Upload
others
View
11
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Appendices
APPENDIX 1. ACRONYMS OFPOLYMER NAMES
Aery lonitrile-butadiene-styrene
Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber
Acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose nitrate
Chlorinated polyethylene
Oiethyl triamine
Ethylene-propylene-dienemonomer rubber
Ethylene-vinyl acetate
High density polyethylene
High impact polystyrene
High modulus polyethylene
Hydroxy propyl cellulose
High temperature nylon
Liquid crystal polymer
Low density polyethylene
Polyacetal (see Polyoxymethylene)
Polyacrylonitrile
Polyamide (nylon)
Polybutadiene
Poly(butylene terephthalate)
Polycarbonate
Poly(eth er ether ketone)
Polyetherimide
Polyethersulfone
Polyethylene
Poly(ethylene oxide)
ABS
ABR
ASA
CA
CN
CPE
OETA
EPOM
EVA
HOPE
HIPS
HMPE
HPC
HTN
LCP
LDPE
PAN
PA
PB
PBT
PC
PEEK
PEl
PES
PE
PEO
Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
Polyimide
Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Polyoxymethylene
Polypropylene
Poly(phenylene oxide)
Poly(phenylene sulfide)
Poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole)
Poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole)
Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)
Poly(p-xylylene)
Polystyrene
Polysulfone
Poly( tetrafluoroethylene)
Polyurethane
Poly(vinyl acetate)
Poly(vinyl alcohol)
Poly(vinyl chloride)
Poly(vinylidene chloride)
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)
Resorcinol-formaldehyde latex
Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer
Styrene-butadiene rubber
Styrene-butadiene-styrene
PET
PI
PMMA
POM
PP
PPO
PPS
PBZOor PBO
PBZT
PPTA
PPX
PS
PSO
PTFE
PUR
PVAC
PVOH
PVC
PVDC
PVDF
RFL
SAN
SBR
SBS
506
APPENDIX II. ACRONYMS OFTECHNIQUES
Appendices
Note: The same acronym is often used to denotethe microscope (e.g., SEM , "scanning electronmicroscope") or the microscopy (e.g., SEM,"scanning electron microscopy").
Analytical electron microscope
Atomic force microscope
Backscattered electron imaging
Confocal scanning lasermicroscope
Confocal scanning opticalmicroscope
Differential interferencecontrast
Energy dispersive x-rayspectroscopy
Field emission scanningelectron microscope
Frictional force microscope
High pressure scanningelectron microscope
High resolution scanningelectron microscope
High resolution transmissionelectron microscope
Infrared spectroscopy
Laser confocal scanningmicroscope
Lateral force microscope
Magnetic force microscope
Microdiffraction
Near-field optical microscope
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Optical microscope
Phase contrast microscope
Polarized light microscope
Scanning electron microscope
Scanning probe microscope
AEM
AFM
BEl
CSLM(also LCSM)
CSOM
DIC
EDS
FESEM
FFM
HPSEM
HRSEM
HRTEM
IR
LCSM
LFM
MFM
.udiffNFOM
NMR
OM
PC
PLM
SEM
SPM
Scanning thermal microscope
Scanning transmission electronmicroscope
Scanning tunneling microscope
Scanning tunnelingspectroscopy
Secondary electron imaging
Selected area electrondiffraction
Small angle neutron scattering
Small angle x-ray scattering
Transmission electronmicroscope
Conventional TEM
Wavelength dispersive x-rayspectroscopy
Wide angle x-ray scattering
SThM
STEM
STM
STS
SEI
SAED
SANS
SAXS
TEM
CTEM
WDS
WAXS
Appendices
APPENDIX III. MANMADE POLYMER FIBERS
507
Fiber type
Cellulosic
Noncellulosic
Generic name
AcetateRayonTriacetate
AcrylicAramidCopolyesterFluorocarbonNylonPolybenzimidazole (PBI)Polyester (PET, PEN)PolyethylenePolypropyleneSpandexUltrahigh molecular weight PE (UHMWPE)
508 Appendices
APPENDIX IV. COMMON COMMERCIAL POLYMERS ANDTRADENAMES FOR PLASTICS, FILMS, AND ENGINEERING RESINS*
Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses
Acrylonitrile-butadiene- Novodur Bayer Automotive, appliance housings, furniture,styrene (ABS) Magnum Dow construction, consumer electronics, pipes
Cycolac SABIC
Epoxy, rubber toughened Dow Paints, coatings, adhesives, pipes, circuit boardsepoxies BASF
High impact polystyrene Styron Dow Automotive, appliance housings, furniture, toys,(HIPS) packaging, housewares, audio and video cassettes,
dinnerware, etc.
High density PE (HDPE) Dow Containers, pipes, fabricated parts
Low density PE (LDPE) Ultramid BASF Packaging, films for bags, stretch wrapDowEastman
Nylon: polymer and resin Vydyne Monsanto Carpet yarns, tire cords, automotive, electrical,Zytel DuPont cigarette lighters, sporting goods, brushesCelanese TiconaNylon 6,6
Polybutadiene in copolymers Tires, rubber articles, encapsulationand blends
Poly(butylene terephthalate) Celanex Ticona Automotive and other fabricated parts, bearings,Thermoplastic polyester Valox SABIC housings(PBT) BASF
Polycarbonate Lexan SABIC Bottles, safety glass, auto lenses, helmets, aircraftCalibre Dow interiors, optical media, sheets and profiles, electricalMakrolon Bayer and lighting
Toughened polycarbonates Cycoloy SABIC Automotive, vacuum cleaners, computer and businessPulse Dow machines, transportationXenoy SABIC(w/EPDM)
Poly(ether ether ketone) Victrex Victrex Manuf. Cable insulation, coatings, composites, automotive,(PEEK) industrial, chemical, aerospace, electrical/electronic
(E/E)
Polyetherimide) (PEl) Ultem SABIC Aerospace seats, lights, wiring, films, tapes
Polyether sulfone (PES) BASF Electrical applications, industrial, automotive,medical
Poly(ethylene Mylar DuPont Films for packaging, coatings, containers, bottlesterephthalate) (PET) THERMX Eastman
PET engineering resins Petlon Bayer Extrudates and moldings, E/E connectors, sockets,Rynite DuPont sensors, bottles, recording tapes, electrical insulationVandar TiconaImpet
Polyimide (PI) Kapton DuPont Printed circuit boards, insulation, films for motors,adhesives, electronics
Appendices 509
Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses
Poly(methyl methacrylate) Plexiglas Arkema Camera lenses, airplane windows, signs, molded parts,PMMA sheeting
Polyoxymethylene (POM) Celcon Ticona Automotive fuel systems, E/E, plumbing, pump parts,Delrin Dupont appliances, electrical gears, zippers
Poly(phenylene oxide) Noryl SABlC Appliances, housings, pumps, shields, electronic(PPO) and PPO-HIPS componentsblends
Polypropylene (PP) Dow Carpet backing, ribbons, appliance housings,automotive, consumer durables, packaging, health
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) Fortron Ticona High temperature applications in electronics,Ryton Phillips housings, industrial, automotive, lamps, lighting
fixtures
Polystyrene (PS) Styron Dow Packaging, lighting, dinnerware, medical ware, toys,gloss laminations and bottles, disposables, egg cartons
Polysulfone (PSO) Udel Solvay Camera bodies, electrical connectors, light sockets,food appliance coatings, cookware, membranes
Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) Teflon DuPont Solvent resistant coatings, films, industrial, E/E parts,(PTFE) medical
Ethylene Automotive, architectural, chemical and food processtetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) industries
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Kynar Arkema Pipe fittings, seals, lab ware, aircraft parts(PVDF)
Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAC) Paints, adhesives, coatings
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) Elvanol DuPont Coatings, adhesives, cosmetics
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Bayer Food wrap, furniture covers, flooring, footwear, pipes
Poly(vinylidene chloride) Saran Dow Films, protective packaging(PVDC)
Saturated styrene-butadiene- Kraton G Kraton Fabricated partsstyrene block copolymers Polymers
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) Dentures, lenses, auto and other fabricated parts
Styrene-butadiene latex Adhesives, coatings, binders, textile finishes
Thermoplastic Dow Automotivepolyurethanes Bayer
Thermotropic aromatic Vectra Ticona High temperature fabricated parts, E/E interconnects,copolyesters (liquid crystal Xydar Solvay connectors, medical equipment, aerospace, automo-polymers) (LCP) Zenite Dupont tive and industrial parts
*Table is not intended to include all common commercial polymers, their trade names or manufacturers; for up to datemanufacturers, see company Web sites.
510
APPENDIX V. GENERALSUPPLIERS OF MICROSCOPYACCESSORIES
Suppliers of microscopes are found in Appen-dix VI and Appendix VII. These lists of suppli-ers are not intended to be all inclusive of U.S.and worldwide suppliers, nor are they intendedas a recommendation by the authors or thepublisher.
4pi Analysis, Inc.919-489-1757wwwApi.com
Advanced MicroBeam, Inc.330-394-1255www.advancedmicrobeam.com
Aetos Technologies, Inc.334-737-3127www.cytoviva.com
AlA International, Inc.781-545-7365www.ajaint.com
Allied High Tech Products800-675-1118www.aIliedhightech.com
Ascend Instruments503-614-8886www.ascendinstruments.com
BAL-TEC/RMC800-552-2262www.baItec-RMC.com
Buehler847-295-6500www.buehler.com
Cameca Instruments Inc.203-459-0623www.cameca.com
Delaware Diamond Knives, Inc.800-222-5143www.ddk.com
Denton Vacuum, USA856-439-9100www.dentonvacuum.com
Diatome U.S.215-412-8390www.emsdiasum.com
E.A. Fischione Instruments, Inc.724-325-5444www.fischione.com
Energy Beam Sciences, Inc.800-992-9037www.ebsciences.com
Electron Microscopy Sciences215-412-8400www.emsdiasum.com
Ernest F Fullam Inc.518-785-5533www.fullam.com
ETS-Lindgren630-307-7200www.ets-lindgren.com
Gamma Vacuum952-445-4841www.gammavacuum.com
Gatan, Inc.925-463-0200www.gatan.com
Geller MicroAnalytical Laboratory978-887-7000www.gellermicro.com
Hamamatsu Photonic Systems908-231-1116www.whatifcameras .com
IXRF Systems, Inc.281-286-6485www.ixrfsystems.com
Appendices
Appendices
Kurt J. Lesker Co.412-387-9200www.lesker.com
Ladd Research802-658-4961www.laddresearch.com
Lumenera Corporation613-736-4077www.lumenera.com
Mad City Labs, Inc.608-298-0855www.madcitylabs.com
McCrone Microscopes & Accessories800-622-8122www.mccrone.com/mac/
M.E . Taylor Engineering Inc.301-774-6246www.semsupplies.com
Micro Star Technologies936-291-6891www.microstartech.com
QuantomiX, Inc.480-205-4009www.quantomix.com
Scientific Instruments & Applications, Inc.770-232-7785www.sia-carn.com
SEMTech Solutions Inc.978-663-9822www.semtechsolutions.com
South Bay Technology, Inc .800-728-2233www.southbaytech.com
SPI Supplies610-436-5400www.2spi .com
Ted Pella, Inc.800-237-3526www.tedpella.com
Thermo Electron Corporation608-276-6100www.thermo.comlmicroanalysis
511
512
APPENDIX VI. SUPPLIERS OFOPTICAL AND ELECTRONMICROSCOPES,MICROANALYSIS EQUIPMENT,IMAGE ANALYSIS ANDPROCESSING
These lists of suppliers are not intended to beall inclusive of U.S. and worldwide suppliers,nor are they intended as a recommendation bythe authors or the publisher.
Carl Zeiss Microlmaging, Inc.800-233-2343www.zeiss.com/micro
EDAX Inc.201-529-6277www.edax.com
Evex Analytical609-252-9192www.evex.com
FEI Company503-726-7500www.feicompany.com
Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc.925-218-2800www.hitachi-hta.com
lEOL USA, Inc.978-536-5900www.jeolusa.com
Leica Microsystems Inc.800-248-0123www.leica-microsystems.com
Nikon Instruments Inc.631-547-8535 x8500www.nikonusa.com
Olympus Industrial America845-398-9480www.olympusamerica.com
Olympus Soft Imaging Solutions888-FIND-SISwww.soft-imaging.net
Appendices
Oxford Instruments America, Inc.978-369-9933www.oxinst.com
Princeton Gamma-Tech Instruments, Inc.609-924-7310www.pgt.com
SII NanoTechnology USA Inc818-280-0745www.siintusa.com
Tescan USA Inc .724-772-7433www.tescan-usa.com
Thermo Electron Corporation608-276-6100www.thermo.comlmicroanalysis
Appendices
APPENDIX VII. SUPPLIERS OFSCANNING PROBEMICROSCOPES AND RELATEDSUPPLIES
These lists of suppliers are not intended to beall inclusive of U.S. and worldwide suppliers,nor are they intended as a recommendation bythe authors or the publisher.
Agilent Technologies, Molecular Imaging480-756-5900www.molec.com
Ambios Technology, Inc.831-429-4200www.ambiostech.com
Anasys Instruments, Inc.805-455-5482www.anasysinstruments.com
Asylum Research888-472-2795www.AsylumResearch.com
BioForce Nanosciences, Inc.515-233-8333www.bioforcenano.com
BudgetSensors877-521-1108http://www.budgetsensors.co
Hysitron952-835-6366www.hysitron.com
Infinitesima Ltd44-1865-811-171www.infinitesima.com
Image Metrology877-521-1108www.imagemet.com
lEOL USA, Inc.978-536-5900www.jeolusa.com
MikroMasch503-598-9828www.spmtips.com
Nanonics Imaging Ltd.866-220-6828www.nanonics.co.il
Nanoscience Instruments, Inc.888-777-5573www.nanoscience.com
Nanosensors877-521-1108www.nanosensors.com
Nanotech AmericalNT-MDT972-954-8014www.nt-america.com
NanoWorld AG877-521-1108www.nanoworld.com
nPoint Inc608-310-8770www.npoint.com
Pacific Nanotechnology, Inc.800-246-3704www.pacificnano.com
PSIA408-986-1110www.psiainc.com
Team Nanotec805-696-9002www.team-nanotec.de
513
514
Veeco Instruments805-967-1400www.veeco.com
Veeco Probes805-696-9002www.veecoprobes.com
WITec Instruments Corp.877-948-3201; 217-351-9705www.witec-instruments.com
Appendices
Index
AAbbe offset errors 115Abbe theory of imaging 73Aberration(s) 73-75
chromatic 40,73-75,439in SEM 86-87spherical 73-75,439in TEM 74-77
Aberration corrected EM 41,438-440
Abrio 438ABS. See Acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styreneAcid etching 168,183-184
literature review 183Acrylics 200, 303
embedding media 151staining of 178
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene(ABS) 2,8, 151, 309, 345
etching of 182, 184, 196staining methods 167-168
Acrylonitrile-chlorinatedpolyethylene-styrene(ACS) 309
Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate(ASA) 167
with polyurethanes 345staining methods for 167-168
Additives 11,217. See alsoComposites
Adhesion 8. See also AdhesivesAFM of 47, 102-105in composites 216-218,354,
362failure 367, 396in multi phase polymers 323,
338
Adhesive(s) 2,380-398interfaces by EFTEM 157"Post-it" 387RFL 268-269, 387
Adhesive forces in AFM109-114
AEM. See Analytical electronmicroscopy
Aerospace applications 7, 8,387,408
AFM. See Atomic forcemicroscopy
AM-AFM. See Amplitudemodulation AFM
Amorphous polymers 4, 8,316-318
diffraction from 69, 122oriented 14,35, 70structure in TEM 281-282
Amplitude modulation AFM(AM-AFM) 110
Analysis. See Analyticalmicroscopy, AnalyticalImaging, Electron Probe,Failure analysis, Imageanalysis, Microanalysis;Thermal analysis
Analytical electron microscopy(AEM) 44,55-56
Analytical imaging 459-468EELS 461-462FTIR microscopy 459-460imaging surface analysis
464-468Raman microscopy 460-461x-ray microscopy 462-464
Analytical microscopy 53-56,459-468
Anisotropic materials 6,35,81-83,270,315,403-404
Annealing 280, 288, 343Antistatic
additives 356devices 103, 154sprays 222
Anti-tank missiles 459Apertures
in illumination 78-80objective lens 30, 71-2optical sectioning and 454SAED 44, 71-2SEM final lens 36-42, 86-87
Aplanatic lenses 78Apochromats (Apo) 32aPP. See Atactic polypropyleneApplications of microscopy 47,
248-434adhesives 381-387composites 354-380emulsions 380-385engineering resins and plastics
308-354fibers 250-276films 276-294liquid crystalline polymers
398-418membranes 294-308
Aramid(s) 8,270-273,399etching 189-193fibers 255, 270, 272, 399-403,
409-411fractures in 255hollow fiber membranes from
305liquid crystalline polymers
270,272,399-402
516
Argonetching 189-193in sputter coating 202-206,
232Aromatic copolyesters 8, 399,
412high modulus fibers 409-412LCPs 399-412
Aromatic polyamides, SeeAramids
Aromatic polymers 1,119beam damage in 78
Artifacts 488-492in amorphous films 282from beam damage 121-123 ,
209-210charging effects and
207-209etching and 181-194,490in FESEM 210-211in microtomy 160in OM 489polishing and 142-143replication and 197,490in SEM 207-211 , 489-490in SPM 114-118,490-491in TEM 121-123 ,282,491from AFM tips 117-118,
490-491in x-ray microanalysis
491-492ASA. See
Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylateAshing 357-358Atactic polymers, definition 3At actic polypropylene (aPP) 3,
159, 167At actic polystyrene (aPS) 4,
141,186,281Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
46-51,97-118, 140-142,481. See also Contactmode AFM; NoncontactAFM; Intermittentcontact mode AFM
Adhesive forces in 109-114applied to
fibers 271-272films 286-290latex 142, 389-393membranes 297mult iphase polymers 110-
111, 159,340nanocomposites 377,380
resins and plastics 311,331-337
single crystal 136calibration 58-59cantilevers 46-50, 97-99,
101-102conductive 48contact mode 47-48, 102-
105,442elasticity and 104-105,330,
451feedback in 47,113force-separation curves
101-102imaging 97-118indentation and 47,223in-situ deformation 223-225non-contact mode 47,49-50,
101,112probe-specimen interactions in
100-102properties summary 29Raman microscopy with 461image resolution 114and SAXS 500scanners 99-100, 114-115Introduction 46-51staining for 166video rate 445
Atomic number contrast (Z-contrast) 36-38,217,219,350,452,456. AlsoCompositional contrast
Atomic resolution 46, 103Attenuated total reflection
(ATR) 184,459Auger spectroscopy 498-499Automated SPM 449-451Axial fiber splitting 255
BBack focal plane 30,33,71,
78-79Backscattered electron imaging
(BEl)37-38,54,217,481 ,482
characteristics of 37-38, 55, 88contrast and 254compared to SEI 38-39fiber studies 254, 268mineral filled composites 351multiphase polymers 350
Backscattered electrons (BSE)37-38,88-92
Index
detectors for 37, 95directionality of 91
Backscattering coefficient 37, 89Bakelite 354Banded structures (liquid
crystalline polymers)402,405,412-413
Barrel temperature effects 312BCB. See BenzocyclobuteneBeam damage 118-124
artifacts in SEM 209-210and thermal stability 78, 120
Becke line method 34, 252BEL See Backscattered electron
imagingBend contours 43Bending, in situ 59Benzocyclobutene (BCB)
as coating 15photodefinable 291
Berek (rotary) compensator 84Bertrand lens 35BF. See Bright fieldBiaxial materials 14,81-82,
118,277LVSEM of blown film 287
Binocular stereomicroscopes31, 132,481,483
Biocompatibility 346Biodegradable polymers
347-349Biopol 347Biostability 346Birefringence 11,35, 81-84,438
biaxial 82definition of 35in fibers 251-253in films 283,288measurement 83-85 , 253negative, positive 82refractive index and 35, 81uniaxial 82
Birefringence imaging 438-439Bisphenol A (BPA) 329
epoxy resins 180Polybutylene terephthalate
blends 168Polycarbonate/polyethylene
blends 178Blends 3,11 ,16,141,331-338,
496AFM 111-113freeze fracture 231by layering 16
Index
phase domains 329, 369, 412,482
specimen preparation of153-1 96
toughening 309, 323-326,329,339
staining of 310, 329-331,339-350
with LCPs 329, 409Block copolymers 2-3, 141,
337-345amorphous, crystalline 337examples of 159,170,177,
190,223,337-339Blow moldin g 9, 14,311- 312Boil-in bags 373Bond breaking 414,442
mass loss 121in radiation damage 118-123
BOPP. See Biaxially orientedpolypropylene
Bottie films 283Bott les 373Bowing in SPM scanners 115BPA. See Bisphenol ABrace-Kohler compensator 84Bragg's law 69, 77Bright field (BF) imaging 30,
32-33,481in TEM 42-43, 53, 341in O M 32,150in STEM 154, 286
Bright field defocus phasecont rast 280
Brittle fracture 5,214-215,231,255,327, 349, 361
Brittle matrix polymers 325Bromine 179Bromobenzene 135BSE. See Backscattered electronsBulletproof vests 270, 272
CCA. See Cellulose acetateCables 270, 352-353Calcium carbonate filler 217,
370Calibra tion 57-59
in AFM 58-5 9by thermal tuning 59
Canadian Balsam 145Cantilever(s) in AFM 46-51 ,
58, 97-101deflection 102
force modulation imaging104
harmonic imaging 443oscillation in ICAFM 49,
106-110Qu ality factor (Q) 98
Capillary forcesin contact mode AFM 48,
103in IC-AFM 108, 112
Car bonamorphous, electron
diffraction 70coatings 19, 202-204, 207support films 134-135,138,
198,203Carbon black filled polymers 8,
32,150,284,354AFM of 336-337OM of 368TEM of 369
Carbon black filled rubber368-369
Carbon fiber composites 8,356-357, 365-366
OM of 144, 365SEM of 366-3 77specimen preparati on method
for 142-144Carbon fibers, etching of
189-190Carbon nanotubes 5Q.-51,219,
375-376,380Carbon replicas 198- 200, 314,
386Carboxyl terminated but adiene-
acrylonitrile (CTBN)327
modified epoxy 389CA RS. See Coherent anti -Stokes
Raman scatteringCast films 137-139CB. See Chlorobutyl rubberCCD. See Charge-coupled deviceCelgard 165, 206, 303-305
stained with OS04 304Cellulose acetate (CA) 200,301
etching of 181, 185, 271hollow fiber membranes 301in replica formation 200,314RO membrane 300
Cellulose nitrate 300Cellulose fibers
as filler 273, 354
517
stauung 161,178-17 9Ceramic, as filler 354Cerium hexaboride 40CFE. See Cold field emissionCFM. See Chemical force
microscopyChain folded structure 5--6Cha nnel plate electron multiplier
detector 95Chaotic advection 16, 293-294,
326,376Characteristic x-rays 53, 88, 91Characterization techniques
summary 17-2]microscopy techniques 18,
480-488non-microscopy techniques
492-500spatial resolution 18, 29, 72-
74,114,123Characterizers in AFM 117Charge-coupled device (CCD)
28, 30, 124for TEM 59
Charging effects 90, 94, 201,207
SEM artifa cts and 207-209Charpy tester. See ImpactChemical force microscopy
(CFM) 441-442polymer applications 442
Chemical microscopy 459Chemical/solvent etching
18]-]83Chemical vapor deposition
(CYD) 15Chlo rinated polyolefin (CPO)
394Chlorobutyl rubber (CB) 177Chlorosulfonic acid staining
162,173-175, 179-180applications 162,173-174,
185,281,284literature review 173
Chro matic aberration 73-7 5with EFTEM 75in HREM 77
Chromic acid 183-1 84, 196Chromium oxide 143Circuit boards 291, 373Circular polarization 80Clay filler 217, 358
in nanocomposites 374-379Cleavage plane splitting 146
518
Clouding temperature 135CLSM. See Confocal laser
scanning microscopyCoatings. See Conductive
coatings for EMspecimens; Polymercoatings
COe. See Cycloolefincopolymers
CoContinuity 309Coherent anti-Stokes Raman
scattering (CARS) 461Coherent light, definition 68Cohesive failure 367Cold drawing process 10Cold FEG 40, 87-88, 304. Also
Cold field emission (CFE)source
Cold stage, examples of use176,228,232-233,385
Collodion support films 134,197,20D-201
Colloids 380, 394-398Compact disks (CDs) 317Compensators, polarized light
35, 84-85, 252-253Babinet, Berek, Elliptic,
Senarmont 84first order red plate 84quartz wedge 84
Competitive analysis 349-353Complementary techniques 1
in microscopy 138-141,184,266,268,301,394,481
non-microscopy 17-18,250,492-500
Composite membranes 295Composites 8, 354-380. See also
Nanocompositesadhesion in 354, 360applications 354-355carbon black filled rubber
368-369carbon fiber 356-357,365-366characterization of 357-363conductive fillers 356, 373cryofracture 227fillers in 354fracture 217,354graphite fiber 356-357,
365-366hybrids 357OM of 355, 357-359particle filled 366-370
processing of 354-355SEM of 355, 359-362TEM of 357,362-364
Compositional contrast 36-38,217,219,350,452,456.Also Atomic numbercontrast
Compositional mapping 464Compounding 11-12Compound microscopes 31,
483Compression stages 59Compression molding 14,152,
311Compressive strength for LCPs
178kink bands and 416
Condenser lenses 30, 68, 78for DIC 79for phase contrast 79
Conductive AFM 48Conductive coatings for EM
specimens 201-211artifacts 204-211carbon 202-204,207coating devices 202-203high resolution 202-203,
205-206and LVSEM, VPSEM 202metals for 203, 317produced with IBS 204-206,
317shadowing with 203for SEM (and STM)
203-207sputtered 202, 204-206, 284forTEM 203vacuum evaporators and 202
Confocal laser scanningmicroscopy (CLSM) 21,143,232,358,436-441
for nanocomposites 374optical sectioning and 454
Conoscopic view 35Constant height mode AFM
444Constant signal mode SPM 45Contact microradiography 356Contact mode AFM 47-48,
102-105. See alsoNoncontact AFM,IC-AFM
capillary forces 103electrostatic forces 103
Index
force modulation imaging 48,104-105
force volume imaging 104,442
tips 115-118,490Continuous chaotic advection
blender (CCAB) 16,17,294
Continuum x-rays 54Contrast 18-19,28-29, 72 See
also Differentialinterference contrast;Phase contrast
atomic number (orcompositional) 36-38,217,219,350,452,456
crystallographic 43diffraction 43, 112Hoffman modulation 33-34in SEM 38-39,254in TEM 43topographic 36, 38, 254
Contrast transfer function (CTF)72
Controlled environmentvitrification system(CEVS) 233
Conventional transmissionelectron microscopy(CTEM). SeeTransmission electronmicroscopy
Copolyesters. See Aromaticcopolyesters
Copolymers2-3, 8, 292, 309. See alsoBlends; Block copolymers;Graft copolymers
HAADFof 345LVSEM of 310random 8, 308, 340TEM of 337
Corona discharge 387Correlative microscopy
488-489Cosmetics, emulsions for 380Coverage, of fabrics 258CPD. See Critical point dryingCPO. See Chlorinated polyolefinCrazes and crazing 4, 212,
217-222definition 4fractography 212in HIPS 218,222
Index
microtomy and 220rea l time study 219sample deformation methods
212, 221SAXS and 221preparat ion for TEM
219-221Cree p in AFM scanners 115Critical fiber length 355, 360Cr itical point 230Crit ical point drying (CPD)
method 20, 230--231Cri tical press ure 230Crossed-beam FIB microscopes
453Crossed polarizers (polars) 34-
35,83- 85, 253Cross-linkable epoxy
thermoplastics (CET)327
Cross linking reaction 3, 119of polybut adiene 381in rad iation damage
119-1 20Crossover energ ies in L VSEM
90,94,208Cryo deformation 219Cryo-FESEM 232. See also
CryomicroscopyCryogenic specimen prep aration
226-232Cryomicroscopy 53, 232-234Cryomicrotomy 146, 154-157,
169cryoultramicrotomy 146,
154-157 , 292,352knives 154of latex 382of nanocomposites 376-378for SPM 158, 450, 487
Cryo-po lishing 328Cryo -SEM 232- 233Cryo-TEM 233- 234, 394-398
ar tifacts and 491of nanoparticles 395-3 98with SAXS 499
Cryoultra microtomy 146,151,154-157, 292, 352
Crysta lline melt ing temperature4-5, 53, 113, 495
Crysta lline polymers SeeSemicrystalline polymers
Crystallinity 4, 283, 500and deformation in films 283
loss of, due to radiat ion121-1 22
and Raman microscopy 460tra nscrystaIIinity 321
Crysta llographic contrast 43Crysta ls 4-5 . See also Single
CrystalsAFM of 141Diffraction from 69- 71Extended chain 7, 272HREM of 45, 137Liquid Crystals 399Optical properti es 81-82in PE 5, 135-138, 174, 280in TL CPs 186
Crysta llization 5-7 ,496in-situ AFM 47, 159,224in-situ PLM 133, 278in LVSEM 271
CTBN. See Carboxyl terminatedbut adiene-acrylonitrile
CTE M. See Transmissionelectron microscopy
CTF. See Contrast transferfunct ion
Cyano-acrylate glue 141, 145Cycloo lefin copol ymers (COC)
170
DDark field (DF) 30, 32-33 . See
also High angle annulardark field
optical microscopy 32TE M 43,53, 414
Deflect ionof AFM cantilever 46-48,99,
101- 106SEM display mode 254
Defocusimaging 43,139,280
and phase contrast 43, 76-77,280
optimum TEM 75-76Deform ation 4-5,47,212-213.
See also In situdeformation , shear band s
in AFM 47,102, 223-224in copolymers 340crazing and 221cryodefo rmation 219crystallinity and 283and fract ure 221-226in PE 285
519
orientation and 35, 139, 250of spherulites 283stages for 59-60
Degradationaminolysis 182biodegradation 348hydrol ysis 13, 15, 123radiation induced 118-122,
310Delaminat ion 356, 394, 396Delustrant 165, 262Depth of field 30, 42, 74-75, 87,
440, 485Depth of focus 30, 74-75DETA. See Dieth ylene
triamineDetachment replicas 201Detector resolution 72-74Detectors
AFM photo diode 99BSE 38CCD 28, 30, 59, 124, 458channel plate 95E-T 39, 92IR 459for LVSEM 95-96Robinson 38for VPSEM 96-97x-ray 54-55
DF. See Dark fieldDiamond knives for
(cryo )ultramicro tomy152-156, 223, 331, 382
oscillating 153, 160Diamo nd-lik e car bon (DLC)
50--51DIe. See Differential
interference cont rastDichloroacetic acid 182Dichroic 34, 438Dichroism 461,497Diethylene triamine (D ETA)
168Differential inte rference contrast
(DIC) 33-3 4condenser lenses 79of etched surfaces 182, 185for opti cal sectioning 454of polished sections 144video enhanced 384
Differential scanning calorime try(DSC) 60, 492, 495-496
Differential thermal analysis(DTA) 495
520
Diffraction 44, 68, 482 See alsoElectron diffraction; Smallangle x-ray scattering; x-ray diffraction
in amorphous polymers 69contrast, in TEM 43electron diffraction 44, 69-71limit to resolution 72microdiffraction 44,412-414SAED 44, 122,275,412,481SAXS 5, 186,297,481,
499-500techniques listed 482X-ray diffraction 374,482,
493-495Digital
imaging 31,233,489image analysis 56, 234, 275
Dimensional changes, radiation-induced 42, 122-123
Disintegration, as specimenpreparation 137
Dispersed phases 321-348morphology 329, 369size of 311, 480
Dispersion, as specimenpreparation 135
Distortionof AFM image 58,114-115,
491of SEM image 87, 94-95of specimens 122,147,151
DLC. See Diamond-like carbonDMA. See Dynamic mechanical
analysisDrying methods 151,226-234.
See also Critical pointdrying; Freeze drying
DSC. See Differential scanningcalorimetry
DTA. See Differential thermalanalysis
Dual-beam FIB microscopes453
Dual-pass technique, NCAFM112-113
Ductile fracture 215, 230, 255,328
Ductile matrix polymers 145,216,325
DVDs 317-319Dwell time 15Dyes 161Dynamic charging 208
Dynamic mechanical analysis(DMA) 495-496
Dynamic microscopy 59-60cold stage in 60, 233-234hot stage in 60tensile stage in 59-60; 87
EEastman 910 glue 148,197EBA. See Ethylene butylacrylateEbonite method for specimen
preparation 177-178and tire cords 269-270
EDS. See Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
EELS. See Electron energy lossspectroscopy
EFI. See Energy filtered imageEFM. See Electric force
microscopyEFTEM. See Energy filtering
electron microscopyE-GMA. See Ethylene-glycidyl
methacrylateElastic properties
AFM and 104-105, 224of silicon 98viscoelasticity 49, 104,223
Elastic scattering 37, 42, 88, 285Elastomers 3,309
with multiphase polymers323,326
spherulites and 155, 329Electric force microscopy (EFM)
50,113Electrons. See Backscattered
electrons; Secondaryelectrons
Electron beam (E Beam)sputtering technique 51,202
Electron diffraction 18, 44-45,69-71,121-122
advantages of 486of films 280,410example patterns 69-71,122,
280,412interpretation 69-70microdiffraction 44,412-414selected area 44, 275, 481
Electron energy lossspectroscopy (EELS) 53,461-462
and EFTEM 157,462
Index
parallel 461-462with STEM 138, 461-462
Electron microscopy (EM) 35-45,69-78,85-97,438-440.See also Analytical EM;High resolution EM;Scanning EM
Electron probe microanalyzer(EPMA) 54-55, 484, 496
compared to XRF 496Electron sources 39-41Electron spectroscopy for chemical
analysis (ESCA). See X-rayphoton spectroscopy
Electron yield 90, 208Electrostatic forces in AFM
103, 108, 114Elemental mapping by x-ray
analysis 55-56,464examples with SEM imaging
350-351,394,396Elliptical polarized light 80Elliptic compensator 84EM. See Electron microscopyEMAA. See Polyethylene-ran-
methacrylic acidEmbedding
in acrylic 151in epoxy 151,154in GMA 154media for OM 149media for TEM and AFM
151-153in polyesters 151
Emulsion(s)2, 380-398. See alsoLatexes
and latexes 381-385microemulsions 380-382polymerization 381-382
End point dose 120Energy dispersive x-ray
spectroscopy (EDS) 54-55,484
AEM 55elemental mapping 55-56,
351,361-362,396of metal loaded fibers 265with SEM, TEM 53WDS comparison 55, 484
Energy filtered image (EFI) 462Energy filtering electron
microscopy (EFTEM)70,461-462
Index
with EELS 157,462and interface adhesion 157of PMMA/SAN blend 462for thick samples 75of unstained samples 161
Energy spreadof electron sources 40and resolution 86
Engineering plastics and resins2,308-353
characterization of 309-311extrudates 311-312failure analysis of 349-350molded parts 311-315multiphase polymers 321-348
Environmental SEM (ESEM,HPSEM or VPSEM) 21,41, 96-97, 452
applications 348-349of blends 232, 329conductive coatings and 202detectors for 96-97of hydrated materials 123,
348of latex 382-383
EO. See Ethylene octanecopolymer
EPDM. See Ethylene-propylene-diene monomer
EPMA. See Electron probemicroanalyzer
Epoxy 3, 15, 309as adhesive 386as brittle matrix polymer 325Cross-linkable epoxy
thermoplastics (CET)166,327
crazing in 220as embedding medium 143,
151, 154Epotek 197fracture 366Liquid crystalline epoxy
(LCE) 186rubber toughened 174,326-
328,389Equatorial reflection 69,415ESCA. See X-ray photon
spectroscopyESEM. See Environmental SEMEtching 20, 52, 181-196
with acids 183-184artifacts and 490with FIB 194-195
freeze fracture 20,231-232ion/plasma 188-194with permanganate acid
184-188plasma 188-194summary table 195-196solvents for 181-183with xylene 168
E-T detector. See Everhart-Thornley detector
Ethene-co-1-butene (PEB) 311,330
Ethylene butylacrylate (EBA) 352Ethylene octane (EO) copolymer
335,393Ethylene-propylene-diene
monomer (EPDM) 154,309
in blends 168, 336Ethylene-propylene rubber
(EPR) 331-334,377Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
335,393Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
374EVA. See Ethylene vinyl acetateEvaporative coatings 202-204
and vacuum evaporators 198,202
Everhart-Thornley (E-T)detector 39, 92
LVSEM and 95Exfoliation 373Extinction, in PLM
incomplete 402positions 35, 83-84
Extraction replicas 201Extrudates 11-17
of films 283,288of LCPs 403--409of PBZT 411--412
Extrusion processes 12,311-312
FFabric
coverage 258hand 258nonwoven 222, 258-259OM of 251protective 270SEM of 258-259woven 258
Failure analysis 349-353
521
False coloring 57, Color plateXIII
Fast Fourier transforms (FFTs)234,275,297
Fast scanning SPM 444--445Fatigue fracture
in composite polymers 354of fibers 255, 257
Feedback controlin AFM 47,110,113in SPM 45
FEG. See Field emission gunFESEM. See Field emission
scanning electronmicroscopy
FFM. See Frictional forcemicroscopy
FFTs. See Fast Fouriertransforms
FIB. See Focused ion beamFiber composites 355-357,
365-366contact microradiography of
356critical fiber length 355, 360interfacial bond failure
217-218OM of 357-359SEM of 359-362single polymer, PE in PE 271specimen preparation 143-
145,217Fiber finishes 197-198,254,360Fibers 2, 250-276. See also
High modulus fibers;Hollow fiber membranes;Microfibers; Textile fibers
aramid 193,409--410,417formation of 9-11fractography 213-214,
254-258fracture summary 255high performance 270-276industrial 267-270metal loaded 265-267nanofibers 273-275optical retardation of 253peelback of 146-147replication and 200spider silk 275-276TEM of 259-260textile 251-265with titanium dioxide 262wood pulp 258, 270, 272-273
522
Fibrils . See also Microfibrilsin crazes 4, 220-222in LCPs 417-418in membranes 304-306and SAXS 499
Field curvature 73Field emission gun (FEG) 40-
41,44,80,304,331in HRSEM 41properties summary 40
Field emission scanning electronmicroscopy (FESEM)40-41 ,87,196,288
artifacts at low voltage210-211
of membranes 297, 304, 307of microfibrils 414of PVC 258
Field of view 32-33Filled LCP moldings 407-408Fillers 8, 11, 32, 53, 118, 217,
354. See also Particle filledcomposites
mica 354,366,369-371minerals as 366
Films 2,276-308. See alsoLangmuir-Blodgett films
amorphous "structure"281-282
OM of anisotropic 283birefringence of 277,283,288blown 11, 277, 283-288bottle 283casting for TEM 137-139dichroic 34drawing for TEM 139-140extrusion of 283, 288formation of 9-11Formvar 134HAADFof 285industrial 282-294model studies of 278--281multilayered 292-294orientation classes of 277peelback of 146-147polyester 283polyimide 282refractive index of 283SEM of 284semicrystalline 280-281spherulites in 138SPM of 286-287surfaces of 140wettability of 287
Filter membranes 295First-order red plate 35, 83-85 ,
Color plate IIFlat film membranes 294-305Fluor lens 32Fluorescence microscopy 28,
454-456Fluorescence yield 91FMM. See Force modulation
microscopyFocal plane array 459Focus 30, 85. See also Defocus
Gaussian or geometric 75-76 ,86
Scherzer 75-76underfocus 76, 80
Focused ion beam (FIB) 440,453-454
etching with 194-195Force modulation imaging or
Force modulationmicroscopy (FMM) 48,104,279,330
Force-separation curves in AFM101-102
Force spectroscopy 47-48 ,441,444
Force volume imaging 105,442
Form birefringence 35Formvar films 134Fountain (flow field) model 356Fourier's theorem 69Fourier transform infrared
(FfIR) microscopy 459-460,492,497
resolution 459Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy 18,273,303,383,496-497
dichroism with 497Fractography 212-213
of fibers 213-214,254-258Fracture 212-217. See also
Fatigue fracturebrittle 255, 349of carbon fibers 366of composite polymers 217,
354-357,366crazing and 217-221of fibers, summary 255hackles 214,350,360of plastics 214-216SEM of 212,214,257
Index
of semicrystalline polymers215
standard physical testing213-217
types of 213-214at weld line 316
Free amplitude 49, 111,450Freeze drying sample
preparation 20, 227examples of use 227-230TEM and 227
Freeze fracture-etching 20,231
examples 231-232Freezing methods 226,
227-233Freon 230-232Frequency modulated detection
in NC-AFM 112-113Frequency sweep data 107-108Frictional force microscopy
(FFM) 47,50, 103-104,481
FTIR. See Fourier transforminfrared
Fuel cells 297
GG values 118-120
definition of 118table of values 119
Gas path length in VPSEM96-97
Gastric balloons 346Gaussian focal plane 75-76 , 86Gelatin 197-201, 300Geometric focal plane. See
Gaussian focal planeGlass fiber composites 354
SEM of 218, 355, 359-364OM of 357,360,408
Glass fibersmicroscopy of 358, 392plasma etching of 190-192coating on 392
Glass knives 146,152,154,292crazing and 220cryomicrotomyand 169,187
Glass transition temperature 4,113,447,495
Glycerol 138,143,279Glycol methacrylate (GMA)
154GMA. See Glycol methacrylate
Index
Goldbackscattering coefficient 37-coated AFM tips 441colloid 117conductive coating for EM
203-205, 211decoration 19, 174, 211, 278for shadowing 203
Graft copolymers 3, 8, 337-345HIPS as 337
Grafted rubber concentrate(GRe) 327
Graphite. See also Highlyoriented pyrolyticgraphite
fiber composites 356-357,365-366
substrates 137,140-141Gray (Gy), definition 120GRe. See Grafted rubber
concentrate
HHAAOF See High angle annul ar
dark fieldHackle (fracture) morph ology
213,217,256in composite matrix 217,
360-361,367in engineering resins and
plastics 349- 350in fibers 256
Hand , of fabrics 258Hard elastic polypropylene
(HEPP) 223Hardy microtome 147Harmonic imaging in IC-AFM
443-444of PMMA/PS 444Low Quality factor (Q) and
443resonant cantilevers for 444
HOPE. See High densitypolyethylene
Heat aging 157,254Heat conduction 120, 356Heated tip thermal microscopy
47,447HEPP. See Hard elastic
polypropyleneHeteropolymers, definition 3Hexacyanoferrate (HCF) 142Hexalluoroisopropanol (HFIP)
137, 198
Heptane etching 346HFIP. See
HexafluoroisopropanolHigh angle annular dark field
(HAADF) 44, 233, 456of nanoparticles 345of ionomer films 285
High density polyethylene(HOPE) , see alsoPolyethylene (PE) 151,186, 279
deformati on in 285end uses listed 508etching of 181, 184-186, 190fibers 271films 235, 271, 284microporous membranes
300replication methods 195single crystals 135spherulites 84staining of 167-168thin film specimens 83, 139
High impact polystyrene (HIPS)3, 8, 94, 151, 155, 171
3D imaging of 453AFM and TEM compared
155-156crazing in 218. 222end uses listed 508etching of 196graft copolymer 337multiphase polymer 309staining methods for 168,
171-172Highly oriented pyrolytic
graphite (HOPG) 133,140,286,491
High modulus fibers 7,137,270-272,409-412
aromatic copolyesters 412aromatic polyamides
409-411LCPs 399PE 270-272rigid rod polymers 411-412
High modulus low shrink yarns(HMLS) 272
High molecular weight polymers135,288. See alsoUltrahigh molecularweight PE
High performance polymers398-418. See also Liquid
523
crystalline polymers(LCPs)
extrus ion of 403-409high modulus fibers 409-412high performance fibers
270-276LCPs 399-400moldings 403-409
High pressure SEM (HPSEM orVPSEM or ESEM ) 21,41, 59-60, 96-97,452
application s 348-349of blends 232, 329conducti ve coatings and 202detectors for 96-97of hydrated materials 123,
348of latex 382-383
High resolution coating devices202-204
High resolution scann ingelectron microscopy(HRSEM) 21, 41,86.See also Field EmissionSEM,
aberrations in 86compared to AFM 289,305-
307,341FEG in 41
High resolution (transmission)electron microscopy(HREM, also HRTEM)21, 45,77
of dispersed crystals 137lens aberrations and 77low dose (LD) 78, 275,
414-415nanofiber example 273- 275specimen preparation for
137-138of PE 285of PVC 281
High speed spin-draw fiberprocess 10, 262-264
High temperature ashing 357HIPS . See High impact
polystyreneHMLS. See High modulus low
shrink yarnsHigh voltage electron
microscope 53, 136, 292Hoffman modulati on contrast
33compared to DIC 34
524
Hollow fiber membranes305-308
of modified PEEK 307of PE 308of polyimide 307of polysulfone 305ofPTFE 307
Homeotropic orientation 400Homopolymers 2,52,313
examples 309HOPG. See Highly oriented
pyrolytic graphiteHot compaction process 15,
270,271Hot stage microscopy 60, 221,
329in AFM 224-225, 344, 393in polarized light microscopy
132,284,399in SEM 197,222
HPSEM. See High pressureSEM
HREM. See High resolutionelectron microscopy
HRSEM. See High resolutionscanning electronmicroscopy
HRTEM. See High resolutiontransmission electronmicroscopy
Humidityand forces in AFM 103-104,
490in CFM 442
Hybrid composite polymers357
Hyperspectral imaging 451Hysteresis in AFM
in cantilever deflection 101in IC-AFM 109in scanner motion 115
IIBS. See Ion beam sputter
coatingIC-AFM. See Intermittent
contact mode AFMIllumination 29-30, 33-34, 73
in CSLM 436in optical sectioning
454-455Illumination systems 78-80
for OM 78-79forTEM 80
Image analysis 19,56-59,309examples 145, 161,227,284,
331,375in automated SPM 450-452
Image formation 28-31in AFM 97-118with lenses(OM, TEM) 29-
30,68-85radiation and 121-123in SEM 92-94
Image processing 19,53,56-57,93,455,490
examples 271, 329Imaging. See also Analytical
imaging; Backscatteredelectron imaging;Birefringence imaging,Force modulation imaging;Harmonic imaging; Imageformation; Threedimensional imaging
in AFM 97-118BEl 37-39force-volume imaging 105,451with lenses (OM, TEM)
68-85lenticular, in 3D display 452phase, in AFM 49, 442SEI 39in SEM 35-39, 85-97in SPM 45-51structured light imaging 455in TEM 42-44tomographic spectral imaging
451Impact (Charpy or Izod) test
190,212,216,323on composite 360-361
Impact modified thermoplastics328-337
Impact strength 2-3, 11, 16,316,479
Incident beam voltage 483in SEM 37,41,52,88-90,92,
94in TEM 53
Incident dose 120Incident light techniques 28Incoherent radiation, definition
68Indentation and AFM 47,223,
393. See alsoNanoindentation
Index ellipsoid 81-82
Index
Indicatrix 81-82Indium-tin-oxide (ITO) coating
140, 141Industrial fibers 267-270Industrial films 282-294Inelastic scattering 70, 88, 161Infrared (IR) spectroscopy 18,
496-497. See also Fouriertransform infraredspectroscopy
dichroism 497Infrared microspectroscopy
(IMS). See Fouriertransform infraredmicroscopy
Injection molding 12-14,311-316
reaction 1M (RIM) 15of semicrystalline polymers
316In-lens SEM design 86In situ deformation 221-223,
311in AFM 223-225in SEM 222-223in TEM 223
Instron tensile tester 212-213,255
Interaction volumein AFM 104in SEM 37-38,88-89,92,94,
123in STEM 91in X-ray microanalysis 54-56,
91Interference 68
colors 35, 221contrast 33, 34. See also
Differential interferencecontrast
microscopy 33-34in X-ray microscopy 458
Interferometric optical profiler436
Intermediate aperture 44, 71Intermediate lens 30Intermittent contact mode AFM
(IC-AFM) or Tappingmode AFM 47-49, 105-106, 140
applied toblends 334-337block copolymer films 290,
343
Index
cellulose fibers 273etched spherulites 315- 316lithograph y process 291microporou s membranes
305-306toughened thermoset 328
cantilevers for 98cant ilever oscillation 106-110harmonic imaging 443imaging parameters 110--11 1interaction distance regime
101modeling of 112probe tips 51,490Quality factor (Q) 99, 109
Interpretation of images488--492
Inversion walls (LCPs) 406Iodine staining 52,179,348Ion beam sputter coating (IBS)
206, 317Ion etching 188- 194Ion microscopy 440-44 1Ionomers 8,285, 328Ion Tech microsputter gun 191iPP. See Isotactic polypropyleneIR. See InfraredIsogyres 399, 401Isoprene inclusion (and staining)
method 165examp les 178, 264-265
Isopropanol 141, 182Isotactic polymers, definition of
3Isotactic polypropylene (iPP) 3,
184-189,224, 330chemical force microscopy of
442ITO . See Indium-tin-oxideIzod. See Impact
JJarnin-Lebedeff interference
microscope 33
KKapton 277Kevlar 187, 272, 415--417Kink bands 174,255, 412
compression and 272,416HR EM of 415in LCPs 413--416STM of 416
KMn0 4' See Permanganat e acid
Knee replacement, UHMWPEfor 224
Knives. See Diamond knives;Glass knives
Kohler illumination system78-79
Kraton 187,271,339
LLaB6• See Lanthanum
hexaborideLamellae or Lamellar crystals
4-6 ,52,480in block copolymers 399-343in PE 136, 280, 284-285and SAXS 499-500thickening of 279
Langmuir-Blodgett films (LB)AFM 140,286,450NSOM 449
Lanth anum hexaboride (LaB6)source 40, 41
SEM 41,85,87,331TEM 44,302
Laser confocal scanningmicroscopy (LCSM). SeeConfocal laser scanningmicroscop y
Laser-induced fluorescencespectroscopy ofnanocomposites 374
Lateral force microscopy (LFM)47, 103- 104,441
Lateral forces 104Latex(es) 381-386. See also
Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex
for calibration 57, 117characterization
AFM 111,389-393OM, SEM 383-384TEM 172,176,384-385VPSEM 383
dispersio n for TEM 135cryomicrotomyand 157,
382film coalescence 386film formation 9, 393freeze drying of 227particle size measurement
385-386rep lication meth ods for 386staining methods for 167,
170--173, 176
525
Lattice imaging 43, 45, 72, 76-78,494
in high modulu s fibers 275,409--410
Layer multipl ying coextrusion16, 292
LB. See Langmuir-Blodgett filmsLCE. See Liquid crystalline
epoxyLCPs. See Liquid crystalline
polymersLCSM. See Confocal laser
scanning microscopyLDPE. See Low density
polyethyleneLead zirconate titan ate (PZT)
99Lennard-Jones potential
100-101Lens(es). 28 See also Condenser
lenses; Objective lensesaberrations in 40, 73acceptance angle 72-74aplanatic 78Bert rand 35chrom atic aberra tion 40, 75,
86condenser lenses 29-30, 44,
78--80in SEM 36,86-87
contrast with 72- 76diffraction in 68-69glass for OM 29,32illumination systems 78--80imaging with 29-30, 68-85intermediate 30objective lenses 32, 75projector lenses 30, 74phase contrast with 76-78resolution 72-76
Lens-imaging microscope s29-30
Lenticular imaging, in 3D display452
LFM. See Lateral forcemicroscopy
LFRTs. See Long fiberreinforced thermoplastics
Light emitting diodes 446, 449Light microscopy. See Optical
microscopyLight scattering techniques 499Linear low density polyeth ylene
(LLDPE) 186
526
Linear polarization of light 80Liquid crystalline epoxy (LCE)
186Liquid crystalline polymers
(LCPs) 7-8, 141, 185,399--400,494
AFM of 406aromatic copolyester 400aromatic polyamide 400banded structure 402blends 408--409chemistry of 399--400domain texture 401--402,405,
408--409films from 282high modulus fibers 399,
409--417formation of 9microfibrils in 415--417structural model 417--418
lyotropic liquid crystals398-399
microstructure 400--403,413--417
nematic crystals 9, 399--401,406,408
optical textures 400--402PLM 400rigid rod polymers 399smectic crystals 45, 399TLCPs 185-186,270
Liquid crystals (LC) 399Liquid nitrogen 53,149,226,
233,382Liquid sulfur 220Lithography
of AFM tips 50AFM for 287, 444
LLDPE. See Linear low densitypolyethylene
Local thermal analysis (LTA)352-353
Long fiber reinforcedthermoplastics (LFRTs)11
Low density polyethylene(LDPE)
AFM 315blends 16, 293-295, 348chemical force microscopy
442Low dose , high resolution
electron microscopy (LD-HREM) 45,78,137,273
Low dose TEM 52-53Low temperature RF plasma
asher (LTA) 191,357Low voltage SEM (LVSEM)
52,94-96,133applied to
blown PE film 287copolymers 310crystallization 271
detectors for 95-96specimen charging and 94-
95,202,207-208image comparison 93techniques compared 483
LTA. See Local thermal analysis;Low temperature RFplasma asher
LVSEM. See Low voltageSEM
Lyotropic 8
MMacroemulsions 380Magnetic force microscopy
(MFM) 50, 112-113Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) 456Magnetron sputtering 206,
232Maleated polypropylene
(MAH-g-PP) 375Mapping
elemental, by x-ray analysis55,266,351,372,396,464
IR 460Mass loss, by radiation damage
121Mass spectroscopy (MS) 18Mass thickness contrast 42--43,
221Material safety data sheet
(MSDS) 161,162,170Matrix cleavage of composites
217,357Matrix cracking 217Matrix polymers 33, 325MCf. See Mercury cadmium
tellurideMechanical deformation. See
DeformationMEK. See Methyl ethyl ketoneMelting point 4-5, 9-11 , 45, 53,
78,120,495
Index
Membranes 2,276-308. Seealso Hollow fibermembranes; Reverseosmosis membranes;Microporous membranes
applications of 276, 289, 297-298,301-302,304,307
cast 276-277composite 295, 299-300flat film 294-305freeze fractured 300hollow fiber 23G-231,
305-308microporous 295-296 ,
303-305reverse osmosis 296, 302, 305types of 277
Mercury cadmium telluride(MCT) 459
Mercuric trifluoroacetate,staining with 178-179
Meridional reflections 69Metal decoration 19. See also
Gold decorationMetal loaded fibers 265-267Metalshadowing 19,199,203Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) as
etchant 182Metripol 438Mettler hot stage 279MF. See MicrofiltersMFM. See Magnetic force
microscopyMica
test object in AFM 109flakes 217,279,290as filler 354, 366, 369-370as substrate 133, 136-138,
278Micelles 382, 395
definition of 380Michel-Levy (polarization color)
chart 84Microanalysis. See X-ray
microanalysisMicrodiffraction 44, 412--414,
482Microernulsion , definition of
38G-381Microfibrils, or microfibers 6,
10,250,418in fiber structure 250,
271-271examples of 262,265,414
Index
in LCPs 412,414-418in composites 157, 228-230STM, SEM compared 416TEM , Electron diffraction
414Microfilters (MF) 295Micro mar resistance (MMR)
224Microporous membranes 295-
296,303-306examples 205-206,211 ,289,
303-306Microscopes 28-31. See also
Binocularstereomicroscopes;Microscopy
compared 483compound 31crossed-beam or dual-beam
FIB 453image formation in 68-124lens-imaging 29-30radiation damage in
118-124scanning-imaging 3~31simple 31
Microscopy 18-19,21,28-31analytical 53-56,459-468calibration in 57-59cryomicroscopy 53, 60,
233-234dynamic 59-60quantitative 56-59,386techniques compared
480-488Microtomes 147-150
rotary 148sledge 148
Microtomy 19, 146-160. Seealso Cryomicrotomy;Ultramicrotomy
for 3D imaging 57,452-454artifacts in 160block trimming for 152embedding for 149,151mounting for 152microtomes 147-150for OM 147-150for SEM 150specimen mounting for
148-149for SPM 15~154, 158-159,
315for TEM 15~154
Microwave oven technique 151,17~171
Minerals, as fillers 366MiniSIMS 466Mirror, as fracture surface region
29,33,213,256Mist, as fracture surface region
256MMR. See Micro mar
resistanceModulation transfer function
(MTF) 72Modulus 2,9-11 ,223-224. See
also High modulus fibersMolding processes 11-17,311,
403-409. See also Injectionmolding; Moldings,microstructure of
blow molding 14compression molding 14,311mold temperature 11,356reaction injection molding
(RIM) 15structure-property relations for
4-5 ,8,17thermoforming 14-15
Moldings, microstructure ofspherulitic textures 5-7in fiber composites 355-356,
365-366in filled LCP resins 407-409cryofracture 227in LCPs 403-409skin-core morphology 12-13,
315-316Molecular orientation 5, 13
by birefringence 35, 251in fibers 25~253by NSOM 449in radiation damage 121
Molecular weight distribution18
Monomer, definition 2Morphology, definition of 1,
3-4introduction to 1-21
Mounting, of specimens 148-149,152,213
MPDI. See M-phenyleneisophthalamide
M-phenylene isophthalamide(MPDI) 45, 137,273
MRI. See Magnetic resonanceimaging
527
MS. See Mass spectroscopyMSDS. See Material safety data
sheetMTF. See Modulation transfer
functionMuffle furnace 357Multilayered films 292-294
nano thermal analysis of447
PC/PET 159,292Multiphase polymers 3,8,47,
309,321-349AFM of 159, 330, 332, 338biodegradable 347-349block copolymers and
337-345carbon black filled 368copolymers 337-344elastomers with 323, 345examples listed 309EPDM 336-337etching techniques for 185,
193-196FTIR and IC-AFM of
389graft copolymers and
337-345HIPS 155, 171impact modified thermoplastics
217,328-337OM, PLM of 330, 332, 338,
484particle size in 8polyurethanes in 345-347processing of 326random copolymers and
337-345resins of 321-349SAN 462-463SBS 339,343SEM of 216,331 ,318,346,
350staining techniques for 167,
175,181,329,341TEM of 159, 332-333, 339-
341,486toughened resins 323-326toughened thermoset resins
326-327Multiwalled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) 219,372,376
MWCNTs. See Multiwalledcarbon nanotubes
528
Mylar 277as cxtensilble substrate 138,
201,278
NNA. See Numerical apertureNanocomposites 8,47,354,
370-380AFM of 373, 377-378 , 380carbon nanotubes 375-376,
380clay in 373, 376characterization of 374HRTEM of 376laser-induced fluorescence
spectroscopy 374processing of 17SEM of 373, 376TEM of 373,377,379
Nanofibers 273-275. See alsomicrofibrils
Nanofilters (NF) 295Nanofoams 154Nanoindentation 47,223-224
probes for 50,116Nanolayers 16Nanotechnology 21,219Nanotubes. See Carbon
nanotubesNational Institute for Standards
and Technology (NIST)58
Natural rubber 4, 166, 201, 382NC-AFM. See Noncontact AFMNear edge x-ray absorption fine
structure (NEXAFS)463-464
Near field scanning opticalmicroscopy (NSOM)449
polarized, for molecularorientation 449
with Raman microscopy 461Negative birefringence 82Negative staining 161, 168, 172Negative phase contrast 76Negative replicas 197Nematic liquid crystal 399
texture in LCPs 401-402Neutron scattering techniques
4,492,500NEXAFS. See Near edge x-ray
absorption fine structureNF. See Nanofilters
NIST. See National Institute forStandards and Technology
Nitric acid etching 183, 494N-methylpyrrolidone 233NMR. See Nuclear magnetic
resonanceNoise See also Signal-to-noise
ratioin AFM 58, 114in HREM 78in SEM imaging 86,93-94,210limit to resolution in EM
123-124Nomarski interference contrast.
See Differentialinterference contrast
Nomex 275Noncontact AFM (NCAFM)
47,49-50,101,112-113dual-pass technique with
112-113frequency modulated detection
in 112, 113Nonlinear geometric mixing
116Nonlinear motion of AFM
scanner 115Nonperiodic layer (NPL) crystal
415Nonwoven fabrics 222, 258-259Noryl GTX 351NSOM. See Near field scanning
optical microscopyNuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) 18, 492,497-498
Nucleation density 5,313Numerical aperture (NA) 32,
73Nylon (or Polyamide). See also
Aromatic polyamidescomposite with glass fiber 11,
217,358,362-364etching of 181-182fibers 175, 250
fatigue failure of 256-257molded specimens 313nanocomposites 374-377polishing of 144PTA and 176particle filled 150, 367rubber toughening 157,296PLM of spherulites in 6-7,
150,313
Index
SEM of fracture 215staining of 161-164,167-169,
175, 180Nyquist criterion 73
oObjective aperture 30, 71, 80Objective lenses 30-32 , 71
image formation by 71-73in TEM 71
OCT. See Optical coherencetomography
Off-axis aberrations 73-4Off-axis reflections in fiber
diffraction 69OM. See Optical microscopyOptical coherence tomography
(OCT) 438-439for optical sectioning 455polarization sensitive 438
Optical microscopy (OM) 18-19,31-35,484-485. Seealso Polarized lightmicroscopy
applied tocomposite polymers 355,
360,365,368extracted filler particles
357-359fibers 251latex 384multiphase polymers 332,
338artifacts in 489basic optics of 29,68-69birefringence imaging in 438calibration 57compound microscope 31confocal scanning microscope
(CLSM) 21,358,436-437
diffraction limit for 72-73dynamic hot stage 60, 132,
399fluorescence microscopy 28,
454-456illumination systems for 29-
33, 78-79imaging modes 32-33, 481Kohler illumination 78-79microtomy for 147-150near field scanning 449phase contrast 33, 76polarized light 34, 83-85
Index
resolution 18,29, 72-74, 481,483
specimen preparation methodsfor 132, 143-145,147-149
stereo microscopes 28,31,132-133,479-481
Optical path difference 68, 455Optical sectioning 357, 454-455
apertures and 454DIC for 454Optical coherence tomography
(OCT) for 455STEM and 454-455wide field 455
Optical texture, of LCPs400-402
Optic axisof birefringent object 81-84of instrument 437,454
Ortho-phosphoric acid. Seephosphoric acid
Oscillatingcantilever, in AFM 49,98-99,
106-110knife in microtomy 153, 450
Osmium tetroxide (OS04)staining 162-165,180-181
examples of use 161-163,166,304
inclusion methods 164-165of multiphase polymers 155,
329,339practical details 164safety precautions when using
162for SEM and SPM 165for TEM 163-165two step reactions 163
OS04' See Osmium tetroxideOversampling 74Overvoltage 91
PPA6 (Polyamide-6). See NylonPAA. See Polyacrylic acidPackaging 11,14,276,329
electronic 287,296food 373
Paints 140, 151emulsions for 380
PAN. See PolyacrylonitrilePaper, emulsions for 380
Parallel EELS (PEELS)461-462
Parison 14Particle Atlas 358a-particle emitters, anti-static
103Particle filled composites
366-370carbon-black filled 368-369
Particle size 56, 159distribution 114,141,177,
309effect on film formation 393measurement of 385-386
PBI. See PolybenzimidazolePBO. See PolybenzobisoxazolePBT. See Polybutylene
terephthalatePBZO. See Poly-p-phenylene-
benzobisoxazolePBZT. See Poly-p-phenylene
benzobisthiazolePc. See PolycarbonatePCL. See Poly-e-caprolactonePOAC. See Polydiallyldime-
thylammoniumchloridePOMS. See PolydimethylsiloxanePE. See PolyethylenePEB. See Ethene-co-1-butenePEOOT. See Poly-3,4-ethylene-
dioxythiophenePEEK. See Poly ether ether
ketonePeelback method (for fibersl
films) 146-147,200cleavage plane splitting
technique 146examples 147,414
PEELS. See Parallel EELSPEL See PolyetherimidePenning sputtering 203,
205-206Pentacene 288PEO . See Polyethylene oxidePepper and salt texture 282,
401-402Perlluorodecalin 442Permanganate-acid etching 159,
168,184-188,315Permanganic acid 184PET. See Polyethylene
terephthalatePeterlin model (of drawing
process) 10, 250, 278
529
PETG. See Polyethyleneterephthalate-co-1,4-cyclohexanedimethyleneterephthalate
Phase contrast 33,76-77,481AFM 106-109in OM 19,33,76condenser lens for 79in TEM 43, 76-77
Phase (contrast) imaging 49AFM examples 158, 332-337OM examples 161,331-332,
338,360TEM examples 169, 280
PHB. SeePoly-3-hydroxybutyrate
PHBA See p-hydroxybenzoicacid
PHIC. See Polyhexyl isocyanatePhosphoric acid
as etchant 184with potassium permanganate
184-187as substrate 138
Phosphotungstic acid (PTA)stain 161,171 ,175-177
examples of use 173, 176,339-340,385
literature review 175practical details 176
PhotoBCS. See Photodefinablebenzocyclobutene
Photodefinablebenzocyclobutene(PhotoBCB) 291-292
Photodiode detector 99Photon tunneling microscope
449Photosensitizers, by NSOM 449PHV. See Poly
3-hydroxyvaleratep-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA)
400,413PID . See Proportional-integral-
differentialPiezoelectric elements in SPM
46,99-100, 106Pigments 11,32, 172,262Pinhole lens, for SEM 87Piperazine 303Pipes, from PVC 349Pixel (picture element) 30, 73
size, effect on resolution 73-74,114
530
Plan apo 32Plasma etching 188-194Plastics 3,308-353. See also
Thermoplastic(s)amorphous polymers
316-318characterization of 309-311competitive analysis 349-353extrusion of 311-312failure analysis of 349-353fracture of 214---216multiphase polymers
321-349semicrystalline polymers
318-321skin-core structures 315-316spherulites 313-315toughening 8,323-326
Platinum/carbon 138, 198, 203,382
Platinum coating 204,317,400PLM. See Polarized light
microscopyPMMA. See Polymethyl
methacrylatePMMA/PS, See Polystyrenel
polymethyl methacrylatePoint-to-point resolution 72,77Polarization 34
colors 35,83-84plane of 80, 82-83state 34,80-81,83,438
Polarization sensitive opticalcoherence tomography(PS-OCT) 438
Polarized light 80-85circularly polarized light 35,
80,405elliptically polarized light 80extinction positions 35, 83-
84, Color plate IIlenses for 32linear or plane polarized light
80Polarized light microscopy
(PLM) 34---35,83-85,132,154,278
applied tofibers 253LCPs 4D0-403molded bar 313,320spherulites 6, 7, 283
hot stage 399Polarizer (Polar) 34
Polarizing microscopy. SeePolarized lightmicroscopy
Polishing methods 142-145artifacts caused by 142-143examples 142-146,365-366,
403-404, Color plate XIfollowed by etching
144---145for thin sections 145-146
PolScope 438Poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene
(PEDOT) 298, 393Polyacetal. See
Polyoxymethylene(PaM)
Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) 198,200-201
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 297hollow fiber membranes from
305Polyamide. See Nylon. See also
Aromatic polyamidesPolybenzimidazole (PBI) 230,
296,300-301drying method 230hollow fiber membranes from
305membranes of 296, 305
Polybenzobisoxazole (PBO) 45,153,272,325
fibers 153, 272Polybenzyl L-glutamate 291Polybutadiene (PB)
crosslinking of 381staining methods for 161
Poly(butylene terephthalate)(PBT) 137,157,492
blends 168, 182ductile matrix polymer 325etching of 191specimen preparation 137,
316,336spherulites in 314zones of 321
Polycaprolactone 85Polycarbonate (PC) 151,153,
281,492compact disks 317-319crazing in 218in multilayered film 292probes for 447staining method 329SAXS of 282
Index
Poly(diallyldimethyl-ammonium chloride)(PDAC) 233, 395
cryo-TEM of 395Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
330AFM of 311
Poly-s-caprolactone (PCL) AFMof 225
Polyesters. See also Aromaticcopolyesters
as embedding media151-152
etching method 196fatigue fracture of 257fibers 165,251-257,267,269films 191,283heat aging of 254high speed spun 264in polarized light 253SEM of 257staining for 164, 183
Poly(etherether ketone) (PEEK)138, 185, 187
Polyetherimide (PEl) 206, 356Polyethersulfone (PES) 297Polyethylene (PE) 5, 122, 280.
See also High densitypolyethylene (HDPE);Low density polyethylene(LDPE); Ultrahighmolecular weight PE(UHMWPE)
blends 335radiation damage in 119,
122-123electron diffraction of 70,
122,280etching of 184, 188, 200fibers 200, 252-253high modulus fibers
270-272films 271,279-281,376hollow fiber membranes 308industrial films 282-284, 287-
288,293HREM of 285lamellae in 52, 184, 280, 284melt cast film 83, 281melt extruded 287microporous membranes 289,
298PLM of 253, Color Plate IImicrotomy of 155
Inde x
replicat ion meth ods for 201single crystals 123, 135- 136staining methods for 170,
173-1 75thin film preparation 135, 139
Poly(ethylene-block-polyferro-cenyldimethylsilane ) (PS-PFS) 279
Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEa)183
AFM 224Poly(ethylene-polypropylene) 8Poly(ethylene-ran-methacrylic
acid) (EMAA) 285Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
(PET) 11, 84, 105, 138,182, 277, 282
Chemical force microscopy(CFM) for 442
blend s of 335, 409etching of 182,185,189-1 91,
195fibers 9,147, 165,214,253,
163-265films 192, 277-287fracture of 255-256melt crystallization of 224in mult ilayered films 292SAXS for 282, 500SEM for 265, 278-279staining method for 163-1 65,
177TEM for 163,165,265,3 52,409thin film preparation 138WAXS for 500
Poly(ethylene terephthalate-co-l,4-cyclhexanedimeth yleneterephthalate) (PETG)292
Poly(ethylene-eo-vinyl alcohol)(EVOH) 94, 155, 348
blends 155, 348nanocomposites 374
Poly(hexyl isocyanate) (PHIC)291
Poly-3-hydroxybutrate (PHB)183, 199
biodegradable 347etching of 187
Poly-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHV)347
Polyimide (PI) films 282Polyisoprene 4Poly(lactic acid) 230, 348
Polymer blends. See BlendsPolymer coatings 2, 380-3 98
list of polymers used 15adhesion of 15processes with 15surfaces of 140wettability and 388-398
Polymeric light emitting diodes449
Polymers. See also Amorphouspolymers; Aromat icpolymers; Blends;Composite polymers;High performancepolymers ; Multiphasepolymers; Rigid rodpolymers; Semicrystallinepolymers; Single phasepolymers
acronyms for 521applications of 2,250-418biodegradable 347- 349charac terization of 17-21classes of 3colloids and 394-398crosslinking and 119crystallinity loss of 121-122definitions of 2-3deformation in 340degradation of 13etching of (summary) 195high melting point 78high molecular weight 288LCPs 8mass loss in 120materials of 1-3measurement values of 208morphology of 3-8processes with 8-17radiation and 118-120staining for (summary)
179-180starburst 117structure of (summary) 480surfactants and 394viscosity of 13
Poly(meth yl methacrylate)(PMMA) 37, 110, 111,119,151,154,1 91, 282
amorphous polymer 316bea m damage of 209blends 330, 335, 458, 466,
518block copolymers 119, 345
531
brittl e matrix polymer 325EFTEM for 462electron interaction volume in
38etching methods 195- 196films 110, 191,448harmonic imaging of 444nanocomposites 376replication method 197with SAN 462SAXS of 282staining method for 164, 167,
172-173 ,465Polymethyl methacrylate/
polystyrene. SeePolystyrene/ polymethylmethacrylate
Polyolefins 356. See alsoThermoplasticpolyolefin
chlorosulfonic acid for 281staining of 281surface pretreatment of 387
Polyoxymeth ylene (paM),(acetal) 119, 152, 187
polarized light micrography of6
single crystals of 135molded bar 320spherulites in 370
Poly(p-l ,2-dihydrocyclobutaphenyleneterephthalamide)(PPXTA) 272
Poly(phen ylene oxide) (PPO)171, 374
crazes 220etching of 374nanocomposites 374staining methods for 171-
172, 179Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS)
355,409Poly(phenyl ether) (PPE) 389Poly(p-phenylene-
benzobisoxazole) (PBZO)297
Poly(p-phenylenebenzobi sthiazole) (PBZT)45, 272, 297,400
extrusion of 411-41 2Poly(p-ph enylene
terephthalamide) (PPTA)45,399, 402, 409
532
Polypropylene (PP) 16, 151. Seealso Biaxially oriented PP
atactic (aPP) 3blends 158,326,334-335,338etching of 182-185,195film 200,278,287,442HEPP 223isotactic (iPP) 3,184-189,
224,330hollow fiber membranes from
305MAH-g-PP 375microporous membranes 206nanocomposites 374, 377reinforcement of 367replication methods for 200sectioning of 154-155,158staining methods for 165,
167-170, 175, 180syndiotactic PP (sPP) 3
Polypropylene/ethylenepropylene rubber (PP/EPR) 332
Polypyrrole (PPy) 298Polysaccharide(s) 141,348Polystyrene (PS) 2, 45, 282. See
also High impactpolystyrene
amorphous polymer 70, 316atactic 4, 141brittle matrix polymer
325-326crazing studies 219-221etching 191, 195films 219freeze drying of latex 229isotactic 122,281-282latex 173, 385-386, 390, 392nanocomposites 374-375optical properties of 68radiation effects on 121rubber toughening of 292,
309rigid 151SAXS of 282staining methods for 165,
168-170, 181syndiotactic 4, 168
Poly(styrene )-block-poly(ethene-co-but-1-ene )-block-poly(styrene) (SEBS)141,159,331-333
Polystyrene-block-t-butylacrylate(PS-b-PtBA) 442
Polystyrene-block-ferocenyldimethylsilane(PS-PFS) 279
Polystyrene-block-isoprene-block-styrene (SIS) 157
Poly(styrene-butadiene). SeeStyrene-butadiene rubber
Polystyrene-polybutadiene-polystyrene (PSIPB/PS).See styrene blockcoplymers
Polystyrene-polyethylene oxide337
Polystyrene-poly(methylmethacrylate) (PS-PMMA) 458
FFM of 104staining method 167TEM and STXM of 464-465X-ray tomography of 458
Polystyrene-poly(phenyleneoxide) (PS-PPO), singlephase thermoplastic309
Polysulfides, as coating 15Polysulfone 296, 299, 300
hollow fiber membranes from305
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)119, 151, 155
AFM of 225,286extraction replicas of 201Chemical force microscopy
(CFM) of 442FESEM of membrane 305membranes 305-307radiation damage in 119wear deposited films 286
Polyurethanes (PUR)as coating 15etching method 183, 196fracture 345as multiphase polymers
345-347ocr of 455with polyacetal 346RIM processing 15, 345staining methods 163thermoplastic (TPU) blends
182,183,345Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAC)
142,385 ,309Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH)
142,201
Index
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 151,258,329
chlorinated polyethylenemultiphase polymer 328
as ductile matrix polymer 325FESEM for 258fracture of 232pipes from 349SAXS of 282staining method for 167, 181TEM and 281,328
Poly(vinylidene chloride)(PVDC) , latex particles384
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF) 185, 297
POM. See PolyoxymethylenePorosity 141,260,297
of hollow fibers 305Positive birefringence 82Post-it" 387-388Potassium permanganate
(KMn04)' SeePermanganate-acid
PP. See PolypropylenePPE. See Poly(phenyl ether)PP/EPR. See Polypropylene/
ethylene propylene rubberPP-LDPE blends 16,294PPO. See Poly(phenylene oxide)PPTA. See Poly(p-phenylene
terephthalamide)PPXTA. See Poly(p-l,2-
dihydrocyclobutaphenyleneterephthalamide)
PPy. See PolypyrrolePrepreg 146,365Pressure-sensitive adhesives
387Probes in SPM 50-51. See also
Cantilevers; Scanningprobe microscopy
artifacts due to probegoemetry 115-117, 491
artifacts due to tip wear117-118
microfabrication of 50probe specimen interaction in
AFM 100-102for scanning thermal
microscopy 445-448silicon 50silicon nitride 50
Index
Probes in SEM 85-87BSE 88probe specimen interaction in
SEM 88-91probe size 86-88Secondary electrons 89-91Probes in STEM 85-86, 91
Problem solving 478-501adhesives 387coatings 389composites 362- 364engineering resins and plastics
349-354fiber studies 260-267films 287-292flow chart for 488instrumentation techniques
481-484interpretation considerations
488-491nanocomposites 376-379protocol for 478-480starting point for 478-480supporting char acterization s
492-500Processes 8-15,311-315,326,
403coating 15compounding 11, 294, 360,
376extru sion 12fiber extrusio n 8-9,270film extrusion 11, 277,284molding 12-14, 311- 315,31 9,
326Projector lens 30, 73Proportional-integral-different ial
(PID ) 99, 113Prostheses 224, 346Protective fabrics 270, 272PS. See PolystyrenePS-OCT. See Polarization
sensitive optical coherencetomography
PS/PB /PS. See Polystyrene -polybutadiene-polystyrene
PS-PFS. See Polyethylene-block-polyferrocenyl-dimeth ylsilane
PSIPMMA. See Polystyrenelpolymethyl meth acrylate
PS-PPO. See Polystyrene-poly(phenylene oxide)
PTA . See Phosphotungstic acid
PTFE. SeePolytetrafluoroethylene
Pull-off force 48, 442PVA. See Poly(eth ylene-vinyl
alcohol) ; Poly(vinylacetate); Poly(vinylalcohol)
PVc. See Poly(vinyl chloride)PVDF. See Poly(vinylidene
fluoride )PVF2 See Poly(vinylidene
fluoride )PZT. See Lead zirconate titanate
QQuality factor (Q) 98
for AFM cantilever oscillation106-109
effect of environment 98in fast scanning SPM 444harmonic imaging and 443in IC-AFM 99in NCAFM 112
Quant itat ive microscop y 56-59calibrat ion techniques 54,
57-59, 62, 121fundamentals of 56-59, 386image analysis 56-57, 114,
369, 450latex particle size analysis
309,385- 386stereology 57
Quartz crystal monitor 203Quart z wedge 84
RRadial distribution function
(RDF) 69Radial growth rate, of
spherulites 5Radiation
coherent 68incoherent 68synchrotron 457-459 ,494ultraviolet 387
Radiat ion dose 52, 120, 123,281
Radiation effects in EM118-1 23
art ifacts 122chemical changes 118-120crosslinking 119crystallinity loss 121dimensional changes 122
533
mass loss 121scission 118specimen heating 120-121
Radiation effects in SEM 52,123
Radiation induced contra st 196,310
Rad iation sensitive materials51-53
low dose TEM operation 53SEM operation for 52
Raman microscopy 18, 53,376, 449, 460-46 1, 492,497
with AFM 461analytical imaging with
460-461Coherent anti-Stokes Raman
scattering (CARS) 461dichroism in 461NSOM with 461Surface enhanced Raman
scatte ring (SERS) 461Tip-enh anced Raman
scatte ring (TERS) 461Raman spectroscopy 18, 187,
281,460, 492,497Random copolymers 337-345Rayleigh criterion 72-7 4RDF. See Radial distribution
functionReaction injection molding
(RIM) 15,311 , 345Reflection electro n microscopy
(REM) 28Reflected light microscopy 28,
33-34,132,484examples 144, 145, 353, 365,
404specimen preparation for
142-145,183,485Refractive index 68, 76
birefringence and 35, 81-82,283
measurement of 34, 283, 438and phase contrast 33
Reinforcement 8, 11, 354-357;See also Composites
fiber lengths of 360with fibers 144,354-357, 360,
367with microfibers 157with mineral fibers 367with parti cles 369-3 70
534
Relative humidity (RH). SeeHumidity
REM . See Reflection electronmicroscopy
Replication 19, 195-201artifacts in 490carbon replicas 184,198-200 ,
314,386detachment replicas 201direct replicas 198extraction replicas 201of fibers 200for OM 197for SEM 197using silicone rubber (Silastic
or Xantopren Blue) 197for TEM 198-201two stage replicas 199-201
Resin-rich regions 357,366Resins 308-353
amorphous polymers316-318
characterization of 309-311competitive analysis of
349-353engineering 2, 308-353extrusion of 311-312failure analysis of 349-353hackle in 349-350of multiphase polymers
321- 349photodefinable 291semicrystalline polymers
318-321single phase polymers
316-321skin-core structures in
315-316spherulites in 312-315thermoset 291, 308toughened 323-326toughened thermoset
326-327Resolution 18, 28, 68. See also
High resolution SEM;High resolution TEM
in AFM 47,51,103,114,342-343
in analytical microscopy53-56
definition of 28of detector 73in lens-based systems 72-76
chromatic aberration 75
diffraction limit 72-73focus and 75spherical aberration 75-76
of microscopy techiques,compared 29,484-487.
noise limited 123-124in OM 29,31, 73, 147point-to-point 72Rayleigh criterion, defined
72in SEM 37,41-42,52, 85-88,
90in STEM 44, 91in SThM 48in TEM 45,74-76,438-439x-ray 53-56, 91
Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex(RFL) 177
as adhesive 268-269, 387in tire cords 268-269
Retardation 35, 438of biaxial films 283definition of 35, 81of fibers 253measurement of 84, 438
Reverse osmosis (RO)membranes 295,300-303
CA as 300RFL. See Resorcinol-
formaldehyde-latexRH . See HumidityRigid rod polymers
beam damage in 78, 120as high modulus fibers
411-412as LCPs 399Diffraction from 297,
412-414RIM. See Reaction injection
moldingRO . See Reverse osmosis
membranesRobinson detectors 38, 97Rotary microtomes 148,159Row nucleated structure 5-7Rubber 3
carbon black-filled 368-369chlorobutyl (CB) 177ebonite method for 177EPR 334,377GRC 327natural 4PPIEPR 332
Index
staining methods for 161,164,329
vulcanization of 3Rubber toughened polymers 8,
150,223,327-328Ru04' See Ruthenium
tetroxideRuthenium dioxide 170Ruthenium tetroxide (Ru04)
staining method 138,158, 166-173
artifacts and 169EELS and 169examples of use 171,379,
396,465Literature review 167-169PC and 329practical details 169-170
Ruthenium trichloride 170
SSaddle field ion gun 203,204SAED. See Selected area
electron diffractionSALS. See Small angle light
scatteringSAMs. See Self-assembled
monolayersSAN. See Styrene -acrylonitrileSANS. See Small angle neutron
scatteringSantovac-5 389SAXS. See Small angle x-ray
scatteringSBR. See Styrene-butadiene
rubberSBS. See Styrene-
butadiene-styreneScan generator, SEM 36Scan speed in SPM 113-114,
444-445Scanned sample SPM 115Scanned tip SPM 115Scanners for SPM 99-100
artifacts due to 114-115,490
Scanning Auger spectroscopy(SAM) 498-499
Scanning capacitance microscopy(SCM) 48
Scanning electron microscopy(SEM) 18, 35-42, 85-97.See also Field emissionSEM; High resolution
Index
SEM; Low voltage SEM;Variable pressure SEM
aberration corrected 440applied to
blends 327, 338, 346composites 218, 355, 359-
362,370,408fabrics 258-259fibers 147, 214, 253-258,
261-263,416films 279,285,288,
294-295fractures 212,214membranes 231,298-300,
302,306-307multi phase polymers 216,
327,338,324impact test samples
360-361latex particles 383-385,
454artifacts in 489-490
calibration 57-58charging effects 94-95,
207-209conductive coatings for 203-
207,317EDS with 55, 363, 497electron sources 39-41,85elemental mapping in 55-56,
351, 372examples
BEl and elemental mapping350-351
complementary study withAFM 287, 306, 406
complementary study withOM & TEM 301
with FIB 194, 440, 453-454fundamentals of 35-42specimen heating in 121IBS coating for 199,204-205,
317-318image formation in 92-94image interpretation 36,39,
485,488imaging signals 85-97final lens design for 86-87in situ deformation in
222-223low voltage operation 52, 94-
96, 133. See also Lowvoltage SEM
microtomy for 150
noise 39, 42, 86, 93-94, 123,208
optimization 42peelback for 146-147probe formation 85-87probe-specimen interactions in
88-91properties of 29radiation damage in 123repl ication methods for
197resolution 37,41-42,52,
85-88,90schematic of 36specimen preparation methods
for 133, 144, 146, 150,165, 170, 197
staining methods for 165-167, 170
types of 41,483Scanning-imaging microscopes
30-31Scanning ion microscope (SIM)
440Scanning probe microscopy
(SPM) 45-51 , 114,279,441-451,487
artifacts in 114-118,490-491
automated 449-451CFM 441-442cryomicrotomy for 154-157fast scanning 444-445feedback in 45of films 286-288microtomy for 150-154,
158-159motion control in 46of nanocomposites 373NSOM 449probes for 50-51probe tips 50-51schematic of 45specimen preparation for
140-142staining for 165-166SThM 445-449for surface analysis 464ultramicrotomy for 154
Scanning reflection electronmicroscopy (SREM) 28
Scanning thermal microscopy(STh M) 48,291,445-449
535
Scanning transmissionelectron microscopy(STEM) 28, 43-44,85-86,486-487
aberration corrected 439dedicated 44,486with EELS 138,461-462electron sources for 40FEG with 44HAADF in 44,145,233,285,
345,456of ionomer 285optical sectioning and
454-455probe-specimen interactions in
91radiation sensitivity and
123-124staining for 170techniques 486-487x-ray analysis in 55
Scanning transmission x-raymicroscopy (STXM)463-464
Scanning tunneling microscopy(STM) 46, 116,317,481,487
applied toCD surface features 318LCP microstructure
414-417microporous membranes
289conductive coatings for
203-207sample preparation for
140-141Scherzer focus position 75, 76Schlieren texture in PLM 401Schottky field emission gun 40Scission 118-119,121,209SCM. See Scanning capacitance
microscopySDS . See Sodium dodecyl
sulfateSE . See Secondary electronsSecondary electron imaging
(SEI) 39,93,191-193,482
examples 191-192,205,263,396
in LVSEM 39, 362-363optimization of 41-42in VPSEM 41
536
Secondary electrons (SE) 39,89-91
types of 39, 90produced by BSE 39
Secondary ion massspectrometry (SIMS) 18,464-466,498
Sectioning See Microtomycryosectioning. See
Cryomicrotomyoptical 357, 454-455physical, for 3D imaging
452-454serial 452
SEL See Secondary electronimaging
Selected area aperture 44,71-72
Selected area electron diffraction(SAED) 44, 122,275,412,481
Selective plane illuminationmicroscopy (SPIM) 455
Self-assembled monolayers(SAMs) 287,441
Self-reinforcing LCPs 403SEM. See Scanning electron
microscopySemicrystalline polymers 4-7 ,
318-321chlorosulfonic acid staining
173-175crystallization 5-7melt-drawn films 280-281SEM of 215, 284, 322, 324injection molding of 316lamellae 4-7,10,136,174,
175,206,280,284spherulites 7, 83-85, 163, 184,
189,313-315,320,322OS04staining 163PLM of 6,7,83,85,253TEM of 163,174,175,189,
280toughening of 339-340microstructure of molded part
14,313,315,320,330Senarmont compensator 84Sensitive tint plate 84Serial sectioning 452SERS . See Surface enhanced
Raman scatteringSet point 49, 102, 110, 445
ratio 110,327,450
Shadowing 19,183,186,199,203,285,384
Shear bands 4-5 ,212,412-413Shish kebab structure See Row
nucleated structureShrinkage 13, 253, 366
in amorphous polymers 14Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
resolution and 123-124,439visibility limit 93
SilasticSilicon SPM probes 50-51,98Silicone replica method 197Silicon nitride 50Silver nitrate staining method
178Silver sulfide insertion method
178SIM. See Scanning ion
microscopySimple microscopes 31SIMS. See Secondary ion mass
spectrometrySingle crystals 5, 136
AFM 136-137diffraction from 122formation 5, 135of PE 136TEM 135-136
Single phase polymers 308-309Single phase plastics 316-321
examples 309Single walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) 372,376-378,380
SIS. See Polystyrene-block-isoprene-block-styrene
Skin-core morphology (texture)12-13,168
examples 320,403-407,411in plastics and resins
315-316Sledge microtome 148Small angle light scattering
(SALS) 499Small angle neutron scattering
(SANS) 500Small angle x-ray scattering
(SAXS) 5, 186,297,481,499-500
AFM with 188,346,451,500of amorphous films 282crazing and 221
Index
TEM with 186, 233, 499STEM with 285
Smectic liquid crystals 45, 183,399
Snorkel lens, for SEM 86SNR. See Signal-to-noise ratioSodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)
233,395Sodium hypochlorite 169Sodium (meta)periodate 169,
170Sonication, sample preparation
137,187examples 403, 409-412
Solvents for etching 181-183SPB. See Spherical
polyelectrolyte brushSpecimen preparation methods
132-234conductive coatings 201-211CPD 230-231cryogenic methods 226-234and cryomicroscopy 232-234drying 151, 226-234embedding 149etching 181-196fracture studies 212-217freeze drying 227-230freeze fracture-etching 231microtomy 147-160
mounting for 148-149, 152for OM 132-133,144peelback 146polishing 142-146replication 196-201for SEM 133,144single crystal formation
135-137for SPM 140-142, 154-159,
165,223-226staining 160-181for TEM 134-140, 150-157,
219,223,233Specimen support films 134Spectroscopy techniques 496-
499. See also Ramanspectroscopy; X-rayphotoelectronspectroscopy
Auger 498-499FfIR 496-497MS 18NMR 497-498XRF 496
Ind ex
Spher ical aberration 73-75,439Spherical polyelectrolyte bru sh
(SPB) 395Spherulites 4--7, 83--85,480
AFM of 189, 314, 315deformation of 10, 283elastomer additio n and 329permanganate etching
184-1 86in cast thin films 138SEM of 322PLM of 6, 7,83--85, 163, 253,
313,320in POM 370, 372structure of 6TEM of 163, 184
Spider silk 270, 275-276SPIM . See Selective plane
illumination microscopySpinn eret 9
contaminat ion of 267SPM. S