LouisXIV,the"SunKing"

AncienRgimeFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheAncienRgime(Frenchpronunciation:[.sjeim],OldorFormerRegime)wasthemonarchic,aristocratic,socialandpoliticalsystemestablishedintheKingdomofFrancefromapproximatelythe15thcenturyuntilthelater18thcentury("earlymodernFrance")underthelateValoisandBourbondynasties.ThetermisoccasionallyusedtorefertothesimilarfeudalsocialandpoliticalorderofthetimeelsewhereinEurope.TheadministrativeandsocialstructuresoftheAncienRgimeweretheresultofyearsofstatebuilding,legislativeacts(liketheOrdinanceofVillersCotterts),internalconflictsandcivilwars,buttheyremainedaconfusingpatchworkoflocalprivilegeandhistoricdifferencesuntiltheFrenchRevolutionendedthesystem.

MuchofthemedievalpoliticalcentralizationofFrancehadbeenlostintheHundredYears'War,andtheValoisDynasty'sattemptsatreestablishingcontroloverthescatteredpoliticalcentresofthecountrywerehinderedbytheWarsofReligion.MuchofthereignsofHenryIV,LouisXIIIandtheearlyyearsofLouisXIVwerefocusedonadministrativecentralisation.Despite,however,thenotionof"absolutemonarchy"(typifiedbytheking'srighttoissuelettresdecachet)andtheeffortsbythekingstocreateacentralizedstate,AncienRgimeFranceremainedacountryofsystemicirregularities:administrative(includingtaxation),legal,judicial,andecclesiasticdivisionsandprerogativesfrequentlyoverlapped,whiletheFrenchnobilitystruggledtomaintaintheirownrightsinthemattersoflocalgovernmentandjustice,andpowerfulinternalconflicts(liketheFronde)protestedagainstthiscentralization.

Theneedforcentralizationinthisperiodwasdirectlylinkedtothequestionofroyalfinancesandtheabilitytowagewar.Theinternalconflictsanddynasticcrisesofthe16thand17thcenturies(theWarsofReligion,theconflictwiththeHabsburgs)andtheterritorialexpansionofFranceinthe17thcenturydemandedgreatsumswhichneededtoberaisedthroughtaxes,suchasthetailleandthegabelleandbycontributionsofmenandservicefromthenobility.

Onekeytothiscentralizationwasthereplacingofpersonal"clientele"systemsorganizedaroundthekingandothernoblesbyinstitutionalsystemsaroundthestate.[1]ThecreationoftheIntendantsrepresentativesofroyalpowerintheprovincesdidmuchtounderminelocalcontrolbyregionalnobles.Thesamewastrueofthegreaterrelianceshownbytheroyalcourtonthe"noblessederobe"asjudgesandroyalcounselors.Thecreationofregionalparlementshadinitiallythesamegoaloffacilitatingtheintroductionofroyalpowerintonewlyassimilatedterritories,butastheparlementsgainedinselfassurance,theybegantobesourcesofdisunity.

Contents

Contents

1Terminology2Provincesandadministrativedivisions

2.1Territorialexpansion2.2Administration

3Statefinances3.1Taxationhistory

3.1.1Feesforholdingstatepositions4Justice

4.1Lowercourts4.2Superiorcourts

5Administration5.1King'scounsel

5.1.117thcenturystatepositions6TheChurch

6.1Gallicanism6.2Monasteries6.3Convents6.4ReformationandtheProtestantminority

7Downfall8Nostalgia9References10Furtherreading

10.1Religion10.2Other10.3InFrench

Terminology

TheterminFrenchmeans"oldregime"or"formerregime".However,mostEnglishlanguagebooksusetheFrenchtermAncienRgime.ThetermfirstappearedinprintinEnglishin1794,andwasoriginallypejorativeinnature:SimonSchamahasobserved:"virtuallyassoonasthetermwascoined,'oldregime'wasautomaticallyfreightedwithassociationsofbothtraditionalismandsenescence.Itconjuredupasocietysoencrustedwithanachronismsthatonlyashockofgreatviolencecouldfreethelivingorganismwithin.Institutionallytorpid,economicallyimmobile,culturallyatrophiedandsociallystratified,this'oldregime'wasincapableofselfmodernization."[2]

Moregenerally,ancienrgimereferstoanypoliticalandsocialsystemhavingtheprincipalfeaturesoftheFrenchAncienRgime.Europe'sotheranciensrgimeshadsimilarorigins,butdiversefates:someeventuallyevolvedintoconstitutionalmonarchies,whereasothersweretorndownbywarsandrevolutions.

Provincesandadministrativedivisions

Territorialexpansion

Inthemid15thcentury,Francewassignificantlysmallerthanitistoday,[3]andnumerousborderprovinces(suchasRoussillon,Cerdagne,Conflent,Vallespir,Capcir,Calais,Barn,Navarre,CountyofFoix,Flanders,Artois,Lorraine,Alsace,Troisvchs,FrancheComt,Savoy,Bresse,Bugey,Gex,Nice,Provence,Dauphin,andBrittany)wereeitherautonomousorbelongedtotheHolyRomanEmpire,theCrownofAragonortheKingdomofNavarratherewerealsoforeignenclaves,liketheComtatVenaissin.

Inaddition,certainprovinceswithinFrancewereostensiblypersonalfiefdomsofnoblefamilies(liketheBourbonnais,Marche,ForezandAuvergneprovincesheldbytheHouseofBourbonuntiltheprovinceswereforciblyintegratedintotheroyaldomainin1527afterthefallofCharlesIII,DukeofBourbon).

Fromthelatefifteenthcenturyuptothelateseventeenthcentury(andagaininthe1760s),Franceunderwentamassiveterritorialexpansionandanattempttobetterintegrateitsprovincesintoanadministrativewhole.

Frenchacquisitionsfrom14611768:

underLouisXIProvence(1482),Dauphin(1461,underFrenchcontrolsince1349)

underLouisXIIMilan(1500,lostin1521),Naples(1500,lostin1504)

underFrancisIBrittany(1532)

Frenchterritorialexpansionfrom15521798.

underHenryIIdefacto"Troisvchs"(Metz,Toul,Verdun)(1552),Calais(1559)

underHenryIVCountyofFoix(1607)

underLouisXIIIBarnandNavarre(1620,underFrenchcontrolsince1589aspartofHenryIV'spossessions)

underLouisXIVTreatyofWestphalia(1648)Alsaceanddejure"TroisEvchs"TreatyofthePyrenees(1659)Artois,NorthernCatalonia(Roussillon,Cerdagne)TreatyofNijmegen(167879)FrancheComt,Flanders

underLouisXVLorraine(1766),Corsica(1768)

Administration

Despiteeffortsbythekingstocreateacentralizedstateoutoftheseprovinces,Franceinthisperiodremainedapatchworkoflocalprivilegesandhistoricaldifferences.Thearbitrarypowerofthemonarch(asimpliedbytheexpression"absolutemonarchy")wasinfactmuchlimitedbyhistoricandregionalparticularities.Administrative(includingtaxation),legal(parlement),judicial,andecclesiasticdivisionsandprerogativesfrequentlyoverlapped(forexample,Frenchbishopricsanddiocesesrarelycoincidedwithadministrativedivisions).

Certainprovincesandcitieshadwonspecialprivileges(suchaslowerratesinthegabelleorsalttax).ThesouthofFrancewasgovernedbywrittenlawadaptedfromtheRomanlegalsystem,thenorthofFrancebycommonlaw(in1453thesecommonlawswerecodifiedintoawrittenform).

Therepresentativeofthekinginhisprovincesandcitieswasthegouverneur.Royalofficerschosenfromthehighestnobility,provincialandcitygovernors(oversightofprovincesandcitieswasfrequentlycombined)werepredominantlymilitarypositionsinchargeofdefenseandpolicing.Provincialgovernorsalsocalled"lieutenantsgnraux"alsohadtheabilityofconvokingprovincialparlements,provincialestatesandmunicipalbodies.

Thetitle"gouverneur"firstappearedunderCharlesVI.TheordinanceofBloisof1579reducedtheirnumberto12,andanordinanceof1779increasedtheirnumberto39(18firstclassgovernors,21secondclassgovernors).Althoughinprincipletheyweretheking'srepresentativesandtheirchargescouldberevokedattheking'swill,somegovernorshadinstalledthemselvesandtheirheirsasaprovincialdynasty.

Thegovernorswereattheheightoftheirpowerfromthemiddleofthe16thtothemid17thcentury.TheirroleinprovincialunrestduringthecivilwarsledCardinalRichelieutocreatethemoretractablepositionsofintendantsoffinance,policingandjustice,andinthe18thcenturytheroleofprovincialgovernorswasgreatlycurtailed.

Francein1477.Redline:BoundaryoftheKingdomofFranceLightblue:thedirectlyheldroyaldomain.

MajorprovincesofFrance,withprovincialcapitals.Citiesinboldhadprovincial"parlements"or"conseilssouverains"duringtheAncienRgime.Note:ThemapreflectsFrance'smodernbordersanddoesnotindicatetheterritorialformationofFranceovertime.Provincesonthislistmayencompassseveralotherhistoricprovincesandcounties(forexample,atthetimeoftheRevolution,Guyennewasmadeupofeightsmallerhistoricprovinces,includingQuercyandRouergue).Foramorecompletelist,seeProvincesofFrance.

1. ledeFrance(Paris)2. Berry(Bourges)3. Orlanais(Orlans)4. Normandy(Rouen)5. Languedoc(Toulouse)6. Lyonnais(Lyon)7. Dauphin(Grenoble)8. Champagne(Troyes)9. Aunis(LaRochelle)

10. Saintonge(Saintes)11. Poitou(Poitiers)12. GuyenneandGascony(Bordeaux)13. Burgundy(Dijon)14. Picardy(Amiens)15. Anjou(Angers)16. Provence(AixenProvence)17. Angoumois(Angoulme)18. Bourbonnais(Moulins)19. Marche(Guret)20. Brittany(Rennes,parl.brieflyat

Nantes)

24. Foix(Foix)25. Auvergne(ClermontFerrand)26. Barn(Pau)27. Alsace(Strasbourg,cons.souv.inColmar)28. Artois(consprovinc.inArras)29. Roussillon(cons.souv.inPerpignan)30. FlandersandHainaut(Lille,parliamentfirstinTournai,then

inDouai)31. FrancheComt(Besanon,formerlyatDole)32. Lorraine(Nancy)33. Corsica(offmap,Ajaccio,cons.souv.inBastia)34. Nivernais(Nevers)35. ComtatVenaissin(Avignon),aPapalfief36. ImperialFreeCityofMulhouse37. Savoy,aSardinianfief(parl.inChambry153759)38. Nice,aSardinianfief39. Montbliard,afiefofWrttemberg40. (notindicated)Troisvchs(Metz,ToulandVerdun)41. (notindicated)Dombes(Trvoux)42. (notindicated)Navarre(SaintJeanPieddePort)43. (notindicated)Soule(Maulon)44. (notindicated)Bigorre(Tarbes)

21. Maine(LeMans)22. Touraine(Tours)23. Limousin(Limoges)

45. (notindicated)Beaujolais(Beaujeu)46. (notindicated)Bresse(Bourg)47. (notindicated)Perche(MortagneauPerche)

Inanattempttoreformthesystem,newdivisionswerecreated.Therecettesgnrales,commonlyknownas"gnralits",wereinitiallyonlytaxationdistricts(seeStatefinancesbelow).Thefirstsixteenwerecreatedin1542byedictofHenryII.Theirrolesteadilyincreasedandbythemid17thcentury,thegnralitswereundertheauthorityofan"intendant",andtheybecameavehiclefortheexpansionofroyalpowerinmattersofjustice,taxationandpolicing.BytheRevolution,therewere36gnralitsthelasttwowerecreatedin1784.

GnralitsofFrancebycity(andprovince).Areasinredare"paysd'tat"(note:shouldalsoinclude36,37andpartsof35)white"paysd'lection"yellow"paysd'imposition"(seeStatefinancesbelow).

1. GnralitofBordeaux,(Agen,Guyenne)

2. GnralitofProvence,orAixenProvence(Provence)

3. GnralitofAmiens(Picardy)4. GnralitofBourges(Berry)5. GnralitofCaen(Normandy)6. GnralitofChlons

(Champagne)7. GnralitofBurgundy,Dijon

(Burgundy)8. GnralitofGrenoble(Dauphin)9. GnralitofIssoire,laterofRiom

(Auvergne)10. GnralitofLyon(Lyonnais,

BeaujolaisandForez)11. GnralitofMontpellier

(Languedoc)12. GnralitofParis(ledeFrance)13. GnralitofPoitiers(Poitou)14. GnralitofRouen(Normandy)15. GnralitofToulouse

17. GnralitofMetz(Troisvchs)18. GnralitofNantes(Brittany)19. GnralitofLimoges(dividedintwoparts:

Angoumois&LimousinMarche)20. GnralitofOrlans(Orlanais)21. GnralitofMoulins(Bourbonnais)22. GnralitofSoissons(Picardy)23. GnralitofMontauban(Gascony)24. GnralitofAlenon(Perche)25. GnralitofPerpignan(Roussillon)26. GnralitofBesanon(FrancheComt)27. GnralitofValenciennes(Hainaut)28. GnralitofStrasbourg(Alsace)29. (see18)30. GnralitofLille(Flanders)31. GnralitofLaRochelle(AunisandSaintonge)32. GnralitofNancy(Lorraine)33. GnralitofTrvoux(Dombes)34. GnralitofCorsica,orBastia(Corsica)35. GnralitofAuch(Gascony)

(Languedoc)16. GnralitofTours(Touraine,

MaineandAnjou)

36. GnralitofBayonne(Labourd)37. GnralitofPau(BarnandSoule)

Statefinances

ThedesireformoreefficienttaxcollectionwasoneofthemajorcausesforFrenchadministrativeandroyalcentralizationintheearlymodernperiod.Thetaillebecameamajorsourceofroyalincome.Exemptedfromthetaillewereclergyandnobles(exceptfornonnoblelandstheyheldin"paysd'tat",seebelow),officersofthecrown,militarypersonnel,magistrates,universityprofessorsandstudents,andcertaincities("villesfranches")suchasParis.

Theprovinceswereofthreesorts,the"paysd'lection",the"paysd'tat"andthe"paysd'imposition".Inthe"paysd'lection"(thelongestheldpossessionsoftheFrenchcrownsomeoftheseprovinceshadhadtheequivalentautonomyofa"paysd'tat"inanearlierperiod,buthadlostitthroughtheeffectsofroyalreforms)theassessmentandcollectionoftaxesweretrustedtoelectedofficials(atleastoriginally,laterthesepositionswerebought),andthetaxwasgenerally"personal",meaningitwasattachedtononnobleindividuals.

Inthe"paysd'tat"("provinceswithprovincialestates"),Brittany,Languedoc,Burgundy,Auvergne,Barn,Dauphin,ProvenceandportionsofGascony,suchasBigorre,CommingesandtheQuatreValles,recentlyacquiredprovinceswhichhadbeenabletomaintainacertainlocalautonomyintermsoftaxation,theassessmentofthetaxwasestablishedbylocalcouncilsandthetaxwasgenerally"real",meaningthatitwasattachedtononnoblelands(meaningthatnoblespossessingsuchlandswererequiredtopaytaxesonthem)."Paysd'imposition"wererecentlyconqueredlandswhichhadtheirownlocalhistoricalinstitutions(theyweresimilartothe"paysd'tat"underwhichtheyaresometimesgrouped),althoughtaxationwasoverseenbytheroyalintendant.

Taxationhistory

Taxationdistrictshadgonethroughavarietyofmutationsfromthe14thcenturyon.Beforethe14thcentury,oversightofthecollectionofroyaltaxesfellgenerallytothebaillisandsnchauxintheircircumscriptions.Reformsinthe14thand15thcenturiessawFrance'sroyalfinancialadministrationrunbytwofinancialboardswhichworkedinacollegialmanner:thefourGnrauxdesfinances(alsocalled"gnralconseiller"or"receveurgnral")oversawthecollectionoftaxes(taille,aides,etc.)bytaxcollectingagents(receveurs)andthefourTrsoriersdeFrance(Treasurers)oversawrevenuesfromroyallands(the"domaineroyal").

TogethertheyweretheMessieursdesfinances.Thefourmembersofeachboardweredividedbygeographicalcircumscriptions(althoughthetermgnralitisn'tfoundbeforetheendofthe15thcentury).TheareaswerenamedLanguedol,Languedoc,OutreSeineandYonne,andNomandy(thelatterwascreatedin1449theotherthreewerecreatedearlier),withthedirectorsofthe"Languedol"regiontypicallyhavinganhonorificpreeminence.By1484,thenumberofgnralitshadincreasedto6.

Inthe16thcentury,thekingsofFrance,inanefforttoexertmoredirectcontroloverroyalfinancesandtocircumventthedoubleboard(accusedofpooroversight)institutednumerousadministrativereforms,includingtherestructuringofthefinancialadministrationandanincreaseinthenumberof"gnralits".In1542,HenryII,Francewasdividedinto16"gnralits".Thenumberincreasedto21attheendofthe16thcentury,andto36atthetimeoftheFrenchRevolutionthelasttwowerecreatedin1784.

TheadministrationofthegnralitsoftheRenaissancewentthroughavarietyofreforms.In1577,HenryIIIestablished5treasurers("trsoriersgnraux")ineachgnralitwhoformedabureauoffinances.Inthe17thcentury,oversightofthegnralitswassubsumedbytheintendantsoffinance,justiceandpolice,andtheexpression"gnralit"and"intendance"becameroughlysynonymous.

Untilthelate17thcentury,taxcollectorswerecalledreceveurs.In1680,thesystemoftheFermeGnralewasestablished,afranchisedcustomsandexciseoperationinwhichindividualsboughttherighttocollectthetailleonbehalfoftheking,through6yearsadjudications(certaintaxesliketheaidesandthegabellehadbeenfarmedoutinthiswayasearlyas1604).Themajortaxcollectorsinthatsystemwere

knownasthefermiersgnraux(farmersgeneralinEnglish).

Thetaillewasonlyoneofanumberoftaxes.Therealsoexistedthe"taillon"(ataxformilitarypurposes),anationalsalttax(thegabelle),nationaltariffs(the"aides")onvariousproducts(wine,beer,oil,andothergoods),localtariffsonspecialityproducts(the"douane")orleviedonproductsenteringthecity(the"octroi")orsoldatfairs,andlocaltaxes.Finally,thechurchbenefitedfromamandatorytaxortithecalledthe"dme".

LouisXIVcreatedseveraladditionaltaxsystems,includingthe"capitation"(begunin1695)whichtouchedeverypersonincludingnoblesandtheclergy(althoughexemptioncouldbeboughtforalargeonetimesum)andthe"dixime"(171017,restartedin1733),enactedtosupportthemilitary,whichwasatruetaxonincomeandonpropertyvalue.In1749,underLouisXV,anewtaxbasedonthe"dixime",the"vingtime"(or"onetwentieth"),wasenactedtoreducetheroyaldeficit,andthistaxcontinuedthroughtheremainingyearsoftheAncienRgime.

Feesforholdingstatepositions

Anotherkeysourceofstatefinancingwasthroughchargingfeesforstatepositions(suchasmostmembersofparlements,magistrates,matredesrequtesandfinancialofficers).Manyofthesefeeswerequiteelevated,butsomeoftheseofficesconferrednobilityandcouldbefinanciallyadvantageous.Theuseofofficestoseekprofithadbecomestandardpracticeasearlyasthe12thand13thcenturies.Alawin1467madetheseofficesirrevocable,exceptthroughthedeath,resignationorforfeitureofthetitleholder,andtheseoffices,oncebought,tendedtobecomehereditarycharges(withafeefortransferoftitle)passedonwithinfamilies.[4]

Inanefforttoincreaserevenues,thestateoftenturnedtothecreationofnewoffices.Beforeitwasmadeillegalin1521,Ithadbeenpossibletoleaveopenendedthedatethatthetransferoftitlewastotakeeffect.In1534,the"fortydaysrule"wasinstituted(adaptedfromchurchpractice),whichmadethesuccessor'srightvoidiftheprecedingofficeholderdiedwithinfortydaysofthetransferandtheofficereturnedtothestatehowever,anewfee,calledthesurvivancejouissanteprotectedagainstthefortydaysrule.[4]In1604,Sullycreatedanewtax,the"paulette"or"annualtax"(1/60oftheamountoftheofficialcharge),whichpermittedthetitleholdertobefreeofthe40dayrule.The"paulette"andthevenalityofofficesbecamekeyconcernsintheparlementarianrevoltsofthe1640s(LaFronde).

Thestatealsodemandedofthechurcha"freegift",whichthechurchcollectedfromholdersofeccleciasticofficesthroughtaxescalledthe"dcime"(roughly1/20thoftheofficialcharge,createdunderFrancisI).

Statefinancesalsoreliedheavilyonborrowing,bothprivate(fromthegreatbankingfamiliesinEurope)andpublic.Themostimportantpublicsourceforborrowingwasthroughthesystemofrentessurl'HteldeVilleofParis,akindofgovernmentbondsystemofferinginvestorsannualinterest.Thissystemfirstcametousein1522underFrancisI.

Until1661,theheadofthefinancialsysteminFrancewasgenerallythesurintendantdesfinanceswiththefallofFouquet,thiswasreplacedbythelesserpositionofcontrleurgnraldesfinances.

Justice

Lowercourts

Justiceinseigneuriallands(includingthoseheldbythechurchorwithincities)wasgenerallyoverseenbytheseigneurorhisdelegatedofficers.Sincethe15thcentury,muchoftheseigneur'slegalpurviewhadbeengiventothebailliagesorsnchaussesandtheprsidiaux(seebelow),leavingonlyaffairsconcerningseigneurialduesandduties,andsmallaffairsoflocaljustice.Onlycertainseigneursthosewiththepowerofhautejustice(seigneurialjusticewasdividedinto"high""middle"and"low"justice)couldenactthedeathpenalty,andonlywiththeconsentoftheprsidiaux.

Crimesofdesertion,highwayrobbery,andmendicants(socalledcasprvtaux)wereunderthesupervisionoftheprvtdesmarchaux,whoexactedquickandimpartialjustice.In1670,theirpurviewwasoverseenbytheprsidiaux(seebelow).

Thenationaljudicialsystemwasmadeupoftribunalsdividedintobailliages(innorthernFrance)andsnchausses(insouthernFrance)thesetribunals(numberingaround90inthe16thcentury,andfarmoreattheendofthe18th)weresupervisedbyalieutenantgnralandweresubdividedinto:

prvtssupervisedbyaprvtor(aswasthecaseinNormandy)intovicomtssupervisedbyavicomte(thepositioncouldbeheldbynonnobles)or(inpartsofnorthernFrance)intochtelleniessupervisedbyachtelain(thepositioncouldbeheldbynonnobles)or,inthesouth,intovigueriesorbayliessupervisedbyaviguierorabayle.

Inanefforttoreducethecaseloadintheparlements,certainbailliagesweregivenextendedpowersbyHenryIIofFrance:thesewerecalledprsidiaux.

Theprvtsortheirequivalentwerethefirstleveljudgesfornonnoblesandecclesiastics.Intheexerciseoftheirlegalfunctions,theysatalone,buthadtoconsultwithcertainlawyers(avocatsorprocureurs)chosenbythemselves,whom,tousethetechnicalphrase,they"summonedtotheircouncil".Theappealsfromtheirsentenceswenttothebailliages,whoalsohadjurisdictioninthefirstinstanceoveractionsbroughtagainstnobles.Bailliagesandprsidiauxwerealsothefirstcourtforcertaincrimes(socalledcasroyauxthesecaseshadformerlybeenunderthesupervisionofthelocalseigneurs):sacrilege,lsemajest,kidnapping,rape,heresy,alterationofmoney,sedition,insurrections,andtheillegalcarryingofarms.Toappealabailliage'sdecisions,oneturnedtotheregionalparlements.

Themostimportantoftheseroyaltribunalswastheprvt[5]andprsidialofParis,theChtelet,whichwasoverseenbytheprvtofParis,civilandcriminallieutenants,andaroyalofficerinchargeofmaintainingpublicorderinthecapital,theLieutenantGeneralofPoliceofParis.

Superiorcourts

Thefollowingwerecourssouveraines,orsuperiorcourts,whosedecisionscouldonlyberevokedby"thekinginhisconseil"(seeadministrationsectionbelow).

Parlementseventually14innumber:Paris,Languedoc(Toulouse),Provence(Aix),FrancheComt(Besanon),Guyenne(Bordeaux),Burgundy(Dijon),Flanders(Douai),Dauphin(Grenoble),Troisvchs(Metz),Lorraine(Nancy),Navarre(Pau),Brittany(Rennes,brieflyinNantes),Normandy(Rouen)and(from15231771)Dombes(Trvoux).TherewasalsoparlementinSavoy(Chambry)from153759.Theparlementswereoriginallyonlyjudicialinnature(appellatecourtsforlowercivilandecclesiasticalcourts),butbegantosubsumelimitedlegislativefunctions(seeadministrationsectionbelow).Themostimportantoftheparlements,bothinadministrativearea(coveringthemajorpartofnorthernandcentralFrance)andprestige,wastheparliamentofParis,whichalsowasthecourtoffirstinstanceforpeersoftherealmandforregalianaffairs.

ConseilssouverainsAlsace(Colmar),Roussillon(Perpignan),Artois(aconseilprovincial,Arras)and(from155359)Corsica(Bastia)formerlyFlanders,NavarreandLorraine(convertedintoparlements).Theconseilssouverainswereregionalparliamentsinrecentlyconqueredlands.

ChambredescomptesParis,Dijon,Blois,Grenoble,Nantes.Thechambredescomptessupervisedthespendingofpublicfunds,theprotectionofroyallands(domaineroyal),andlegalissuesinvolvingtheseareas.

CoursdesaidesParis,Clermont,Bordeaux,Montauban.Thecoursdesaidessupervisedaffairsinthepaysd'lections,oftenconcerningtaxesonwine,beer,soap,oil,metals,etc.

ChambredescomptescombinedwithCoursdesaidesAix,BarleDuc,Dole,Nancy,Montpellier,Pau,Rouen

CoursdesmonnaiesParisadditionallyLyon(170471),and(after1766),thechambredescomptesofBarleDucandNancy.Thecoursdesmonnaiesoversawmoney,coinsandpreciousmetals.

GrandConseilcreatedin1497tooverseeaffairsconcerningecclesiasticalbeneficesoccasionallythekingsoughttheGrandConseil'sinterventioninaffairsconsideredtobetoocontentiousfortheparliament.

TheheadofthejudicialsysteminFrancewasthechancellor.

Administration

OneoftheestablishedprinciplesoftheFrenchmonarchywasthatthekingcouldnotactwithouttheadviceofhiscounseltheformula"leroiensonconseil"expressedthisdeliberativeaspect.TheadministrationoftheFrenchstateintheearlymodernperiodwentthroughalongevolution,asatrulyadministrativeapparatusrelyingonoldnobility,newerchancellornobility("noblessederobe")andadministrativeprofessionalswassubstitutedtothefeudalclientelsystem.

King'scounsel

UnderCharlesVIIIandLouisXIItheking'scounselwasdominatedbymembersoftwentyorsonobleorrichfamiliesunderFrancisIthenumberofcounsellorsincreasedtoroughly70individuals(althoughtheoldnobilitywasproportionallymoreimportantthaninthepreviouscentury).ThemostimportantpositionsinthecourtwerethoseoftheGreatOfficersoftheCrownofFrance,headedbytheconntable(chiefmilitaryofficeroftherealmpositioneliminatedin1627)andthechancellor.

TheroyaladministrationduringtheRenaissancewasdividedbetweenasmallcounsel(the"secret"andlater"high"counsel)of6orfewermembers(3membersin1535,4in1554)forimportantmattersofstateandalargercounselforjudicialorfinancialaffairs.FrancisIwassometimescriticizedforrelyingtooheavilyonasmallnumberofadvisors,whileHenryII,CatherinedeMediciandtheirsonsfoundthemselvesfrequentlyunabletonegotiatebetweentheopposingGuiseandMontmorencyfamiliesintheircounsel.

Overtime,thedecisionmakingapparatusoftheKing'sCouncilwasdividedintoseveralroyalcounsels.ThesubcouncilsoftheKing'sCouncilcanbegenerallygroupedas"governmentalcouncils","financialcouncils"and"judicialandadministrativecouncils".Withthenamesandsubdivisionsofthe1718thcentury,thesesubcouncilswere:

GovernmentalCouncils:

Conseild'enhaut("HighCouncil",concerningthemostimportantmattersofstate)composedoftheking,thecrownprince(the"dauphin"),thechancellor,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,andthesecretaryofstateinchargeofforeignaffairs.

Conseildesdpches("CouncilofMessages",concerningnoticesandadministrativereportsfromtheprovinces)composedofthe

king,thechancellor,thesecretariesofstate,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,andothercouncillorsaccordingtotheissuesdiscussed.

ConseildeConscience

FinancialCouncils:

Conseilroyaldesfinances("RoyalCouncilofFinances")composedoftheking,the"chefduconseildesfinances"(anhonorarypost),thechancellor,thecontrleurgnraldesfinancesandtwoofhisconsellors,andtheintendantsoffinance.

Conseilroyaldecommerce

JudicialandAdministrativeCouncils:

Conseild'tatetdesFinancesorConseilordinairedesFinancesbythelate17thcentury,itsfunctionswerelargelytakenoverbythethreefollowingsections.

ConseilprivorConseildespartiesorConseild'tat("PrivyCouncil"or"CouncilofState",concerningthejudicialsystem,officiallyinstitutedin1557)thelargestoftheroyalcouncils,composedofthechancellor,thedukeswithpeerage,theministersandsecretariesofstate,thecontrleurgnraldesfinances,the30councillorsofstate,the80matredesrequtesandtheintendantsoffinance.

GrandeDirectiondesFinances

PetiteDirectiondesFinances

Inadditiontotheaboveadministrativeinstitutions,thekingwasalsosurroundedbyanextensivepersonalandcourtretinue(royalfamily,valetdechambres,guards,honorificofficers),regroupedunderthename"MaisonduRoi".

AtthedeathofLouisXIV,theRegentPhilippeII,DukeofOrlansabandonedseveraloftheaboveadministrativestructures,mostnotablytheSecretariesofState,whichwerereplacedbyCounsels.Thissystemofgovernment,calledthePolysynody,lastedfrom171518.

17thcenturystatepositions

UnderHenryIVandLouisXIIItheadministrativeapparatusofthecourtanditscouncilswasexpandedandtheproportionofthe"noblessederobe"increased,culminatinginthefollowingpositionsduringthe17thcentury:

FirstMinister:ministersandsecretariesofstatesuchasSully,Concini(whowasalsogovernorofseveralprovinces),Richelieu,Mazarin,JeanBaptisteColbert,CardinaldeFleury,Turgot,etc.exertedapowerfulcontroloverstateadministrationinthe17thand18thcentury.Thetitle"principalministredel'tat"washoweveronlygivensixtimesinthisperiodandLouisXIVhimselfrefusedtochoosea"primeminister"afterthedeathofMazarin.ChancellorofFrance(alsocalledthe"gardedessceaux",or"KeeperoftheSeals"inthecaseofincapacityordisfavor,theChancellor

wasgenerallypermittedtoretainhistitle,buttheroyalsealswerepassedtoadeputy,calledthe"gardedessceaux"[6])ControllerGeneralofFinances(contrleurgnraldesfinances,formerlycalledthesurintendantdesfinances).SecretariesofState:createdin1547byHenryII,ofgreaterimportanceafter1588,generally4innumber,butoccasionally5:

SecretaryofStateforForeignAffairsSecretaryofStateforWar,alsooversawFrance'sborderprovinces.SecretaryofStateoftheNavySecretaryofStateoftheMaisonduRoi(theking'sroyalentourageandpersonalmilitaryguard),whoalsooversawtheclergy,theaffairsofParisandthenonborderprovinces.SecretaryofStateforProtestantAffairs(combinedwiththesecretaryoftheMaisonduRoiin1749).

Councillorsofstate(generally30)Matredesrequtes(generally80)Intendantsoffinance(6)Intendantsofcommerce(4or5)MinistersofState(variable)TreasurersFarmersGeneralSuperintendentofthepostalsystemDirecteurgnralofbuildingsDirecteurgnraloffortificationsLieutenantGeneralofPoliceofParis(inchargeofpublicorderinthecapital)ArchbishopofParisRoyalconfessor

RoyaladministrationintheprovinceshadbeentheroleofthebailliagesandsnchaussesintheMiddleAges,butthisdeclinedintheearlymodernperiod,andbytheendofthe18thcentury,thebailliagesservedonlyajudicialfunction.Themainsourceofroyaladministrativepowerintheprovincesinthe16thandearly17thcenturiesfelltothegouverneurs(whorepresented"thepresenceofthekinginhisprovince"),positionswhichhadlongbeenheldbyonlythehighestrankedfamiliesintherealm.Withthecivilwarsoftheearlymodernperiod,thekingincreasingturnedtomoretractableandsubservientemissaries,andthiswasthereasonforthegrowthoftheprovincialintendantsunderLouisXIIIandLouisXIV.Indendantswerechosenfromamongthematredesrequtes.Intendantsattachedtoaprovincehadjurisdictionoverfinances,justiceandpolicing.

Bythe18thcentury,royaladministrativepowerwasfirmlyestablishedintheprovinces,despiteprotestationsbylocalparlements.Inadditiontotheirroleasappellatecourts,regionalparlementshadgainedtheprivilegetoregistertheedictsofthekingandtopresentthekingwithofficialcomplaintsconcerningtheedictsinthisway,theyhadacquiredalimitedroleastherepresentativevoiceof(predominantly)themagistrateclass.Incaseofrefusalonparliament'sparttoregistertheedicts(frequentlyconcerningfiscalmatters),thekingcouldimposeregistrationthrougharoyalassize("litdejustice").

TheothertraditionalrepresentativesbodiesintherealmweretheEtatsgnraux(createdin1302)whichreunitedthethreeestatesoftherealm(clergy,nobility,thethirdestate)andthe"tatsprovinciaux"(ProvincialEstates).The"Etatsgnraux"(convokedinthisperiodin1484,156061,157677,158889,1593,1614,and1789)hadbeenreunitedintimesoffiscalcrisisorconvokedbypartiesmalcontentwithroyalprerogatives(theLigue,theHuguenots),buttheyhadnotruepower,thedissensionsbetweenthethreeordersrenderedthemweakandtheyweredissolvedbeforehavingcompletedtheirwork.AsasignofFrenchabsolutism,theyceasedtobeconvokedfrom1614to1789.Theprovincialestatesprovedmoreeffective,andwereconvokedbythekingtorespondtofiscalandtaxpolicies.

TheChurch

TheFrenchmonarchywasirrevocablylinkedtotheCatholicChurch(theformulasays"laFranceestlafilleanedel'glise",or"Franceistheeldestdaughterofthechurch"),andFrenchtheoristsofthedivinerightofkingsandsacerdotalpowerintheRenaissancehadmadetheselinksexplicit:HenryIVwasabletoascendtothethroneonlyafterabjuringProtestantism.ThesymbolicpoweroftheCatholicmonarchwasapparentinhiscrowning(thekingwasanointedbyblessedoilinRheims)andhewaspopularlybelievedtobeabletocurescrofulabythelayingonofhishands(accompaniedbytheformula"thekingtouchesyou,butGodhealsyou").

In1500,Francehad14archbishoprics(Lyon,Rouen,Tours,Sens,Bourges,Bordeaux,Auch,Toulouse,Narbonne,AixenProvence,Embrun,Vienne,Arles,andRheims)and100bishoprics.Bythe18thcentury,archbishopricsandbishopricshadexpandedtoatotalof139(seeListofAncienRgimediocesesofFrance).TheupperlevelsoftheFrenchchurchweremadeuppredominantlyofoldnobility,bothfromprovincialfamiliesandfromroyalcourtfamilies,andmanyoftheofficeshadbecomedefactohereditarypossessions,withsomememberspossessingmultipleoffices.Inadditiontofiefsthatchurchmemberspossessedasseigneurs,thechurchalsopossessedseigneuriallandsinitsownrightandenactedjusticeuponthem.

DiocesesofFrancein1789.

Atthestartofthe16thcentury,thesecularclergy(curates,vicars,canons,etc.)numberedaround100,000individualsinFrance.[7]

Othertemporalpowersofthechurchincludedplayingapoliticalroleasthefirstestateinthe"tatsGnraux"andthe"tatsProvinciaux"(ProvincialAssemblies)andinProvincialConcilesorSynodsconvokedbythekingtodiscussreligiousissues.Thechurchalsoclaimedaprerogativetojudgecertaincrimes,mostnotablyheresy,althoughtheWarsofReligiondidmuchtoplacethiscrimeinthepurviewoftheroyalcourtsandparliament.Finally,abbots,cardinalsandotherprelateswerefrequentlyemployedbythekingsasambassadors,membersofhiscouncils(suchasRichelieuandMazarin)andinotheradministrativepositions.

ThefacultyoftheologyofParis(oftencalledtheSorbonne),maintainedacensorboardwhichreviewedpublicationsfortheirreligiousorthodoxy.TheWarsofReligionsawthiscontrolovercensorshiphoweverpasstotheparliament,andinthe17thcenturytotheroyalcensors,althoughthechurchmaintainedarighttopetition.

Thechurchwastheprimaryproviderofschools(primaryschoolsand"colleges")andhospitals("htelDieu",theSistersofCharity)anddistributorofrelieftothepoorinprerevolutionaryFrance

ThePragmaticSanctionofBourges(1438,suppressedbyLouisXIbutbroughtbackbythetatsGnrauxofToursin1484)gavetheelectionofbishopsandabbotstothecathedralchapterhousesandabbeysofFrance,thusstrippingthepopeofeffectivecontroloftheFrenchchurchandpermittingthebeginningofaGallicanchurch.However,in1515,FrancisIsignedanewagreementwithPopeLeoX,theConcordatofBologna,whichgavethekingtherighttonominatecandidatesandthepopetherightofinvestiturethisagreementinfuriatedgallicans,butgavethekingcontroloverimportantecclesiasticalofficeswithwhichtobenefitnobles.

Althoughexemptedfromthetaille,thechurchwasrequiredtopaythecrownataxcalledthe"freegift"("dongratuit"),whichitcollectedfromitsofficeholders,atroughly1/20thepriceoftheoffice(thiswasthe"dcime",reapportionedeveryfiveyears).Initsturn,thechurchexactedamandatorytithefromitsparishioners,calledthe"dme".

TheCounterReformationsawtheFrenchchurchcreatenumerousreligiousorders(suchastheJesuits)andmakegreatimprovementsonthequalityofitsparishprieststhefirstdecadesofthe17thcenturywerecharacterizedbyamassiveoutpouringofdevotional

textsandreligiousfervor(exemplifiedinSaintFrancisofSales,SaintVincentdePaul,etc.).AlthoughtheEdictofNantes(1598)permittedtheexistenceofProstestantchurchesintherealm(characterizedas"astatewithinastate"),thenexteightyyearssawtherightsoftheHuguenotsslowlystrippedaway,untilLouisXIVfinallyrevokedtheedictin1685,producingamassiveemigrationofHuguenotstoothercountries.ReligiouspracticeswhichveeredtooclosetoProtestantism(likeJansenism)ortothemystical(likeQuietism)werealsoseverelysuppressed,astoolibertinageorovertatheism.

Regularclergy(i.e.thoseinCatholicreligiousorders)inFrancenumberedintothetensofthousandsinthe16thcentury.Someorders,liketheBenedictines,werelargelyruralothers,liketheDominicans(alsocalled"Jacobins")andtheFranciscans(alsocalled"cordeliers")operatedincities.[7]

AlthoughthechurchcameunderattackintheeighteenthcenturybythephilosophersoftheEnlightenmentandrecruitmentofclergyandmonasticordersdroppedafter1750,figuresshowthat,onthewhole,thepopulationremainedaprofoundlyCatholiccountry(absenteeismfromservicesdidnotexceed1%inthemiddleofthecentury[8]).Attheeveoftherevolution,thechurchpossessedupwardsof7%ofthecountry'sland(figuresvary)andgeneratedyearlyrevenuesof150millionlivres.

Gallicanism

LouisXIVsupportedtheGallicancausethatgavethegovernmentagreaterrolethanthepopeinchoosingbishops,andgavethegovernmenttherevenueswhenabishopricwasvacant.TherewouldbenoinquisitioninFrance,andpapaldecreescouldoperateonlyafterthegovernmentapprovedthem.LouisavoidedschismhewantedmoreroyalpowerovertheFrenchChurchbutdidnotwanttobreakfreeofRome.Thepopelikewiserecognizedthe"mostChristianking"wasapowerfulallywhocouldnotbealienated.[9]

Monasteries

UntiltheFrenchRevolution,themonasticcommunityconstitutedacentralelementoftheeconomic,social,andreligiouslifeofmanylocalitiesundertheOldRegime.FromtheendoftheWarsofReligiontotheFrenchRevolution,Menat,aCluniacabbeydatingbackto1107,ruledovertheSiouleValleyinthenorthwestregionoftheClermontdiocese.Themonkswerelargelandholdersanddevelopedadiversifiedandcomplexsetoflinkswiththeirneighborstheyreceivedseigniorialrights,providedworktotheruralpoor,andwereindailycontactwithnotariespublic,merchants,andsurgeons.Whiletheydidnotdirectlymanagethereligiouslifeofthefaithful(parishpriestsdidthat),monksdidconstituteamotivatingforceinitthroughtheirsettingupofaparishclergy,providingalmsandsocialservices,andplayingtheroleofintercessors.

Convents

CommunitiesofnunsinFranceontheeveofRevolutionhad,onaverage,25membersandamedianageof48years.Nunswerebothenteringtheprofessionlaterandlivinglongerthanbefore.Ingeneral,theyhadlittlewealth.Recruitmentvariedfromregiontoregionandbyconventlifestyle(activeorcontemplative,austereoropulent,lowerclassormiddleclass).ThenatureofmaleandfemalemonasticismdifferedgreatlyinFrancebothbeforeandduringtherevolution.Conventstendedtobemoreisolatedandlesscentrallycontrolled.Thismadeforgreaterdiversityamongthemthanamongmalemonasteries.[10]

ReformationandtheProtestantminority

FrenchProtestantism,whichwaslargelyCalvinist,deriveditssupportfromthelessernoblesandtradingclasses.ItstwomainstrongholdsweresouthwestFranceandNormandy,buteveninthesedistrictstheCatholicswereamajority.ProtestantisminFrancewasconsideredagravethreattonationalunity,astheHuguenotminorityfeltacloseraffinitywithGermanandDutchCalviniststhanwiththeirfellowFrenchmen.InanefforttocementtheirpositiontheyoftenalliedwithFrenchenemies.TheanimositybetweenthetwosidesledtotheFrenchWarsofReligionandthetragicSt.Bartholomew'sDayMassacre.Thereligiouswarsendedin1593,whentheHuguenotHenryofNavarre(15531610),whowasalreadyeffectivelykingofFrancebecameaCatholicandwasrecognizedbybothCatholicsandProtestantsasKingHenryIV(reigned15891610).

ThemainprovisionsoftheEdictofNantes(1598),whichHenryIVhadissuedasacharterofreligiousfreedomsfortheHuguenots,wereasfollowsfirst)Huguenotswereallowedtoholdreligiousservicesincertaintownsineachprovincesecond)Theywereallowedtocontrolandfortifyeightcitiesthird)SpecialcourtswereestablishedtotryHuguenotoffendersd)HuguenotsweretohaveequalcivilrightswiththeCatholics.

ThemilitaryprivilegeswereincorporatedintheEdictinordertoallaythefearsoftheminority.Overtimeitbecamecleartheseprivilegeswereopentoabuseandwhenin1620theHuguenotsproclaimedaconstitutionforthe"RepublicoftheReformedChurchesofFrance",thePrimeMinisterCardinalRichelieu(15851642)invokedthefullpowersofthestateHecapturedLaRochelleafteralongsiegein1628.ThesubsequentTreatyofAlaislefttheHuguenotstheirreligiousfreedombutrevokedtheirmilitaryfreedoms.

Montpellierwasamongthemostimportantofthe66"villesdesret"thattheEdictof1598grantedtotheHuguenots.Thecity'spoliticalinstitutionsandtheuniversitywereallhandedovertotheHuguenots.TensionwithParisledtoasiegebytheroyalarmyin1622.Peacetermscalledforthedismantlingofthecity'sfortifications.AroyalcitadelwasbuiltandtheuniversityandconsulateweretakenoverbytheCatholicparty.EvenbeforetheEdictofAls(1629),Protestantrulewasdeadandthevilledesretwasnomore.

By1620theHuguenotswereonthedefensive,andthegovernmentincreasinglyappliedpressure.AseriesofsmallcivilwarsthatbrokeoutinsouthernFrancebetween1610and1635werelongconsideredbyhistorianstoberegionalsquabblesbetweenrivalnoblefamilies.Newanalysisshowsthatthesecivilwarswereinfactreligiousinnature,remnantsoftheFrenchWarsofReligionthatlargelyendedwiththeEdictofNantesin1598.SmallwarsintheprovincesofLanguedocandGuyenneshowCatholicandCalvinistgroupsusingdestructionofchurches,iconoclasm,forcedconversions,andtheexecutionofhereticsasweaponsofchoice.

OneoftheassistantsofSansonshowstheheadofLouisXVI.

LouisXIVactedmoreandmoreaggressivelytoforcetheHuguenotstoconvert.Atfirsthesentmissionariestoconvertthem,backedbyafundtofinanciallyrewardconvertstoCatholicism.Thenheimposedpenaltiesandclosedtheirschoolsandexcludedthemfromfavoriteprofessions.Escalatingtheattack,hetriedtoforciblyreCatholicizetheHuguenotsbytheemploymentofarmeddragonnades(soldiers)tooccupyandloottheirhouses,andfinallybytherevocation(Oct.18,1685)oftheliberalEdictofNantesof1598.[11]

TherevocationforbadeProtestantservices,thechildrenweretobeeducatedasCatholics,andemigrationwasprohibited.ItproveddisastroustotheHuguenotsandcostlyforFrance.Itprecipitatedcivilbloodshed,ruinedcommerce,andresultedintheillegalflightfromthecountryofabout180,000Protestants,manyofwhombecameintellectuals,doctorsandbusinessleadersinBritainaswellasHolland,PrussiaandSouthAfrica.4000wenttotheAmericancolonies.[11]

TheEnglishwelcomedtheFrenchrefugees,providingmoneyfrombothgovernmentandprivateagenciestoaidtheirrelocation.ThoseHuguenotswhostayedinFrancebecameCatholicsandwerecalled"newconverts."OnlyafewProtestantvillagesremainedinisolatedareas.[11]

Bythe1780s,Protestantscomprisedabout700,000people,or2%ofthepopulation.TheirswasnolongerafavoritereligionoftheelitemostProtestantswerepeasants.TobeaProtestantwasstillillegal.AlthoughthelawwasseldomenforceditcouldbeathreatoranuisancetoProtestants.CalvinistlivedprimarilyintheMidiabout200,000LutheranslivedinAlsace,wherethe1648TreatyofWestphaliastillprotectedthem.[12]Inaddition,therewereabout40,000to50,000JewsinFrance,chieflycenteredinBordeaux,Metzandafewothercities.Theyhadverylimitedrightsandopportunities,apartfromthemoneylendingbusiness,buttheirstatuswasnotillegal.[13]

Downfall

In1789,theAncienRgimewasviolentlyoverthrownbytheFrenchRevolution.AlthoughFrancein1785facedeconomicdifficulties,mostlyconcerningtheequitabilityoftaxation,itwasoneoftherichestandmostpowerfulnationsofEurope.[14]TheFrenchpeoplealsoenjoyedmorepoliticalfreedomandalowerincidenceofarbitrarypunishmentthanmanyoftheirfellowEuropeans.

However,LouisXVI,hisministers,andthewidespreadFrenchnobilityhadbecomeimmenselyunpopular.Thiswasaconsequenceofthefactthatpeasantsand,toalesserextent,thebourgeoisie,wereburdenedwithruinouslyhightaxesleviedtosupportwealthyaristocratsandtheirsumptuouslifestyles.

HistoriansexplainthesuddencollapseoftheAncienRgimeinpart,onitsownrigidity.Aristocratswereconfrontedbytherisingambitionsofthemerchants,tradesmenandprosperousfarmers,whowerealliedwithaggrievedpeasants,wageearnersandintellectualsinfluencedbythe

ideasofEnlightenmentphilosophers.Astherevolutionproceeded,powerdevolvedfromthemonarchyandtheprivilegedbybirthtomorerepresentativepoliticalbodies,likelegislativeassemblies,butconflictsamongtheformerlyalliedrepublicangroupsbecamethesourceofconsiderablediscordandbloodshed.

AgrowingnumberoftheFrenchcitizenryhadabsorbedtheideasof"equality"and"freedomoftheindividual"aspresentedbyVoltaire,DenisDiderot,Turgot,andotherphilosophersandsocialtheoristsoftheEnlightenment.TheAmericanRevolutionhaddemonstratedthatitwaspossibleforEnlightenmentideasabouthowgovernanceshouldbeorganizedtoactuallybeputintopractice.SomeAmericandiplomats,likeBenjaminFranklinandThomasJefferson,hadlivedinPariswheretheyconsortedfreelywithmembersoftheFrenchintellectualclass.Furthermore,contactbetweenAmericanrevolutionariesandtheFrenchtroopswhoservedasantiBritishmercenariesinNorthAmericahelpedspreadrevolutionaryidealstotheFrenchpeople.Afteratime,manyoftheFrenchbegantoattacktheundemocraticnatureoftheirowngovernment,pushforfreedomofspeech,challengetheRomanCatholicChurch,anddecrytheprerogativesofthenobles.[15]

Revolutionwasnotduetoasingleeventbuttoaseriesofevents,thattogetherirreversiblychangedtheorganizationofpoliticalpower,thenatureofsociety,andtheexerciseofindividualfreedoms.

Nostalgia

Forsomeobserversthetermcametodenoteacertainnostalgia.Talleyrandfamouslyquipped:

Celuiquin'apasvcuaudixhuitimesicleavantlaRvolutionneconnatpasladouceurdevivre:[16]("ThosewhohavenotlivedintheeighteenthcenturybeforetheRevolutiondonotknowthesweetnessofliving") ThereasonforthisaffectionwastheperceiveddeclineincultureandvaluesfollowingtheRevolution,wherethearistocracylostmuchofitseconomicandpoliticalpowertowhatwasseenasarich,butcoarseandmaterialisticbourgeoisie.ThethemerecursthroughoutnineteenthcenturyFrenchliterature,withBalzacandFlaubertalikeattackingthemoresofthenewupperclasses.Tothismindset,theAncienRgimeexpressedabygoneeraofrefinementandgrace,beforetheRevolutionanditsassociatedchangesdisruptedthearistocratictraditionandusheredinacrude,uncertainmodernity.

ThehistorianAlexisdeTocquevillearguedagainstthisdefiningnarrativeinhisclassicstudy,L'AncienRgimeetlaRvolution,highlightingthecontinuitiesbetweenpreandpostrevolutionaryFrenchinstitutions.

References

1. Major1994,pp.xxxxi2. Schama,Simon(1989).Citizens:AChronicleoftheFrenchRevolution.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.p.184.

Furtherreading

Baker,KeithMichael(1987).TheFrenchRevolutionandthecreationofmodernpoliticalculture.Volume1,ThePoliticalCultureofOldRegime.Oxford:PergamonPress.Behrens,C.B.A.AncienRegime(1989)Black,Jeremy.FromLouisXIVtoNapoleon:TheFateofaGreatPower(1999)Brockliss,LaurenceandColinJones.TheMedicalWorldofEarlyModernFrance(1997)984pphighlydetailedsurvey,16001790s

3. Bly1994,p.21.In1492,roughly450,000kmversus550,000kmtoday.4. Salmon1975,p.775. Despitebeingcalledaprvt,theprvtofPariswaseffectivelyabailliage.SeeSalmon1975,p.736. Salmon1975,p.677. Bly1994,p.508. Viguerie1995,p.2809. JohnWolf,LouisXIV,38892

10. ElizabethRapleyandRobertRapley,"AnImageofReligiousWomeninthe'AncienRegime':the'EtatsDesReligieuses'of17901791."FrenchHistory199711(4):387410

11. JohnWolf,LouisXIV,ch24BertrandVanRuymbeke,"EscapefromBabylon."ChristianHistory200120(3):3842.Issn:08919666Fulltext:Ebsco12. NigelAston,ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)pp617213. Aston,ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)pp728914. NormanGash,ReflectionsontherevolutionFrenchRevolution,NationalReview,July14,1790:"Yetin1789Francewasthelargest,wealthiest,and

mostpowerfulstateinWesternEurope."15. TheOriginsoftheFrenchRevolution(http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture11a.html).Historyguide.org(20061030).Retrievedon20111118.16. "Celuiquin'apasvcuaudixhuitimesicleavantlaRvolutionneconnatpasladouceurdevivreetnepeutimaginercequ'ilpeutyavoirdebonheur

danslavie.C'estlesiclequiaforgtouteslesarmesvictorieusescontrecetinsaisissableadversairequ'onappellel'ennui.L'Amour,laPosie,laMusique,leThtre,laPeinture,l'Architecture,laCour,lesSalons,lesParcsetlesJardins,laGastronomie,lesLettres,lesArts,lesSciences,toutconcouraitlasatisfactiondesapptitsphysiques,intellectuelsetmmemoraux,auraffinementdetouteslesvolupts,detoutesleslgancesetdetouslesplaisirs.L'existencetaitsibienrempliequisiledixseptimesicleatleGrandSicledesgloires,ledixhuitimeatceluidesindigestions."CharlesMauricedeTalleyrandPrigord:MmoiresduPrincedeTalleyrand:LaConfessiondeTalleyrand,V.15Chapter:LajeunesseLecercledeMadameduBarry.

excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/MedicalWorldEarlyModernFrance/dp/0198227507/)Doyle,William,ed.OldRegimeFrance:16481788(2001)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731299)Doyle,William,ed.TheOxfordHandbookoftheAncienRgime(2012)656ppexcerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/OxfordHandbookAncienHandbooksHistory/dp/0199291209/)32topicalchaptersbyexpertsGoubert,Pierre.LouisXIVandTwentyMillionFrenchmen(1972),socialhistoryfromAnnalesSchoolGoubert,Pierre.TheFrenchPeasantryintheSeventeenthCentury(1986)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521312698)Holt,MackP.RenaissanceandReformationFrance:15001648(2002)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731655)Jones,Colin.TheGreatNation:FrancefromLouisXVtoNapoleon,171599(2002).excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0140130934)

ScholarlybibliographybyColinJones(2002)(http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf)Kendall,PaulMurray.LouisXI:TheUniversalSpider.(1971).ISBN0393302601Kors,AlanCharles.EncyclopediaoftheEnlightenment(4vol.19902nded.2003),1984ppexcerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195104307)Knecht,R.J.TheRiseandFallofRenaissanceFrance.(1996).ISBN0006861679LeRoyLadurie,Emmanuel.TheAncienRegime:AHistoryofFrance16101774(1999),politicalsurveyexcerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0631211969)Lynn,JohnA.TheWarsofLouisXIV,16671714(1999)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0582056292)Major,J.Russell(1994).FromRenaissanceMonarchytoAbsoluteMonarchy:FrenchKings,Nobles&Estates.ISBN0801856310.Mayer,Arno(2010)[1981].ThePersistenceoftheOldRegime:EuropetotheGreatWar.London&Brooklyn,NY:Verso.ISBN9781844676361.O'Gorman,Frank."EighteenthCenturyEnglandasanAncienRegime,"inStephenTaylor,ed.HanoverianBritainandEmpire(1998)arguesthataclosecomparisonwithEnglandshowsthatFrancedidhaveanAncienRgimeandEnglanddidnot(anattackonJonathanClark.EnglishSociety,16881832(1985))Perkins,JamesBreck.FranceunderLouisXV(2vol1897)onlinevol1(http://www.questia.com/read/95943782)onlinevol2(http://www.questia.com/read/92007973)

Potter,David.AHistoryofFrance,14601560:TheEmergenceofaNationState(1995)Riley,JamesC."FrenchFinances,17271768,"JournalofModernHistory(1987)59#2pp.209243inJSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/1879726)Roche,Daniel.FranceintheEnlightenment(1998),wideranginghistory17001789excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/FranceEnlightenmentHarvardHistoricalStudies/dp/0674001990/)Salmon,J.H.M.(1975).SocietyinCrisis:FranceintheSixteenthCentury.Universitypaperbacks,v.681.London:Methuen.ISBN0416730507.Schaeper,T.J.TheEconomyofFranceintheSecondHalfoftheReignofLouisXIV(Montreal,1980).Spencer,SamiaI.,ed.FrenchWomenandtheAgeofEnlightenment.1984.Sutherland,D.M.G."Peasants,Lords,andLeviathan:WinnersandLosersfromtheAbolitionofFrenchFeudalism,17801820,"JournalofEconomicHistory(2002)62#1pp.124inJSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2697970)Tocqueville,Alexisde.AncienRegimeandtheFrenchRevolution(18562008edition)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/014144164X)Wolf,JohnB.LouisXIV(1968),thestandardscholarlybiographyonlineedition(http://www.questia.com/read/103250721)

Religion

Aston,Nigel.ReligionandRevolutioninFrance,17801804(2000)comprehensiveoverviewMcManners,John.ChurchandSocietyinEighteenthCenturyFrance.Vol.1:TheClericalEstablishmentandItsSocialRamificationsVol.2:TheReligionofthePeopleandthePoliticsofReligion(1999)Palmer,R.R.CatholicsandUnbelieversinEighteenthCenturyFrance(PrincetonU.P.1939)VanKley,Dale.TheReligiousOriginsoftheFrenchRevolution:FromCalvintotheCivilConstitution,15601791(1996)Ward,W.R.ChristianityundertheAncienRgime,16481789(1999).

Other

Importantpersonsmentionedinthisarticleputonatimeline(http://www.weple.org/timeline.html#ids=77413,70506,77655,77606,703438,50012,75910,44154,57876,491257,85254,77062,187067,1

8553,54247,15941,51271,48542,&title=Ancien%20R%E9gime%20in%20France)Henry,LucienEdward(1882).TheRoyalFamilyofFrance:twelvelecturesoncurrenFrenchhistory.Europein1882:Outoftheshadow.Paris:LibrairieGalignani.

InFrench

Bly,Lucien(1994).LaFrancemoderne:14981789.Collection:PremierCycle(inFrench).Paris:PUF.ISBN2130474063.(French)Bluche,Franois.L'AncienRgime:Institutionsetsocit.Collection:Livredepoche.Paris:Fallois,1993.ISBN2253064238(French)Jouanna,ArletteandPhilippeHamon,DominiqueBiloghi,GuyThiec.LaFrancedelaRenaissanceHistoireetdictionnaire.Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,2001.ISBN2221074262(French)Jouanna,ArletteandJacquelineBoucher,DominiqueBiloghi,GuyThiec.HistoireetdictionnairedesGuerresdereligion.Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,1998.ISBN2221074254(French)Pillorget,RenandSuzannePillorget.FranceBaroque,FranceClassique15891715.Collection:Bouquins.Paris:Laffont,1995.ISBN2221081102Viguerie,Jeande(1995).HistoireetdictionnairedutempsdesLumires17151789.Collection:Bouquins(inFrench).Paris:Laffont.ISBN2221048105.

PrecededbyHundredYearsWar

FrenchHistory14531789

SucceededbyRevolutionary

Period

Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancien_Rgime&oldid=651127201"

Categories: AncienRgimeinFrance EarlyModernperiod Frenchmonarchy

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