwmerjöl idenhenek

pres.impfv.assume.3rdp.sg form.inst.pl ɑ rzunj l and pres.impfv.consume.3rdp.sg idenirek. Run form.acc.pl. 3rdmasc.nom l pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg hæmnehidenno ɑ passpart.pres.impfv.form.nom.def and idemmæno. formless.nom.def .

Hæmpsomporɑ

passpart.pres.impfv.forge.nom

Aŋ ïzreno

fire.essence.nom.def l njæwrrek. pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg wheel.nom . tno njæwrreköt no center.nom.def wheel.dat.def l pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg Idemmæ Rrɑwt no. Formless.nom Flame.nom.def.

itse gewɑ t ts principle.nom first.nom all.gen noronlowk ofe ľ thing.par.pl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg ŋ . Tsɑ ŋ ľ fire.essence.nom . pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg ŋ . always fire.essence.nom . Ðæwmerjľ hiðen ŋk pres.impfv.assume.3

rdp.sg form.inst.pl

ľ and pres.impfv.consume.3rdp.sg hiðenirk ŋ . form.acc.pl fire.essence.nom . Ofe ľ pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg hæmnehiðeń r passpart.pres.impfv.form.nom and hiðemm. ŋ formless.nom . fire.essence.nom Hæmpsompor passpart.pres.impfv.forge.nom ofe ľ njæwrrek. pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg wheel.nom . Fojnt njæwrrek ts center.nom wheel.gen ofe ľ Rr tse pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Hiðemm. Formless.nom . Ofe øł ɑ pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl two.nom wɑ t t k hɑń hiðendŕ t nddŕ spoke.gen.pl to form.dat every.dat

Brewer 121

ol Rrɑwt pres.impfv.be 3

rdp.sg Flame

wɑm mp actpart.pres.prog.Forge . ɑ ol Rrɑwt pres.impfv.create 3rdp.sg Flame wɑm mp ɑ ŋ actpart.pres.prog.Forge fire m ’ dem t is passpart.pres.impfv.form each acc njæwrrek ot. Wɑ t ɑ t wheel gen . spoke second ol Rrɑwt pres.impfv 3rdp.sg Flame wɑm actpart.pres.prog.Consume . Rrɑwt wɑm Flame actpart.pres.prog.Consume ol rɑ ‘ m pres.impfv 3rdp.sg end form t ot. every gen .

‘ mp w t ’ past.pfv.happen 3rdp.sg forging world nɑ ɑ ɑ t tɑ tsej our.inc gen in time loc one ɑ ɑ t ‘ m ɑ ɑ beyond memory loc . form its unw ol njæwrdon fut.impfv.be 3rdp.sg turning t t w k ot. As kæjrur sup.slight wheel gen . but same.adv nɑ ɑ’ɑ ol mɑ ɑm jot that pres.impfv.able 3rdp.sg reborn inf jot ɑ ŋ ɑ ŋ ot, during morning gen fire night gen ,

Gewɑ t ofe ľ first.nom pres.impfv.be.3

rdp.sg

þ Xuwɑm mp Flame.nom actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom . ɑ ľ Rr þe pres.impfv.create.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Xuwɑm mp ŋ actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom fire.acc hæmnejiðmis t ndis passpart.pres.impfv.form.acc each.acc njæwrrekoþ. Wɑ þ ɑ t wheel.gen . spoke.nom second.nom ofe ľ Rr þe pres.impfv.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Xuwɑm ń. actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom . Rr þe Flame.nom Xuwɑm ń actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom ofe ľ rɑ ðń hiðmoþ pres.impfv.3

rdp.sg end.nom form.gen

t ndoþ. every.gen . Hejljexjľ mp w t þ past.pfv.happen.3rdp.sg forging world.gen nɑ ɑ ɑ þ tɑ florńtsej our.inc.gen in time.loc one jirɑ ɑndńtsej. Hið nɑ beyond memory.loc . form.nom its.nom unwofe ľ njæwrðń fut.impfv.be.3

rdp.sg turning.nom

þentsul njæwrrekoþ. As kæjrr nɑ sup.slight wheel.gen . but same.adv that xɑ ľ mɑ ɑm t pres.impfv.able.3rdp.sg sem.born.inf

ɑ wɑ t t k two.nom spoke.dat.pl olhi hɑ t ɑt pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl to every.dat idenöt njæwrr k no bɑ form.dat wheel.loc.def along .

Gewɑ t l first.nom.def pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg wɑm mp ɑ

actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom Rrɑwt . Flame.nom.def .

wɑm mp ɑ

actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom Rrɑwt orɑ l Flame.nom.def pres.impfv.create.3rdp.sg

t ï hæmnehideni each.acc passpart.pres.impfv.form.acc ɑŋ ïjï njæwrreköt ɑ t fire.acc wheel.dat.def . second.nom

wɑ ɑt l spoke.nom.def pres.impfv.3

rdp.sg

wɑm ɑ actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom Rrɑwt . Flame.nom.def . wɑm ɑ actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom

Rrɑwt

Flame.nom.def l rɑ onno t ɑt pres.impfv.3

rdp.sg end.nom.def every.dat

idenöt . form.dat .

mp w tno nɑ e ɑwt huhej t forging.nom.def our.inc.dat world.dat

bɑń njæwrreks . Gewɑ t along wheel.loc . first.nom ofe ľ Rr tse pres.impfv.be.3rdp.sg Flame.nom uwɑm mp actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom . orɑ ľ Rr tse pres.impfv.create.3rdp.sg Flame.nom uwɑm mp ŋ ś actpart.pres.prog.Forge.nom fire.acc hæmnehiðeneś t ndeś passpart.pres.impfv.form.acc each.acc njæwrrek ts. Wɑ ts jofɑ t wheel.gen . spoke.nom second.nom ofe ľ Rr tse pres.impfv.3rdp.sg Flame.nom uwɑm ń. actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom . Rr tse Flame.nom uwɑm ń actpart.pres.prog.Consume.nom ofe ľ rɑ ð ń hiðen ts pres.impfv.3rdp.sg end.nom form.gen t nd ts. every.gen .

ljexjľ zomporow t huhej ts past.pfv.happen.3rdp.sg forging world.gen nɑ ɑ ts t vlorents our.inc.gen in time.loc one jirɑ ɑ t . Unwofe ľ beyond memory.loc . fut.impfv.be.3

rdp.sg

hiðeń nɑ njæwrd ń form.nom its.nom turning.nom tsentsulæ njæwrrek ts. Aś kæjrr sup.slight wheel.gen . but same.adv

Brewer 122

‘ m wek thus all form par pl ol ‘ pres.impfv.be 3

rdp pl

m passpart.pres.impfv.consume and hæmmɑ mp passpart.pres.impfv.reforge . Kæjrur nɑ t ɑ ɑ ŋ jol same.adv that pres.inch.burn 3rdp.sg ɑ ŋ jot hul rɑt ɑ ɑ ŋ fire morning gen upon extinguishment nɑ ɑ ‘ its acc , thus pres.impfv begin.3

rdp pl

‘ m wek kæjrur, all form par pl same.adv , nɑ ‘ ɑ ‘ that past.pfv.end 3rdp pl they . Nepoler jol pres.impfv.originate 3rdp.sg ŋ Fire.essence Hæmpsomporo passpart.pres.impfv.Forge Njæwrrek ot wɑ t t ek, Wheel gen from spoke gen pl , wrel ek ol ‘ which pl pres.impfv.be 3rdp pl one howmɑw t sej. beyond counting loc . Rɑ jol dresul pres.impfv.end 3rdp.sg when.neg m t ɑwt ‘ mmɑ ot work Flame Formless gen er Rrɑwt wɑm mp through . Flame actpart.pres.prog.Forge

xor þ ŋŕ hɑ ŋ þ during morning.gen fire.nom night.gen , ð lowek thus all.nom form.par.pl ofe øl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl m ń ur passpart.pres.impfv.consume.nom and hæmmɑ mp passpart.pres.impfv.sem.forge.nom . Kæjrr nɑ þɑ ŋ ľ same.adv that pres.inch.burn.3rdp.sg ŋŕ þ hul fire.nom morning.gen upon rɑþɑ ŋ ð nɑ ɑ extinguishment.acc its.acc , thus

ennofe øl pres.impfv.inch.be.3rdp.pl all.nom hið lowek kæjrr, nɑ form.par.pl same.adv , that

hejrɑofe ø el. past.pfv.term.be.3rdp.pl they.nom . Nepolerjľ pres.impfv.originate.3

rdp.sg

ŋ Fire.essence.nom Hæmpsomporo passpart.pres.impfv.Forge.nom Njæwrrekoþ xres wɑ þþ k k Wheel.gen from spoke.gen.pl , which.pl ofe øl one howmɑw t . pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl beyond counting.loc. Rɑofe ľ drezľ pres.impfv.term.be.3

rdp.sg when.neg

m t ń Rr þejoþ Hiðemmɑ þ work.nom Flame.gen Formless.gen

ɑ tɑ t past.pfv.happen.3rdp.sg in time.loc one ö t ɑ mɑ n beyond memory.loc . his.nom form.nom unw l t t ɑ fut.impfv.be.3rdp.sg sup.slight.nom njæwrdɑ njæwrrekötno. A turning.nom.def wheel.dat.def . but kæjrür nɑ ɑŋ ï hɑŋɑ ot no same.adv that fire.nom night.dat.def ɑ ɑ l mɑ orɑm pres.impfv.able.3rdp.sg reborn.inf ɑ öt during morning.dat , thus all.nom idenlöwek olhi form.par.pl pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl

hæm ɑn ɑ passpart.pres.impfv.consume.nom and hæmmɑ mp ɑ passpart.pres.impfv.reforge.nom . Kæjrür nɑ ɑŋ ïno same.adv that fire.nom.def öt ennej l morning.dat.def pres.begin.3

rdp.sg

t ɑ ɑŋ ïrï hɑ nɑ mɑ burn.inf upon his.acc rɑt ɑ ɑŋ ïdonï, ræl extinguishment.acc, thus all.nom idenlöwek ennejolhi form.par.pl pres.impfv.begin.3rdp.pl

kæjrür, nɑ el same.adv , that they.nom

rɑ past.pfv.end.3

rdp.pl .

Hæmpsomporɑ passpart.pres.impfv.Forge.nom

nɑ ɑ ɑ ľ mɑ orɑm t that pres.impfv.able.3rdp.sg sem.born.inf ts ŋ ɑ ŋ ts, during morning.gen fire.nom night.gen , ð wk thus all.nom form.par.pl ofe øł pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl m ń r passpart.pres.impfv.consume.nom and hæmmɑ mp passpart.pres.impfv.reforge.nom . Kæjrr nɑ same.adv that

entsɑ ŋ ľ ŋ

pres.impfv.inch.burn.3rdp.sg fire.nom ts rɑt ɑ ŋ ð ś upon morning.gen extinguishment.acc nɑ ɑś, lær en ł its.acc , thus pres.impfv.inch.be.3rdp.pl hiðenlowk kæjrr,nɑ all.nom form.par.pl same.adv ,that rofe øł past.pfv.term.end.3

rdp.pl .

Nepolerjľ pres.impfv.originate.3rdp.sg ŋ Fire.essence.nom Hæmpsompor passpart.pres.impfv.Forge.nom Njæwrrek ts ś wɑ t t k Wheel.gen from spoke.gen.pl , wreljek ofe øł which.pl pres.impfv.be.3

rdp.pl

one howmɑw t . beyond counting.loc .

Brewer 123

‘ m Rrɑwt inst and Flame

wɑm ‘ m actpart.pres.prog.Consume inst ‘ past.pfv.begin 3rdp.sg when.neg Rrɑwt ‘ mmɑ Flame Formless . ɑ ɑ ŋ jol Rrɑwt pres.impfv.burn 3rdp.sg Flame ‘ mmɑ sik sej Formless behind all loc norom lo t thing par cltpl .

er Rr þej through Flame.inst Xuwɑm mp w ur actpart.pres.prog.Forge.inst and Rr þej Flame.inst Xuwɑm rezń . actpart.pres.prog.Consume.inst . Hejennofe ľ drezľ past.pfv.inch.be.3rdp.sg when.neg Rr þe Hiðemm. Flame.nom Formless.nom . Þɑ ŋ jľ Rr þe pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Hiðemm sik Formless.nom behind all.loc nor loþ. thing.par.cltpl .

Aŋ ïzreno Fire.essence.nom.def Njæwrreköt no Wheel.dat.def

nepolerj l pres.impfv.originate.3rdp.sg from from wɑ t t k wrelek spoke.dat.pl , which.pl

olhi one howmɑw t pres.impfv.be.3rdp.pl beyond counting.loc. t onno Idemmæjöt work.nom.def Formless.dat

Rrɑwt t er Flame.dat.def through wɑm mp actpart.pres.prog.Forge.inst

Rrɑwt ɑ Flame.inst.def and wɑm actpart.pres.prog.Consume.inst Rrɑwt Flame.inst.def rɑ l drezɑ pres.impfv.end.3rdp.sg when.neg . Idemmæ Rrɑwt no Formless.nom Flame.nom.def

l drezɑ past.pfv.begin.3rdp.sg when.neg . Idemmæ Rrɑwt no Formless.nom Flame.nom.def t ɑ ɑŋ ïj l sik pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg behind all.loc t thing.par.cltpl .

Rofe ľ drezľ pres.impfv.term.be.end.3

rdp.sg when.neg

m t ń Rr tse t Hiðemm ts work.nom Flame.gen Formless.gen er Rr tseheń through Flame.inst uwɑm mp eń r actpart.pres.prog.Forge.inst and Rr tseheń Flame.inst uwɑm eń. actpart.pres.prog.Consume.inst . ofe ľ drezľ past.pfv.inch.be.3rdp.sg when.neg Rr tse Hiðemm. Flame.nom Formless.nom . Tsɑ ŋ ľ Rr tse pres.impfv.burn.3rdp.sg Flame.nom Hiðemm zik noronlowk. Formless.nom behind all.loc thing.par.pl

Brewer 124

Arnijɑt

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An Historical Grammar of Nærut Nɑnɑ́rɑ and Its Daughter Languages