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AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon

Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New Deal

I. The Election of 1932A. The Republicans unenthusiastically renominate Herbert HooverB. The Democrats nominate Franklin Delano Roosevelt

1. Cousin of Theodore Roosevelt2. Wealthy, patrician3. Served in the New York legislature4. Served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy during World War I5. Vice Presidential candidate in 19206. A vigorous and effective campaigner, handsome, charming and articulate7. Stricken by poliomyelitis in 1921

a. Henceforward was unable to stand without the aid of heavy steelbraces

b. This great, enormously dynamic and forceful leader was actually acripple

8. Re-entered politics in 1924, nominating Al Smith for President9. Governor of New York from 1928-193210. Astutely won support from both the urban and rural wings of the party.

a. Cultivated good relations with Tammany Hall and other machinepoliticians.

b. He also cultivated good relations with conservative ruralDemocrats

11. He was conservative economically, but believed in an active, positive,and humane government.

12. Had no clear-cut policy or ideas when he ran in 1932. Walter Lippmanwrote that he was "a pleasant man who, without any importantqualifications for the job, would very much like to be President."

13. Making sense out of FDR can sometimes be maddening. I believe that thesingle most essential point to bear in mind with him is that he is apolitician. He is not a moralist, a theorist, an idealist, or an economist. Asa politician, he instinctively wishes to build coalitions, to bring disparateforces into harmony, to achieve practical solutions. As we shall see, he isa pragmatist without any definite ideology.

C. FDR as a Theorist1. Richard Hofstadter write in The Age of Reform, "the New Deal . . .

was a chaos of experimentation." (307)2. He continues, "[The New Deal] showed a strong and candid

awareness that what was happening was not so much moralreformation as economic experimentation." (317)

"At the core of the New Deal then, was not a philosophy . . . but an

AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon New Deal Lecture Page 2

attitude, suitable for practical politicians, administrators, and technicians,but uncongenial to the moralism that the Progressives had for the mostpart shared with their opponents." (325)(emphasis added)

3. Eric Goldman in Rendezvous With Destiny writes, "FranklinRoosevelt was the most complete devotee of playing by ear theWhite House had ever known. Restless and mercurial in histhinking, a connoisseur of theories, but impatient with people whotook theories too seriously, he trusted no system except thesystem of endless experimentation." (emphasis added) (251)

4. Dexter Perkins in The New Age of Franklin Roosevelt adds, "Theabsence of a coherent political philosophy and the contradictions inpolicy of the Roosevelt administration may be unfavorablyjudged." (79)

5. Speech at Oglethorpe University: "The country needs bold,persistent experimentation. It is common sense to take amethod and try it. If it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something." (emphasis added)

6. Commonwealth Club (San Francisco) Speech: "Governmentowes to everyone an avenue to possess himself of a portion ofthat plenty sufficient for his needs, through his own work." (emphasis added)

a. Government must "assist the development of an economic,constitutional order"--economic planning.

b. The government should do whatever necessary to protectthe unfortunate and to advance the public good.

D. Roosevelt as a Campaigner1. He radiated confidence, a stark contrast with Hoover2. He broke tradition by flying to Chicago to accept the nomination

personally.3. "Let it be symbolic that I broke traditions. Republican leaders

not only have failed in material things, they have failed innational vision, because in disaster they have held out no hope. I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the Americanpeople."

a. I believe that FDR has expressed a profound truth inpolitical leadership. Truly great leaders must have somevision for the nation and the future, and must effectivelycommunicate that vision. This is particularly important in ademocracy. Man does not live by bread alone.

4. Had deep sympathy "for the forgotten man at the bottom of theeconomic pyramid."


5. Leadership is an amalgam, both expressing and molding publicopinion: "I have looked into the faces of thousands ofAmericans. They have the frightened look of lost children. They are saying 'We're caught in something we don'tunderstand. Perhaps this fellow can help us out."

6. Tried to please everyone in the campaign as much as possiblea. Ex. on the balanced budget,

(1) He attacked Hoover for having the "greatestspending administration in peace time in ourhistory," and called for sharp reductions in federalspending and a balanced budget.

(2) "If starvation and dire need on the part of any ofour citizens make necessary the appropriation ofadditional funds which would keep the budget outof balance, I shall not hesitate to ask Congress toauthorize the expenditure of that additionalamount."

E. The Campaign1. Hoover claimed FDR's policies "would destroy the very

foundations of our American cities" and predicted that, if he wereelected "grass will grow in the streets of a hundred cities, athousand towns."

2. FDR argued that the crisis was domestic, not European, and thuswas controllable.

3. Despite the suffering, the radicals were rejecteda. The Socialists polled only 2.2% of the voteb. The Communists polled 8 times less than the Socialists.

(1) Hardly anything points out more vividly the deepcommitment of all Americans to capitalism andprivate property

4. The Democrats crush the Republicans with 57% of the vote, and a472-59 margin in the Electoral College

5. In addition, the Democrats won large majorities in both houses ofCongress.

II. InterregnumA. There is a four month gap between election and inaugurationB. Hoover, during a growing crisis in 1932-33, tried to get FDR to affirm the

sanctity of the gold standard, believing that uncertainty over the policies ofthe new administration would cause instability.

C. The banking system collapses in February.1. The governor of Michigan declares a "bank holiday" and closes the

doors of state banks


2. Other states follow suit.D. Hoover writes to FDR: "The problem was a result of 'steadily

degenerating confidence' in the incoming administration. The only way torestore calm, he insisted, was for Roosevelt to give prompt publicassurances that there would be no tinkering with the currency, no heavyborrowing, no unbalancing of the budget. 'I realize,' he wrote a Republicansenator at the time, 'that if these declarations be made by the president-elect, he will have ratified the whole major program of the RepublicanAdministration.'" (Current *)

1. Not surprisingly, FDR refused to comply.E. Inaugural Day, March 4, 1933

1. Hoover's point of view: "We are at the end of our rope. There isnothing more we can do."

a. A day of deep personal bitterness for Hoover.III. The Hundred Days

A. FDR's inaugural address1. FDR projected optimism, strength, and confidence

a. His magnetism so won over the reporters that he was neverphotographed being lifted in or out of his chair or beingwheeled.

2. "This great Nation will endure as it has endured, will revive andwill prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that theonly thing we have to fear is fear itself, nameless, unreasoning,unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convertretreat into advance. . . .

Plenty is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes in thevery sight of the supply. Primarily this is because the rulers of theexchange of mankind's goods have failed, through their ownstubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted their failure,and abdicated. . . .

They know only the rules of a generation of self-seekers. They have novision, and when there is no vision, the people perish. Happiness liesnot in the mere possession of money; it lies in the joy of achievement,in the thrill of creative effort . . . These dark days will be worth all theycost us if they teach us that our true destiny is not to be ministeredunto but to minister to ourselves and to our fellowmen.

This nation asks for action, and for action now.

We do not distrust the future of essential democracy. The people of the


United States have not failed. In their need they have registered amandate that they want direct, vigorous action. They have asked fordiscipline and direction under leadership. They have made me thepresent instrument of their wishes. In the spirit of that gift, I take it.

3. The implication, as Hofstadter notes, is that government is notjust a negative power (challenging inequities and specialprivilege) but is a positive force, taking active responsibility forthe welfare of American citizens.

B. The Hundred Days involved a special session of Congress from March 9to June 16

1. A whirlwind of legislation2. No comprehensive plan

C. National Bank Holiday March 51. Embargo on the export of gold2. Solvent banks would be allowed to reopen3. Insolvent banks were reorganized and absorbed (about 2,000) all

told4. Congress ratified these acts by passing his bills in 8 hours from

start to finish5. Confidence was restored in banks and $2,000,000,000 in hoarded

dollars flowed back into financial system6. Bank failures after 1933 sharply reduced7. Money problem--a distinct breach with the past

a. FDR never committed to a dollar with a specific goldcontent

b. FDR preferred to balance the budget, but was notdoctrinaire

c. Tide of public opinion was for a departure from goldstandard orthodoxy

d. Clamor for an inflationary policy in 1933(1) cf the silver campaign in 1896 for a similar clamor(2) The decline of prices had been catastrophic

e. FDR's budget director Lew Douglas opposed him on takingthe country off the gold standard, saying "It is the end ofWestern civilization."

f. FDR was advised to do so by head of the Farm CreditAdministration Henry Morgenthau, later Secretary of theTreasury.

g. FDR was not an inflationist at heart: "I have alwaysfavored sound money, and do now, but it is too damnedsound when it takes so much of farm products to buy a


dollar."h. The Thomas Amendment to the Agricultural Adjustment

Act of 1933 authorized FDR (1) To coin silver at 16:1(2) To issue paper money(3) To change the gold content of the dollar

i. FDR chose by far most desirable course by taking the U.S.off the gold standard

(1) Great Britain went off the gold standard in 1931without a disaster

(2) Silver made no sense economically(3) Paper was viewed with hostility(4) Orthodox business interests were shocked(5) FDR hoped that going off the gold standard would

raise prices and stimulate foreign trade(6) His policy was neither as successful as he had

hoped nor as disastrous as his opponents feared.j. FDR embarked on a gold purchase program to raise

commodity prices. It failed but allowed FDR to controlmonetary policy in the face of pressure from inflationistsand bankers.

(1) In 1934, he abandoned the effort and stabilized thedollar at $35/oz of gold with the Gold Reserve Act.

(2) The Gold Act of 1934 empowered the Treasury tomanage value of the dollar abroad and conditions ofcredit at home.

k. The fiscal policies of 1933-34 shifts financial center of thenation from Wall Street to Washington. This is a veryimportant as well as a permanent shift of power. Therelationship between the public and private sectors willnever again be quite the same.

D. Glass-Steagall Act of 19331. Creates the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to

guarantee deposits2. Commercial and investment banking divorced (a source of

previous embarrassment to say the least).3. Federal Reserve is reorganized to increase power over credit.4. The first two powers make this a truly critical piece of legislation.

E. Home Owners' Loan Corporation1. Similar to Hoover's Home Loan Banks on a broader basis.2. Refinanced 1/6 of the mortgages in the nation3. Served the interests of mortgagor and mortgagee: families get to


keep their homes and banks do not get stuck with an emptybuilding that they cannot sell.

4. Designed to reduce human misery as well as to help the banks.F. Truth in Securities Act

1. Stock promoters must make full disclosures (imagine that! Stockbrokers are now expected to tell the truth to clients!!! Rampantliberalism! I say, "Caveat emptor!")

a. Federal Trade Commission has a right to regulate stocktransactions.

b. This power transferred to the Securities and ExchangeCommission (SEC) in 1934.

2. Note the decline of the financial establishment. Financiers couldhave blocked such legislation earlier, but now can barely obtain ahearing.

3. Criminal trials of prominent Wall Street leaders, like RichardWhitney, the head of the New York Stock Exchange, for larcenyand fraud, erode the authority which businessmen wield.

G. Economy Act of 1933 (an example of FDR's conservatism)1. Designed to balance the budget2. Cut government salaries3. Cut veterans' benefits by 15%4. Saved about $300 million5. Bill reveals that at heart FDR was a fiscal conservative

H. Amendment to the Volstead Act to allow the sale of beer with a 3.2%alcohol content as a prelude to the passage of the XXI Amendment, whichrepealed the XVIII Amendment (Prohibition).

1. Now you know why Democrats sang "Happy Days Are HereAgain!"

2. Note: FDR has just defeated two very powerful lobby groups: veterans and the Prohibitionists

I. The Civilian Conservation Corps--one of most positive New Dealprograms

1. Recruited young men between 18-25 years of age to work onconservation projects to help prevent or alleviate a Dust Bowl andalso provide income for these families.

2. Among other things, they planted a "shelter belt" of trees along the100th meridian. The loss of topsoil and flooding as the result ofdeforestation of hillsides along major rivers had become a veryserious problem indeed. We have lost a colossal quantity ofamazingly fertile soil due to our waste and carelessness. The CCCtries to address this on a large scale.

J. Farm Credit Administration


1. Very similar to the HOLC except that it serves a differentconstituency.

2. Protected farms and homes from foreclosure.IV. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): this is part of the 100 Days, but it is

so important that I have set it off separately.A. Perhaps the most ambitious project of the New DealB. FDR called it "the most important and far reaching legislation ever enacted

by the American Congress."C. Represents a merger of the Associational ideas of the U.S. Chamber of

Commerce and Hoover's legacy with TR's New Nationalist thinking.1. Product of the Brain Trust

a. Advocates included Raymond Moley, Rexford GuyTugwell, and Hugh Johnson

2. The NIRA has very little of the trust busting of the New Freedom.3. Like Sesame Street (which is, as everyone knows, a Commie front

organization to undermine the rugged individualism of ourdefenseless children and turn them into Marxist/atheist zombies)the NIRA tries to replace competition in American society withcooperation.

4. Businessmen hailed the NIRA as a new era of cooperation betweengovernment and industry.

5. Labor unions hailed the NIRA as a Magna Carta for labor.6. Demonstrates FDR's desire to knit together all segments of society

in cooperative work, and also to stave off truly radical legislationfrom either the left or the right. FDR genuinely sees this as aconservative measure in a profound sense: conserving theessentials of capitalism.

7. Represents the "New Nationalism" phase of the New Deal.8. Its compulsory aspects were attacked by Herbert Hoover, who

simply could not accept compulsory government controls.9. Similar to experiments conducted at the same time by Benito

Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.D. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) is set up by the NIRA, and

headed by Hugh Johnson. It is symbolized by the Blue Eagle ("We DoOur Part").

1. "Essentially, what the advocates of the NIRA proposed was arestoration of orderly methods and agreements to restrictcompetition and to fix the conditions of labor and of sales prices inindustry. The project was a very far reaching one; it was a widedeparture from the notion of a free economy; it suggested what theEuropeans described as cartelization." (Perkins 16)

2. "Blanket Codes" were developed for industry which defined fair


business practices.3. Specific codes were then written for specific industries.4. Anti-trust laws were suspended for business groups formed under

this law.5. Some important Progressive reforms are enacted under the NRA

a. A minimum wage of $ .30- .40 / hr is setb. A maximum work week of 35-40 hours is setc. Child labor is abolished.

6. Section 7-Aa. Provided legal protection to the right of workers to form

unions and engage in collective bargaining; the CIO willargue that the President wanted workers to form unions.

b. Unions must be formed by the free choice of workers, andnot be management sponsored.

c. Committed management to bargain with unions.d. Section 7-A, which is later repassed as the Wagner Act, is

the most important piece of labor legislation ever passed. FDR did more for the ordinary industrial worker than allother Presidents combined.

7. Pause, if you will, and reflect on the groups within the nationwhom FDR has served already: homeowners (HOLC); farmers(FCA); all bank depositors (Glass-Steagall and FDIC); investors(SEC); management (NRA); labor (7-A); urban dwellers (repeal ofProhibition); conservationists and farmers and poor families(CCC). Do you find it at all surprising that FDR wins re-election?????

8. Weaknesses of the NRA:a. The codes, in practice, were dominated by the principal

figures in each industry and were often just re-written NewEra Trade Association codes in the same way that theBlack Codes were just modified slave codes.

b. The codes favored large businesses and protected marginalbusinesses.

c. The codes provided for de facto price fixing, often at a ratehigher than necessary for a reasonable profit.

d. The codes decreased the probability for new investment,which would have stimulated the economy.

e. Hugh Johnson proved to be slow to prosecute violators ofthe codes

f. Wages did not rise as quickly as prices since manyemployers wanted a quid pro quo for 7-A

g. The Recovery Review Board, headed by Clarence Darrow


in 1934 concluded, "[I]n virtually all the codes, we haveexamined, one condition has been persistent. . . . In Industryafter Industry, the larger units, sometimes through theagency of what is called an Institute [a trade association] . .. have for their own advantage written the codes, and then,in effect and for their own advantage, assumed theadministration of the code they have framed. To deliverindustry into the hands of its greatest and most ruthlessunits when the protection of the anti-trust laws had beenwithdrawn was a grave error. It may safely be said that notin many years have monopolistic tendencies in industrybeen so forwarded and strengthened." (Goldman 270)

E. The NIRA also creates the Public Works Administration (PWA) which isnot to be confused with the WPA (easier said than done).

1. Headed by Harold Ickes and was authorized to spend $3.3 billionon public works

2. Specialized on heavy, durable projects such as dams, bridges, andirrigation projects.

3. The PWA is de facto Keynesian economics, from John MaynardKeynes, a British economist who is the most important man in hisfield in the first half of the 20th century. Government spending putmoney in the pocket of consumers, who could then spend it, andthus stimulate the economy.

4. The PWA is not engaged in "make work" projects, like rakingleaves.

5. Ickes proves to be cautious in spending the money. Ironically, thismeans that the PWA does not stimulate the economy as much as itshould or could have. FDR will not fire him, but he will create anoverlapping federal agency.

6. FDR was on the way to abandoning the NRA when the SupremeCourt struck it down. His disillusionment with the NRA marks ashift from his "New Nationalism" stage on to the "Second NewDeal," or his "New Freedom" stage.

V. Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (AAA): this is also part of the 100 Days,but it is so important that I have set it off separately as well.

A. This is, at last, a serious attempt to deal with the fundamental problemsthat farmers face.

B. The objective was to increase farm income by controlling production.1. The means of controlling production was to make benefit payments

to farmers who limited production according to a national plan; inother words, pay farmers not to grow crops.

C. The payment program was financed by processing taxes collected at flour


mills, packing houses or processing plants; that is, the consumer paid forthe program.

D. No plan would take effect until a majority of farmers accepted it.E. Administration was to be local as much as possible.F. The price level sought was the purchasing power of farm products as of

1909-1914--the "parity" benchmark--when farm prices were relatively attheir highest.

G. Act gave authority to grant loans on non-perishable crops which then wentinto government storage (the old Populist subtreasury plan now put intoaction).

H. The act also authorized the federal government to build up a surplus orreserve for lean years, sort of like Pharaoh preparing for the 7 lean years--Henry Wallace called it the "ever normal granary."

I. The act authorized the President to issue greenbacks, remonetize silver, oralter the gold content of the dollar (the Thomas Amendment; cf above).

J. Since crops were already in the ground when the bill was passed, 10million acres of cotton was plowed under and 6,000,000 pigs and 220,000pregnant sows slaughtered

1. Some people were appalled at such ruthlessness when hunger wasa reality in the U.S. The New Dealers replied (correctly) that theproblem was not the supply of food but the method of distribution.

a. 100,000,000 lbs of pork was thus provided to feed thehungry.

K. The logic of scarcity worked--prices rose from 55% of parity in 1932 to90% of parity in 1936

L. Chief beneficiaries were commercial farmers, owners of large holdingsand the recipients of disproportionate benefits (who also tended to be thelocal farmers who dominated the administration of the program).

M. Chief weakness: AAA did nothing at all for small farmers orsharecroppers, who of course were most desperate. In fact, manysharecroppers lost their already miserable livelihood when landlords chosetheir land to be taken out of production.

VI. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)A. Also part of the 100 Days, also of tremendous importance as well as

complexity.B. Proposal first made during World War I to build an electric generation

plant at Muscle Shoals, Tennessee.C. Sen. George Norris of Neb. wanted the site run by the government (it was

government property) and blocked attempts to give the plant to privateinterests.

1. The idea of a government project was argued by Norris throughoutthe Twenties and opposed by the Republicans.


2. FDR supported the program wholeheartedly, while cheerfullyadmitting that TVA was indeed socialism (government ownershipof the chief means of production).

D. FDR called for "a corporation clothed with the power of government butpossessed of the flexibility and initiative of a private enterprise" whichwas charged with "national planning for a complete river watershed."

E. TVA completed the Muscle Shoals dam for a hydroelectric plantF. TVA undertook redevelopment of the entire region

1. Produced power at cheaper rates, which then became a yardstickfor the actual cost of electrical power generation; that in turnforced power rates nationally to drop in order to reflect actual costsplus a reasonable profit instead of the unrestrained price gougingwhich had heretofore ruled. It was realized after the fact that animportant source of private business opposition to TVA is thatit revealed the extent of their greed and cupidity.

2. TVA built 20 dams3. TVA built an extensive inland waterway that came to be heavily

used, which stimulates long-term economic growth in a deeplydepressed region of the U.S.

4. Flood control programs are part of the dams and canals as well aspower generation (after the summer of '93, we will not soon forgetthe potential for damage of heavy floods along our great inlandwaterway system)

5. Major reforestation programs were started (which, among otherthings, helps prevent soil erosion and provides flood control)

6. Electric generation, economic stimulus, and conservation areobviously enormous benefits to the entire region. the TennesseeRiver crosses state boundaries, only the federal government couldhave undertaken such a project

G. Program administered by David LilienthalH. TVA was not perfect

1. Lilienthal's "grass roots democracy" was for whites only. TVAwas one of the few New Deal programs which excluded BlackAmericans. The cause lies in the administrator, in this caseLilienthal.

2. Nevertheless, TVA was recognized as an extremely successfulprogram that raised the standard of living throughout the region.

VII. The New Deal SpiritA. FDR attracted many young, capable men into government service.B. Gains for women

1. Eleonor Roosevelt was very prominent; indeed, she must beregarded as the greatest of all First Ladies.


a. She regarded herself as FDR's conscience. FDR is apolitical animal to the point of amorality. Eleonor providesa brake to that tendency.

b. She gave special attention to the problem of BlackAmericans.

2. Molly Dewson of the Democratic National Committee was quiteinfluential

3. Frances Perkins, with a distinguished Progressive pedigree,became the first woman named to a cabinet position, where sheproved to be an exceptionally able Secretary of Labor during acritical period for organized labor.

4. In general, women are named to more posts and gain more partyinfluence.

C. "The New Deal lacked any consistent ideological base." (Garraty 661)1. FDR detested rigid theorists2. Populist roots

a. antipathy to bankersb. willingness to allow inflation

3. New Nationalist rootsa. NRA and de-emphasis of anti-trust laws

4. New Freedom rootsa. monetary reform

5. World War Ia. labor policy grows out of the War Labor Board

D. The Brain Trust1. Actually several groups rather than just one group. Different

groups are prominent at different times.2. Brain Trust proper includes Raymond Moley, Rexford Guy

Tugwell, Hugh Johnson, Gardiner Means, and Adolf Berle.a. All but Johnson were university professors or economists

3. Berle and Means write The Modern Corporation and PrivateProperty: "The trend toward economic concentration, theycontended, was irreversible. Already, it had transformed greatparts of the old free market of classical economics into'administered' markets, in which basic economic decisions weremade, not by equations of supply and demand, but by the policiesof those who ran the great corporations. In Berle and Means'opinion, this change in the structure of the market renderedclassical laissez-faire theory obsolete." (Blum 672) (emphasisadded)

4. If concentration was inevitable, Tugwell argued, then control overthe nation's economic life could not be safely left in private hands."


a. This group are heirs of the New Nationalism5. The New Freedom wing.

a. Becomes more prominent after 1936 after the death of theNRA

b. Included Louis D. Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter, HaroldIckes, and Harry Hopkins.

c. These men rejected the thesis of inevitable concentrationand distrusted central planning (I know this looks odd fromHopkins and Ickes; neither man envisioned a commandeconomy, however. Hopkins is a compassionateKeynesian; the sign on his desk encapsulated hisphilosophy: "Hunger is not debatable."

6. Even conservatives like Budget Director Lew Douglas, who wascommitted to the gold standard and a balanced budget found aplace in the New Deal.

7. Special interest groups become prominent--William Leuchtenbergcalled it "interest group democracy." This is the best descriptionof modern U.S. practice that I know of.

a. While this is not ideal, since unorganized groups areslighted, it was superior to predecessors, who allowed onlyone interest group--big business--to dominate. Peopleassumed that FDR's objective was to improve everyone'slot.

VIII. The UnemployedA. In 1934, the unemployed still numbered 9,000,000.

1. Yet the elections of 1934 increased the Democratic majorities inCongress (contrary to the usual result in off-year elections whichcost the incumbent party seats.)

B. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)1. Run by Harry Hopkins, who really became the most important

man of the New Deal. He was a charismatic bureaucrat, whoinsisted on getting things done quickly and getting them donehonestly. His own life style was rather Spartan, and he regularlyworked 18 hour days. Before the New Deal was over, he had 2/3of his stomach removed for cancer, and had great difficultyobtaining sufficient nourishment from his food to stay alive. WhenWorld War II began, he became FDRs roving eyes and ears, and hepresided over Lend-Lease and US mobilization for war. He spentmoney like water, but there are no major scandals involving moneyin any program that he administered--a record perhaps withoutequal; certainly rare.

2. Given $500 million in immediate grants to state relief


3. Hopkins recognized the need to spend it fast, unlike Ickes in thePWA

4. Hopkins worked toward providing jobs (even if he had to make thejob up)rather than just hand-outs. He opposed direct relief exceptas a last resort. A job reaffirmed the self-respect of the recipient,and also improved the community in some way.

C. The Civil Works Administration (CWA)1. Hopkins the fireman again2. Spent $1 billion in 5 months on roads, bridges, etc.3. FDR was frightened at that level of spending and abolishes the

CWAD. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) 1935

1. Harry Hopkins again2. Represented a movement away from central planning3. Reflected FDR's growing disenchantment with the NRA, which

was invalidated by the Court anyway.4. From 1935-43, the WPA spent $11 billion and gave jobs to 8.5

million.5. Specialized in light public works (in contrast to the WPA), such as

building schools, repairing roads, building airports, improvingparks and waterways, and sponsoring artists, theater, music, andliterature

a. Sponsorship of artists is remarkably farsighted and liberaland was conducted with very little censorship of content. Americans' exposure to culture significantly increased, andthousands of artists were able to make a living. The socialimagination of the WPA revealed here is remarkable.

6. The WPA had limited success neverthelessa. Until World War II, unemployment remained 10% or moreb. FDR feared unbalancing the budget drastically and never

went quite far enough to end unemployment. Therecession of 1937 was caused by FDR's cutting back ongovernment spending as the result of modest recovery. Massive government spending during World War IIended unemployment.

IX. The ExtremistsA. FDR's program arouses critics from the left and the right.B. Business groups hated FDR with a ferocity perhaps unmatched in U.S.

political history. Gradually, FDR came to welcome their animosity. Thefollowing is a sample of his defense, delivered in Chicago on October 14,1936


"Tonight, in this center of business, I give [a] message to the businessmenof America--

". . . Do you have a deposit? It is safer today than it has ever been in ourhistory. . . . Are you an investor? Your stocks and bonds are up. . . . . Areyou a merchant? Your markets have the precious lifeblood of purchasingpower. . . . Are you in industry? Industrial earnings . . . are the highest infour, six, or even seven years. . . .

"Behind the growing recovery of today is a story of deliberate governmentacceptance of responsibility to save business, to save the American systemof private enterprise and economic democracy. . . . What had the previousadministration in Washington done for four years? Nothing. . . . It wasfinance-minded--manned and controlled by a handful of men who in turncontrolled, and by one financial device or another took their toll, from thegreater part of all other business and industry. . . .I am speaking about aminority which . . . says that popular government cannot be trusted and,therefore, that the control of business of all kinds and, indeed, ofgovernment itself, should be vested in the hands of 100 or 200 all-wiseindividuals controlling the purse strings of the nation. . . .

"All that this administration has done . . . is to use every power andauthority of the federal government to protect the commerce of Americafrom the selfish forces which ruined it.

"Always, month in and month out, during three and a half years, yourgovernment has had but one sign on its desk--'Seek only the greater goodof the greater number of Americans.' And in appraising the record,remember two things. First, this administration was called upon to actafter a previous administration and all the combined forces of privateenterprise had failed. Secondly, in spite of all the demand for speed, thecomplexity of the problem, and all the vast sums of money involved, wehave had no Teapot Dome. . . .

"Because we cherished our system of private property and free enterpriseand were determined to preserve it as the foundation of our traditionalAmerican system, we recalled the warning of Thomas Jefferson that'widespread poverty and concentrated wealth cannot long endure side byside in a democracy.'

"Our job was preserve the American ideal of economic as well as political


democracy against the abuse of concentration of economic power that hadbeen insidiously growing up among us in the past fifty years, particularlyduring the twelve years of the preceding administrations.

"I believe, I have always believed, and I will always believe in privateenterprise as the backbone of economic well-being in the United States. . ..

"It was this administration which saved the system of private profit andfree enterprise after it had been dragged to the brink of ruin by these sameleaders who now try to scare you. . . .

"The struggle against private monopoly is a struggle for, and not against,American business. It is a struggle to preserve individual enterprise andeconomic freedom.

"I believe in individualism. I believe in it in the arts, the sciences, andprofessions. I believe in it in business. I believe in individualism in all ofthese things--up to the point where the individualist starts to operate at theexpense of society. The overwhelming majority of American businessmendo not believe in it beyond that point. We have all suffered in the pastfrom individualism run wild. Society has suffered and business hassuffered. . . .

"The people of America have no quarrel with business. They insist onlythat the power of concentrated wealth shall not be abused.

"We have come through a hard struggle to preserve democracy in America. Where other nations in other parts of the world have lost that fight, wehave won." (Roosevelt 379-83)1. Note FDR's insistence that he is preserving traditional American values.

"I am that kind of a liberal because I am that kind of conservative." There is great continuity to American political traditions.

2. Another example is FDRs defense of his policies against the criticism ofthe conservatives:a. "In the summer of 1933, a nice old gentleman wearing a silk hat

fell off the end of a pier. He was unable to swim. A friend randown the pier, dived overboard, and pulled him out; but the silk hatfloated off with the tide. After the old gentleman had been revived,he was effusive in his thanks. He praised his friend for saving hislife. Today, three years later, the old gentleman is berating his


friend because the silk hat was lost"3. There is a stylistic note. This is a very effective campaign speech.

He adopts a different tone, more intimate and chatty, for theFireside Chats, where FDR pioneered the use of new means ofmass communication (radio in this instance) to reach the people. In formal speeches, he can be almost as eloquent as even Churchill. In total, the range of communication styles is enormous. One ofthe measures of a great political leader is the ability tocommunicate his vision to his nation. Bill Moyers draws a parallelin this respect (in part) between FDR and Hitler, both of whomreach power in the same year. As the leader of a democracy, FDR'scommunication challenge is far greater than Hitler's. Of Americanpresidents, only Lincoln exceeds FDR in the gift ofcommunication.

C. Father Charles E. Coughlin, the "Radio Priest"1. Originally supported FDR2. Broke over FDR's "failure" to deal harshly enough with "money

powers."3. Stands in the Populist tradition of inflation

a. Called for the remonetization of silver, issuance ofgreenbacks, and nationalization of banks.

4. Founded the National Union for Social Justice in 19355. Uses the radio for constant and bitter attacks against FDR.

D. Dr. Francis E. Townsend1. An elderly California physician2. Proposes the Townsend Plan for "Old Age Revolving Pensions."

a. Every American over 60 would receive $200/monthprovided that he/she quit any job (freeing it for someoneelse) and spent it all within the month (thus circulatingcurrency)

3. A transaction tax would pay for the program.4. The cost would have been $24 billion/yr, or 50% of national

income.5. The Townsendite magazine reached a circulation of 200,0006. While his plan is utopian, Townsend is the first to focus attention

to the plight of the elderly in an urban society where a greater andgreater percentage of the population is getting older.

E. Sen. Huey "Kingfish" Long of Louisiana1. I personally find Long to be very interesting in that he defies

simple categorization. I was raised to regard him as a demagogue,a crook, and a tyrant (all of which is true); he has other sides to himas well.


2. By 1933, Long ruled Louisiana with an iron fist. He was a dictatorwho enjoyed overwhelming popular support.

3. He is a Southern demagogue in the Populist tradition (which goesback at least to Tom Watson and Pitchfork Ben Tillman, and ended[I hope] with George Wallace.

a. To give the devil his due, Long has some solidachievements. He is driven by egotism and compassion--anuneasy mixture.

4. He came to power by furiously assailing the banks, oil companies,and utilities along with the arch-conservative Bourbon Democraticoligarchy which supported them. Louisiana has a long history ofserious state corruption, and the Bourbon Democrats are prettyseriously corrupt. Long is corrupt also. But the BourbonDemocrats, using that old stand-by, racial baiting, protect agovernment for the few at the expense of the many.

5. Long built schools, roads, hospitals, revised the tax code, loweredutility rates.

6. He assisted poor people, all poor people--also a Populist traita. Long did not question white supremacy or segregation, but

he conspicuously did not engage in racial baiting, nor didhe exclude poor Black Americans from his programs. Herepeatedly stated that all poor people, white or black,should have a chance to earn a living.

(1) Since Louisiana did not permit Black Americans tovote, this is not a ploy to garner votes.

7. Long is very flamboyanta. Accused of violating the constitution, Long says, "I am the

constitution here." (shades of "L'etat, c'est moi!")b. "I'm for the poor man--all poor men, black or white, they

all gotta have a chance. 'Every man a king,' that's myslogan." g, always a king, but once a knight is enough."

c. When the leader of the Ku Klux Klan announced he wouldgo to Louisiana to campaign against Long, he replied with(this is one of my two favorite insults), "Quote me assaying that that Imperial bastard will never set foot inLouisiana, and when I call him a sonofabitch, I am notusing profanity, but am referring to the circumstances ofhis birth."

8. Early supporter of the New Deala. Broke with FDR in 6 months, calling him a "stooge for

Wall Street." (!!!)9. "Share Our Wealth" movement


a. 4.6 million followers by 1935b. Planned to use it as a springboard to the White House.c. The Depression could be ended by confiscating via taxation

all income over $1 million and all capital accumulation andinheritances over $5 million.

d. This money would be used to guarantee every family ahomestead of $5,000 and a minimum wage of $2,500

10. His popularity was so formidable that the Democratic NationalCommittee believed he could command 10% of the vote as a ThirdParty candidate. They were seriously worried.

11. His drive for the White House was ended when he wasassassinated in 1935

a. While controversy and speculation swirl around his death,and probably always will (his assailant did not testify owingto the inconvenience of numerous gunshot wounds fromsome highly embarrassed body guards), present evidencesupports the conclusion that Long was assassinated by oneman acting alone for purely personal reasons (Long hadinsulted his wife by suggesting that she had Negroancestry).

F. All three appealed to the same audience, "baffled and disoriented membersof the lower middle-class who were seeking attention and protection."(Blum 681)

1. Dissident politics posed a very real threat to established politicalparties

2. Advisers warned FDR that he needed something bold and dramaticto insure victory in 1936.

G. FDR's shift1. Brandeis-Frankfurter group urged FDR to abandon NRA and stress

restoring competition and to tax corporations more heavily.2. FDR learns in the NRA period that corporation executives could be

very unsatisfactory partners. (Goldman *)3. Between 1936-38, FDR becomes convinced that the New Deal was

threatened by selfish and shortsighted big capital. (Goldman 285)4. Decision was pushed by Schechter v. U.S. (1935) which declared

the NIRA unconstitutional on the grounds that Congress could notdelegate power to the President to make the codes legally binding.

X. The Second New DealA. Reasons

1. Depression had not ended2. Extremists threatened FDR's support3. Conservatives were hostile


4. Court had struck down NIRAB. Court actions

1. Invalidated a federal pension provision for RR workers by a 5-4decision in 1935

2. "Black Monday" 5/27/35a. killed a farm mortgage relief actb. challenged FDR's removal of an officer on the FTC for

political incompatibilityc. Schechter v. U.S. strikes down the NRA

3. All three decisions were unanimousC. National Labor Relations Act--Wagner Act

1. Restored labor guarantees lost in NRA2. The Wagner Act is 'in itself perhaps the most revolutionary single

measure in American labor history." (Degler 403)a. Replicated the language of Section 7-A of the NIRAb. Workers should be free to choose their own unionsc. Required employers to accept duly constituted unionsd. Creates the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)

(1) Supervises union elections(2) Hears complaints against employers

e. Listed 5 "unfair" labor practicesf. Virtually outlawed the company union.

D. Fair Labor Standards Act1. Established minimum wage2. Established maximum hours3. Outlawed child labor4. Repeats similar provisions of Section 7-A of NIRA

E. Acceptance by the unions of government assistance marks a departurefrom American labor tradition, and from the European tradition. (Degler403-5)

1. Another matter of difference is the advocacy of the closed shop byAmericans. The Wagner Act made it illegal to refuse to sign aclosed shop agreement. Europeans have looked upon a closedshop as an infringement of a workers' right to join or not to joinany association he pleases.

F. Social Security Act of 19351. Old age insurance financed by a tax on wages and payrolls.2. Provides a federal system of unemployment insurance3. Did not cover agricultural workers, domestics, or self-employed

workers4. It is the first step in what is the nation's most important program for

the elderly.


5. This may well be the most enduring legacy of the New Deal. Toput it bluntly, no President to date has had the guts to touch SocialSecurity.

G. Public Utility Holding Company Act1. Outlawed pyramiding of control of gas and electricity companies.

Included a "death sentence" clause which dismembered utilitycomplexes twice removed from actual operating companies.

a. Most famous example was Samuel Insull who controlled65 companies in 32 states.

H. Farm Security Act1. Helped tenants become landowners and tried to help migrant

workers.I. Rural Electrification Administration

1. Created by executive order2. Major impact on rural culture. The arrival of electricity (especially

radio) helps to bring rural areas more closely in harmony withurban culture. (cf Degler)

J. Wealth Tax Act of August 19351. So-called "soak the rich" tax2. Raised taxes on large incomes and corporations3. Well-to-do asked to bear a larger share of all government activities.

K. Evaluation of the Second Hundred Days1. Social Security has longer range effect than the NIRA, but was less

radical2. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. writes: "Where the first New Deal

contemplated government, business, and labor marchinghand in hand toward a brave new society, the Second NewDeal proposed to revitalized the tired old society. The FirstNew Deal characteristically told business what it must do. The Second New Deal characteristically told business what itmust not do." (qtd in Garraty 666)

XI. The Influence of John Maynard KeynesA. Keynes pointed out that the economic system can be in perfect balance on

the bottom as well as at the top. The business cycle is less a pendulum asan elevator

B. How can people save for future capital investment if no one has anymoney?

1. The economy satisfies demand, not wants or needs.2. Social misery is not effective in stimulating the economy3. The difficulty is not a moral problem but a technical one.

a. An economy in depression might well stay there; there wasnothing inherent in the economic mechanism to pull it out.


b. Prosperity depended on investment; for if businessspending for capital investment fell, the spiral ofcontraction would begin.

c. Investment was an undependable drive wheel for theeconomy. Through no fault of the businessman, it wasconstantly threatened with satiety, and satiety spelledeconomic shrinkage.

4. The solution was a deliberate undertaking of abnormal governmentspending to stimulate the economy: "priming the pump."

a. The peace time economy was not able to accept the idea ofall-out spending

b. Government spending was meant to help business out butwas interpreted by business as a threat.

c. FDR was attacked by fiscal conservatives as irresponsible.XII. The Election of 1936

A. Republicans named Alf Landon1. His platform was, essentially, that he could administer the New

Deal more efficiently than FDR could.B. FDR wins easily

1. Organized labor poured money and votes into his campaign2. Black Americans abandon the Republican Party

a. A conjunction of the ballot and urban concentration gavethem real voting power

b. Their traditional view was that of Frederick Douglass'"The Republican Party is the ship. All else is the sea."

3. FDR recognized Black Americansa. Eleanor Roosevelt pushed their interests hard

(1) Example is her arranging for Marian Anderson togive an Easter concert at the Lincoln Memorial afterthe DAR had denied her the use of their auditorium(the only one in Washington DC large enough). 75,000 came to hear her, and turned the concert intothe first modern civil rights demonstration.

(a) In one sense, this was ironic. Anderson wasnot an activist. She was an opera singer,with a truly extraordinary voice--the kindthat comes along only once in a generation. On the other hand, it is entirely appropriatein that one of the world's greatest singerswas denied an opportunity to perform simplybecause of her race. Her talent wasirrelevant to the DAR.


b. The federal government used its powers to easediscrimination

c. FDR was basically sympathetic(1) He believed that other problems were more

pressing than civil rights and therefore did notpush the issue as hard as some have thought heshould.

(a) When one considers that he had to deal withthe Great Depression and then World War II,it is difficult to disagree with FDR on thispoint.

(2) As a practical politician, he tried to avoid losingSouthern support by becoming too identified withthe race issue.

(3) He appointed Black Americans to second-level jobs(a) Development of a "Black Cabinet of

advisers," such as Robert Weaver, WilliamHastie, Mary MacLeod Bethune.

(4) Eleanor's close friends Ickes and Hopkins saw to itthat Blacks were not discriminated against by theNew Deal programs which they ran (although someprograms, like the CCC and TVA, diddiscriminate). Simply not being discriminatedagainst was a big step forward for AfricanAmericans.

4. Farmers supported FDRa. When U.S. v. Butler declared the AAA unconstitutional,

FDR rushed the Soil Conservation and DomesticAllotment Act to achieve the same goal by paying farmersto divert land to soil building plants.

5. The elderly supported FDR (Social Security)6. Home owners supported FDR (HOLC)7. FDR not only holds his lead, but increases his margin.

XIII. Roosevelt and the CourtA. Second Inaugural Address 1937

1. A third of the nation was "ill-housed, ill-clad, ill-nourished."2. FDR saw the Court as blocking vital reforms3. Only Brandeis, Benjamin Cardozo, and Harlan Fiske were

sympathetic4. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes was more open minded5. Some key decisions, like Schechter, were unanimous6. FDR complained about a "horse and buggy" interpretation of the


Constitution7. In 1937, he was convinced that all important Hundred Days

measures were doomed as court challenges worked their way up.B. FDR and Court Packing

1. FDR proposes that the number of justices be increased under thepretext of easing the work load.

2. Constitutionally, he was well within his rights, since Congressdetermines the size of the Court, and FDR was proposinglegislation.

3. He had, however, skirted the issue during the election campaign.4. Court packing is a major political error, which simply proves that

even great politicians can make serious political misjudgments.a. Conservatives opposed the measure on principle.b. Many liberal New Deal Democrats also oppose him. They

perceive clearly that the work load was a sham (the oldestjustice was Brandeis, a supporter) and that the real reasonwas to secure his legislation. They are unwilling to tamperwith Constitutional liberties or with the structure of thegovernment.

c. Public opinion turns against him.5. FDR is defeated solidly by Congress.

a. He suffers a permanent loss of prestige and power inCongress.

b. From here on, FDR will not enjoy virtually automaticCongressional support for his policies, whether foreign ordomestic. Republican strength in Congress will growsteadily. Also, conservative Democrats (usually SouthernDemocrats) will become more intractable. Northeasternliberal New Deal Democrats do not have that much incommon with Southern Democrats. One of the issuesthat split the wings was, of course, civil rights. FDRfound himself increasingly in conflict with SouthernDemocrats; even his political skills are not sufficient tobridge the gap. This is the beginning of a long term trendthat will end in the defection of large numbers of SouthernDemocrats to the Republican party by Nixon's terms. Strom Thurmond and Jesse Helms began as Democrats;they will end as the conservative wing of the RepublicanParty. Neither man has changed much, if at all. The nationhas changed, and the Democratic Party has changed.

6. Ironically, the Court Packing issue does seem to turn the tide. TheCourt seems to have become alarmed at legislative tampering if it


were too far out of line with the expressed will of the people. Itchanges course.

a. The minimum wage is upheldb. Social Security is upheldc. The Wagner Act is upheld.

7. Conservative judges begin retiring--a natural process, since theCourt was rather old to begin with. FDR was elected Presidentfour times, which gave him an unprecedented opportunity toinfluence the Court via appointments.

XIV. The End of the New DealA. Three things mark the end of the New Deal

1. The Court Packing crisis2. The recession of 1937, which was accompanied by labor strife3. The deteriorating international picture, which diverts attention to

foreign threats.B. Development of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

1. The craft union organization of the AF of L was not equal to theupsurge of workers in mass industries.

2. The AFL mishandled a number of disputes.3. "The craft form, where unionization proceeded along the lines of

the job, rather than the factory, made no sense whatsoever in any ofthe great industries where the mass of workers were semiskilled orunskilled rather than skilled." (Degler 401)

4. John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers led a walkout from theAFL in 1935 (just after a knocked out an AFL officer at thepodium) to form the Congress of Industrial Organizations.

5. The CIO began a massive organization drive in industries likesteel, rubber, autos, textiles, lumber, aircraft.

6. Membership in unions increases from 3.7 million in 1935 to 8.5million in 1940.

7. "Under the impact of the depression, the American labormovement had come of age." (Degler 402)

8. The CIO's "great innovation was its effective use of the industrial-union form." (Degler 402)

9. "By organizing recent immigrants, the unskilled, Negroes andwomen on a scale and with a determination never attempted by theAF of L, the CIO revived a broad approach to unionism which hadbeen sidetracked in American labor ever since the AF of L hadbeaten out the old Knights of Labor." (Degler 402)

C. Introduction of "sit down strikes" for the first time against GM1. The auto manufacturers except Ford give in and recognize the

United Auto Workers.


2. The CIO was recognized by U.S. Steel (but not Little Steel with the"Memorial Day Massacre.")

3. 4720 strikes in 1937, with 80% settled favorably for the unions.4. Sit down strikes were clearly illegal, and unconcern for non-union

rights alarmed some moderates and cooled their ardor to helporganized labor.

D. Recession of 19371. Believing the economy was on the mend, FDR cut spending2. There was promptly a sharp slide.3. Keynesians within the New Deal like Hopkins, Ickes, and Marriner

Eccles of the Fed finally win over conservatives like Morgenthau.4. FDR commits again to heavy spending

a. New AAA of 1938b. Commodity Credit Corporation to lend money on surplus

crops.c. Fair Labor Standards Act--abolished child labor and set a

national minimum wage ($ .40/hr) and a maximum workweek (40 hrs) with time and a half for overtime.

5. These measures alienated conservatives.a. FDR attempted to purge the party in 1938 by campaigning

vigorously against his opponents. The strategy fails asSouthern voters reject outside interference.

XV. The Significance of the New DealA. Failures

1. Did not restore full employment2. Vacillated between Keynesian spending and traditional balancing

of the budget; between trust busting and regulation limits itsachievements.

3. Established many new agencies with overlapping responsibilities.B. Valuation

1. An immensely constructive response to a massive crisis.2. For the first time, and for henceforth, government is committed

to preventing another depression.3. Laissez faire is dead. The classical market economy will

henceforward come under continual scrutiny.4. The Roosevelt Revolution in politics

a. The Great Depression justified the Democratic Party just asthe Civil War justified the Republican Party.

b. There is a shift of farmers, labor, and Black Americans tothe Democratic Party.

5. There is increasing assistance to Black Americans and thebeginning of real movement toward better conditions.


6. The first steps were taken toward improving the lot of NativeAmericans

a. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 allowed tribalcontrol of lands and ended the official policy ofassimilation (which was frequently a pretext for theft).

C. FDR was1. A brilliantly effective leader2. A legislative leader like Wilson3. Representative of all the people, like Jackson4. A brilliant communicator.

D. "The conclusion seems inescapable that, traditional as the words mayhave been in which the New Deal expressed itself, in actuality it wastruly a revolution in ideas, institutions, and practices, when onecompares it with the political and social work that preceded it . . . Thesearing ordeal of the Great Depression purged the American people oftheir belief in the limited powers of the federal government andconvinced them of the necessity of the guarantor state." (Degler 413)


Works Cited

Blum, John M., Morgan, Edmund S., McFeely, William S., Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M., Stampp,Kenneth M., and Woodward, C. Vann. The National Experience: A History of the UnitedStates. 6th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. American History: A Survey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.

Degler, Carl. Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. 3rd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.

Garraty, John A. The American Nation: A History of the United States. 5th ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1983.

Goldman, Eric. Rendezvous With Destiny: A History of Modern American Reform. New York: Vintage Books, 1977.

Heilbroner, Robert L. The Worldly Philosophers. 3rd ed. New York: Simon and Schuster,1967.

Hofstadter, Richard. The Age of Reform. New York: Vintage Books, 1955.

Perkins, Dexter. The New Age of Franklin Roosevelt.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano. "What the New Deal Has Done for Business." Annals of America. Vol. 15. Chicago: Encyclopeadia Britannica, 1976. 379-83.


Works Consulted

Friedel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous With Destiny. Boston: Little, Brown,1990.

Hambly, Alonzo L. ed. The New Deal: Analysis and Interpretation. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 1981.

Leuchtenburg, William E. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal: 1932-1940. New York: Harper, 1963.

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