AP US History Review Sheet by Carrie Filipetti and Helen Yang (©2005)Era/President Foreign Policy Domestic Policy Time PeriodAmerica: Pre-European Contact

-Settlement Patterns: Most Indian tribes had separate gender roles. Small, semi permanent settlements. Settled near rivers. Some societies large and complex, such as the Pueblos (irrigation), Mayas (Yucatan Peninsula), and Aztecs/Incas (Central Mex./Peru): established trade, vast empires, religion, calendars, and made scientific discoveries. Iroquois: developed political confederacy, called League of the Iroquois. Defended them against attacks from Americans and Euros during 17 & 18 hundreds.

Age of Exploration -Background of Exploration: Improvements in Technology: Renaissance, began using gunpowder, sailing compass, improvements in shipbuilding/mapmaking. 1450- Printing Press. European religious conflicts: Roman Catholic Church threatened by Ottoman (Islamic) Turks. Catholic victory in Spain (1492): Isabella and Ferdinand United. Defeated Moors of Granada. Protestant revolt: everyone Protestant/Catholic wanted to be first to spread ideas of God to Africa, Asia. Expanding Trade: Trade route from Venice and Constantinople blocked in 1453 (controlled by Ottoman Turks, demanded high tax). Had to find new trade route to Asia. First: a way around Africa, discovered by Prince Henry (Portugal): Opened a sea route around South Africa’s Cape of Good Hope. 1498—Portuguese Vasco da Gama: first euro to reach India by Prince Henry’s route. Developing Nation-States in Spain, Portugal, France, England, Netherlands. Used them to find riches/spread religion.-Columbus: Funded by Spanish. Sailed from Canary Islands to Bahamas. Brought first interaction with Whites and Indians for long-time period. Led to Columbus Exchange: Indians gave Euros: Beans, corn, sweet potato, tomato, reg. Potato, tobacco, syphilis. Euros gave Indians: Sugar cane, bluegrass, pigs, horses, wheel, iron, guns, smallpox, measles, other diseases. -Dividing the New World: Spain fear Portugal (strong navy and active explorers); pope draw “Line of Demarcation” (1493)-divide New World into 2 sections; Spain west, Portugal east; Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)-move lien farther west-Spanish Conquistadores-bring diseases devastate local Indian pop; Vasco Nunez de Balboa-cross isthmus of Panama-first European to see Pacific, Juan Ponce de Leon-explore Florida for gold and fountain of youth claim Florida for Spain, Hernando Cortes-conquer Aztecs, Panfilio de Narvaez-disatrous expedition through Gulf Coast Region, Cabeza de Vaca-story of 7 cities of gold, Hernando de Soto-explore southern U.S. and discover Mississippi River , Francisco Vasquez de Coronado-expedition across Rio Grande-NM, AZ, TX, OK, KS, Ferdinand Magellan-voyage around world

The Thirteen Colonies NEW ENGLAND COLONIAL CLAIMS-PlymouthSeparatists fled England to Holland, went to America, became Pilgrims. Leader William Bradford (162), obtained London Company charter to settle south of Hudson River. Mayflower landed at Cape Cod in MA instead. Settled there, outside charter jurisdiction. Signed Mayflower Compact, establishing foundation for orderly government. Bought out investors to gain more autonomy. -Mass Bay ColonyPuritans felt Anglican Church retained too many practices left over from Roman Catholicism. King James I ignored them. Charles I tried to persecute them in 1629. Puritans sought joint-stock company to be called Mass. Bay Company. Charles I granted it. Decided to stay in the colony (Charter didn’t specify anything, unusual). Led by John Winthrop. 1630—didn’t suffer as other colonies did. Government had a gov. and representative assembly “General Court.” 1642—Great Migration of Puritans. -Rhode Island, Connecticut, New HampshireRoger Williams. Puritan. Asked to leave Mass. Bay: too radical. Fled to Narragansett Bay, bought Indian Land, named it Providence (1636). Anne Hutchinson: taught contrary to Puritan doctrine. Banished because she said she superseded the Bible. Founded Portsmouth (1638). 1644-Roger Williams got charter from Parliament to combine Providence, Portsmouth, and others to colony of Rhode Island. Williams’ allowed religious toleration FOR ALL. Populated by the “unwelcome.” CT: Puritans who had disagreements with Mass. Colony leaders. 1636: Thomas Hooker founded Hartford. 1639: Fundamental Order of CT, first written constitution in US—established rep. gov’t. 1637—John Davenport led Puritans. Founded New Haven. Winthrop not strict enough. 1662—charter combined New Haven and Hartford. NH: Overflow from Mass. 1677—King Charles II chartered. Royal colony. Economically dependent on Massachusetts Bay Colony.

MIDDLE COLONIAL CLAIMS-Maryland: first proprietary colony. 1632 to Lord Baltimore, George Calvert. North of Potomac River. Refuge for English Catholics. Venture carried on after death by son Cecilius. More Protestants than Catholics came. Calvert, to protect Catholics, made “An Act of Religious Toleration.” (1649)—guaranteed political rights to Christians of all kinds. Representative assembly. Copy of VA, economically and socially. (Chesapeake)

-The Carolinas:1663: Charles II restored to throne. Colonies to reward his loyalists. Almost feudal government. NC—overflow from VA. SC—settled by English planters from Barbados. Founded Charles Town in 1670. Brought with them black slaves: slavery an institution from start.

New York/New Jersey:1664-Charles II wanted the Dutch colony of New Netherlands between Chesapeake and New England colonies. Gave James Duke of York title to all Dutch lands in US if James conquered them. Colonel Richard Nicols captured New Amsterdam with no violence and became New York. James outlawed representative assemblies. Nicols granted other civil and political rights, but Puritans wanted Self-gov. James relented in 1680s. He granted a part of it to John Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret (two Carolina proprietors). They named it New Jersey (proprietary). Colonel Nicols didn’t know, conflicting claims of ownership…New Jersey in 1702 taken over by crown, utilizing this battle over ownership.

Pennsylvania and Delaware:Penn: founded as a refuge for Quakers (sprung up around English Civil War). William Penn founded it in 1681. Laid out city of Philadelphia—grid--himself. Had peaceful relations with Indians. Advertised colony in Europe, offered land, representative assemblies, and religious freedom. Colony grew and prospered. Fertile soil. Large exporter of grain to Europe and West Indies.

Delaware: Part of Penn, granted a separate legislature by Penn. Ruled by Penn’s proprietary governors until US Revolution.

SOUTHERN COLONIAL CLAIMS:-Virginia: Englishmen influenced by victory over Spain & by Rich Hakluyt (urged US colonization as the way to greatness/spread gospel. James I issued 2 charters: VA company of London and VA Company of Plymouth. London—rights to between Hudson and Cape Fear rivers. Plymouth—right to colonize from Potomac to Maine. Both were joint-stock companies: raised capital by shares of stock. Plymouth Company (1607): tried to settle ME. Failed. Company folded. London Company: (1607) 3 ships, 104 men. Up James River from Chesapeake Bay. Named Jamestown (after King). First Permanent English settlement in N. America. Many settlers died of starvation, disease, or Indian violence. Reasons? Lack of initiative: didn’t have to work, made same amt. of money from company anyway. Wasted time looking to “get rich quick.” Low and swampy land, contaminated water, disease, bad relations with Powhatan (Indian chief). 1608-1609: John Smith led. 1612: John Rolfe: discovered West Indies strain of tobacco could grow. Large market for it in Euro, gave VA a major cash crop. Saved colony. Indenture system: to end shrinking labor force. Planters paid for passage of workers. Gov. Lord De La Warr, Sir Thomas Gates, Sir Thomas Dale imposed harsh rule as Governors. Edwin Sandys: action in company. New approach to attract settlers: promised them same rights as in England. Founded Rep. Assembly, House of Burgesses in 1619: first in US. Gave private ownership of land. 1619—began using African servants. King James I wanted tobacco profits for self: used high mortality and Indian massacres to take charter in 1624. Made it a royal colony. Took away all political rights and the representative assembly. Charles I, son, restored rights 15 years later. (Chesapeake).

Georgia—constant imperial warfare. Colony intended as a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish-held Florida. Philanthropists by James Oglethorpe obtained charter for Georgia in 1732, located between Savannah and Altamaha rivers. Populated by poor debtors. Few settlers came, too many rules. 1752—failed.

Establishing the Colonies1600-1732

Spain:-rigid control of colonies to benefit Spain; bureaucracy from Madrid-treasure fleets carry riches to Spain annually-encomiendas system-large manors, Indian slaves managed by conquistadors—land given to Spainards; later replaced with

France:-Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524)-follow American coast from NC to Maine-1534-Jacques Cartier-St. Lawrence River-hoped it was Northwest Passage-claim area for France

England:-Earliest claims resulted from John Cabot (Italian sea captain): explored coast of Newfoundland (NFL) in 1497-little interest in colonies for most of 1500s—occupied with Henry VII’s break with Roman Catholic Church.

hacienda system-bring African slaves (asiento system) after devastation of native population; need to pay tax to king for each slave -Treatment of Native Americans: intermarried. Rigid class system

DUTCH CLAIMS:-Hired Henry Hudson. Explored for NW passage. 1609: established New Amsterdam. -Formed Joint-stock company, Dutch West India Company

-Slow to develop colonies: occupied with Euro wars and Huguenot/Roman Catholic battle. -First permanent French Settlement: Samuel de Champlain (1608): Quebec. “Father of New France.”-1673: Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored Mississippi River. -1682: Robert da La Salle—Mississippi basin, named Louisiana (after French King, Louis XIV)-Treatment of Indians: good relations with those of the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes region. Assisted Hurons in fighting the Iroquois to get control of fur trade. Built ports along river/great lakes. And Mississippi. Exchanged French goods for Indian furs. Posed little threat to Indians.

-efforts supported by private rather than gov’t funds-greater degree of freedom -Spanish and English conflict-English sea captains plunder Spanish ships, ie Francis Drake; defeat of Spanish Armada-make England powerful-Sir Humphrey Gilbert: England should found colonies to find a NW Passage-1576: Martin Frobisher looked for it. Found only fool’s gold. 1578-Gilbert got charter (for NFL): guaranteed colonists rights of Englishman. Set precedent for more charters. -Sir Walter Raleigh: discovered/named VA, after queen. Site: Roanoke Island off coast of NC. 1587--114 settlers. Virginia Dare: first girl born in US. John White leader, left, came back 1590, people gone. 15 years before England interested again in Americas.-Treatment of the Natives: in MA, coexisted, traded. Taught euros how to grow new crops (corn), how to hunt. Traded furs for iron tools and weapons. English went on them: no respect, “savages,” Threatened Indians with their presence eventually.

Colonial America 1607-1775

-Life in New England Colonies: had more children than average English or Chesapeake family, longer lifespan, more stable and well-ordered society than Chesapeake colonies; Puritans value family-patriarchal, value ability to read (for Bible)-New England Economy: climate and soil unsuited to large-scale farming, economy based on small farming, home industry, fishing, trade, logging, rum-distilling, shipbuilding; Boston large international port-Life in Chesapeake: live shorter, less healthy than NE colonist, fewer children, pop. Decline, indentured servants many of the settlers to work tobacco fields, men outnumber women in VA and MA, less stable family life, remarriage; Indentured servitude-open to abuse-masters sometimes treat servants brutally-40% die b/f gaining freedom; late 1600s life stabilize, elite group of wealthy families dominate political and social life of region-build lavish manors-Slaves in Southern Society-first treated as indentured servants, 1640-1660-begin to be treated as chattel; slave pop. Gradually increase -North Carolina and Virginia-smaller farmers, tobacco; South Carolina and Georgia-rice and indigo, larger and self-sufficient -Middle colonies Economy-rich soil, grow wheat and corn for export, often indentured servants or hired laborers work w/family, small manufacturing-iron-making, growth of Philadelphia and New York-Education: NE-tax-supported schools, emphasis on learning the Bible, Mass. Law 1647 require towns w/ over 50 families primary school for boys, over 100 families grammar schools to prepare for college; Middle Colonies-church sponsored or private; S. colonies-parents gave children what they could, plantations had tutors; Higher Edu. Harvard 1636-proper theological education, William and Mary in VA (1694), Yale in CN (1701)-both sectarian, only nonsectarian college was College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania)-Professions: 1607-1707 Christian ministry only profession; Physicians-cures made disease worse-bleeding-no formal medical training-first medical college in 1765 as part of College of Philadelphia; Lawyers-not commonly seen in courts of 1600s, as things become more complex, trade expands-bar-later argue for colonial rights-John Adams, James Otis, Patrick Henry-Newspapers-expand in number between 1725 and 1776-contain ads, old news from Europe, pious essays; John Peter Zenger case-1735-brought to charges for libelously criticizing NY royal governor-jury rule that truth is not libelMercantilism-belief that world’s wealth limited, colonies exist to help mother country build up wealth; Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1663, 1673)-1.trade with colonies carried only on British or American ships w/ 75% British or American crews-2.certain “enumerated” goods shipped from American port can go only to British or American port-3. everything imported to America have to go through Britain first-Bacon’s Rebellion: Virginians angry at Royal Governor Sir William Berkeley (high-taxing and high-handed)-1676-disagreement over Indian policy-Bacon and men burn Jamestown; Britain send troops-Half-Way Covenant-late 1600s, many Puritans believe piety declining-create half-way church membership for children of members; would keep church membership full and can influence society-King Phillip’s War-Puritans try to convert Indians to Christianity-1675-Wampanoag chief led war to exterminate whites-The Dominion of New England-James II try to unify New England, NY, NJ-abolish representative assemblies and facilitate imposition of Church of England-Dominion headed by Sir Edmond Andros-kicked out when Glorious Revolution replace James with Mary and William-Salem Witch Trials-girls claim to be tormented by witches-20 people killed-Molasses Act of 1733-not enforced; economy-drain in hard currency (gold and silver) gov’t prevent printing of paper currency-Immigration-Germans-migrate b/c of wars, poverty, religious persecution-settle in Penn.-called Pennsylvania Dutch; Scots-Irish-Scottish Presbyterians living in N. Ireland-left b/c of high rend and economic depression-settle on or beyond frontier in Appalachians-Wars of the Empire-King William’s War (1689-1697)-border raids by Indians-settled by Treaty of Ryswick; Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713)-12 yrs sporadic fighting against French and Spanish-Treaty of Utrecht-Britain gain territory and trade advantages; King George’s War (1739-1748)-American troops play active role assisting British-Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle-give Louisbourg back to France for parts of India-Great Awakening-religious revivals occurring in colonies from 1720s to 1740s: Dutch Reformed Theodore Frelinghuysen, Presbyterians William and Gilbert Tennent, Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards (“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”-personal repentance and faith in Christ, George Whitefield; “Old Lights”-reject Great Awakening, “New Lights”-accepted it-French and Indian War-France want to take control of Ohio valley and W. Penn.-Washington-Fort Necessity (surrender); meet in Albany to discuss common plans for defense-Ben Franklin propose intercolonial gov’t but not supported; William Pitt take Quebec; Treaty of Paris of 1763-Britian gain all of Canada and US. East of Mississippi river

Revolutionary War1775-1783

CAUSES-Writs of Assistance-general search warrants issue to help royal officials stop evasion of trade restrictions; James Otis argue that they were contrary to natural law-Greenville-prime minister of Britain: Indian uprising led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, sent Royal Navy to suppress American smuggling and enforce Navigation Acts, Sugar Act-raise revenue y taxes on goods imported by Americans, Quartering Act-require colonies to pay for maintenance of British troops; Currency Act of 1764-forbade all colonial attempts to issue currency not redeemable in gold or silver; Stamp Act (1765)-require Americans to purchase revenue stamps on things from newspapers to legal documents-

WAR-Lexington and Concord: General Gage ordered to arrest leaders of resistance; report of arms and ammunition at Concord; march on 4/18/75-people warned by Paul Revere and William Dawes; Minutemen defend Lexington and Concord-first shots of revolution -Bunker Hill-British generals Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne urge Gage to act; fortify Breeds Hill-possible to bombard Boston; defended by Minutemen-6/17/75-attempt to attack Quebec and fail-Second Continental Congress-Philadelphia-May 1775-2 factions NE-support independence, Middle Colonies-John Dickinson-don’t want independence; call colonies to send troops headed by George

-Treaty of Paris of 1783-negotiating team of Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay-1. United States recognized as independent nation by major European powers-2.Western boundary was Mississippi River-3. Southern boundary set at 31˚ N latitude (northern boundary of Florida)-4. British retain Canada but surrender Florida to spain-5. Private British creditors free to collect debts owed by U.S. citizens-6. Congress recommend that states restore confiscated loyalist property

response-pamphlets, petitions, “no taxation without representation”; Samuel Adams forms Sons of Liberty; Stamp Act Congress-assert Americans cannot be taxed w/o consent, call for repeal of act, help leaders work together; Boycott British goods; Stamp Act Repealed-Declaratory Act-claim power to tax or make laws for Americans in all cases-Townshend Acts-pass taxes on items imported into colonies; use of admiralty courts to try accused; writs of assistance; pay customs officials out of fines; suspend NY leg. For noncompliance w/Quartering Act; “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania”-John Dickinson-urge restrained response of Americans-Massachusetts Circular Letter-urged by Sam Adams-reiterate Dickinson’s arguments and encourage them to petition Parliament; Britain order letter to be withdrawn or Mass. Legislature dissolved-send troops-1770-all taxes except one on tea repealed-Boston Massacre-troops kill 5 Bostonians-widely publicized-Gaspee-British customs ship burned by RIers –prompt legislatures to form committees of correspondence -Tea Act of 1773-British East India Company want to ship tea directly to colonies-cheaper than smuggled tea-resisted by Americans-refuse to allow ships to dock-Dec. 16, 1773-Bostonians threw tea into harbor-Intolerable Acts-Coercive Acts: 1. Boston Port Act-close port of Boston to all trade until tea paid for; 2. increase power of Mass. Governor at expense of legislature; 3. Administration of Justice Act-royal officials accused of crimes in Mass. Tried elsewhere; 4. Strengthen Quartering Act-quarter troops anywhere-Quebec Act-extend Quebec to Ohio River, all Catholic and gov’t w/o rep. assembly-First Continental Congress-Philadelphia 1774-denounce Intolerable Acts, strict non-importation, preparation of local militia, agree to meet in May

Washington; “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking up Arms” , “Olive Branch Petition”-Prohibitory Act-declare colonies in rebellion and no longer under protection of king-Common Sense-Thomas Paine-Jan. 1776-call for immediate independence-sold well-Committee headed by John Dickinson-work framework for national gov’t; committee draft statement for reasons for declaring independence-Declaration of Independence-Thomas Jefferson-July 4, 1776-Christmas night 1776-Washington’s army cross Delaware and defeat Hessians at Trenton; defeat British at Princeton-France aid America by sending arms b/c it hated Britain-Battle of Saratoga-General Burgoyne-two prong attack on Albany to split colonies; only Burgoyne march-defeated by Benedict Arnold at Saratoga-French openly join war -Valley Forge-Howe takes Philadelphia-Washington’s army spend winter at Valley Forge-trained by Barn von Steuben-British attempt to move South-hope for more loyalists-Americans commanded by Nathaniel Greene-Yorktown-General Cornwallis surrender Oct. 17, 1781-French navy and army help Washington-War at sea-US. Navy and privateers prey on British merchants-John Paul Jones

-Creation of State Constitutions-CN and RI just kept colonial charter but delete British references-Mass. 1780-create constitution-insist constitution be made by special convention not state legislature-would be responsible-Penn. Extremely democratic and unworkable-unicameral legislature-Maryland and Virginia-safeguards against popular excesses-most include bill of rights

Articles of Confederation1783-1787

WHAT IT SAID-preserve sovereignty of states and create very weak national gov’t-unicameral Congress-each state have 1 vote-executive authority under Articles-committee of 13-1 member from each state-to amend articles-unanimous consent of all states-GOV’T CAN: declare war, make treaties, determine amount of troops and money each state should contribute to war effort, settle disputes between states, admit new states to the Union, borrow money

ACTIONS UNDER THE CONFEDERATION-Trans-Appalachian West-1775-Daniel Boone open up “Wilderness Road” to “Bluegrass” region of Kentucky; settle in Ohio; threat of Indians-British military posts: supply Indians w/guns and encourage to attack Americans-Land Ordinance of 1784-territorial gov’t and orderly system by which each territory could progress to statehood sometimes combined w/ordinance of 1785-Land Ordinance of 1785-orderly surveying and distribution of land in townships-6 square miles-36 640 acre sections, one for edu.-Northwest Ordinance of 1787-bill of rights for settlers and forbade slavery north of Ohio River-Jay-Gardoqui Negotiations-1784-Jay and Spanish Gardoqui-grant lucrative commercial privileges benefiting east coast merchants in exchange for Spain’s closure of Mississippi as outlet for agricultural goods-angry response

WEAKNESSES OF ARTICLES-NOT ALLOWED TO: levy taxes, raise troops, regulate commerce-print large amounts of paper money-“Continentals” worthless-army-pay far behind-threatened mutiny-Newburgh Conspiracy (1783)-Horatio Gates-possibility of using army to force states to give federal gov’t more power-Shay’s Rebellion (1786)-economic hard times and high taxes; Daniel Shays and farmers shut down courts to prevent judges from seizing property or condemning people to debtors’ prision-citizens of Boston pay to raise army to suppress rebels; timely tax relief-rebellion fade-many people want stronger federal gov’t

Constitutional Convention - Reduced foreign trade and limited credit because of nonpayment of war debts led to economic depression. Congress didn’t have power to levy taxes, states printed worthless paper money. 13 states placed tariffs on movement of goods across the state line. -Washington held conference-Mt. Vernon (1785). Reps from VA, MA, DE, PA wanted to meet at Annapolis MA with rest of states. Only five states sent delegates to Annapolis Convention (1786). Alex and Madison wanted to hold one in Philly to revise Articles. -Constitution drafted at Philadelphia. Only RI didn’t come. 55 white males. 1787. Washington unanimous chairman. Secret conference. Madison: “Father of the Constitution.” Alex H, Gouverneur Morris, John Dickinson. -The Issues Debated: make Articles changed? Or make new document? Madison and Hamilton took control, wanted new document. Wanted based on checks and balances because of distrust of human nature. Representation: VA Plan—Presented by Edmund Randolph (future attn. gen. for Washington). Written by Madison. Executive branch & Bicameral leg. Large states favored, rep. based on pop. William Paterson’s “New Jersey Plan” wanted unicameral leg. with equal rep. for all states and increased powers for nat’l gov’t. The CT Plan, aka Great Compromise, had two house leg with equal rep in Senate, but House would have rep according to size of pop. Slavery solved by the “Three Fifths Compromise:” each slave as 3/5 a person for taxation and representation. Slaves could be imported until 1808 (20 years), when Congress could vote to abolish it. Trade: northern states wanted central govt to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade. South – feared export taxes would be placed on tobacco and rice. Commercial Compromise let Congress regulate interstate trade and foreign commerce, including tariffs on foreign imports, but it prohibited taxes on exports. Presidential term of office: office for life v. not, method for electing president is ???. Decided to give president much power, power to veto acts of Congress, but only for four years. No limit to number of terms. Assigned each sate a number of electors equal to the total of that stat’s reps and senators. Called electoral college, highest number of electoral votes=president, second highest=v.p. feared too much democracy would lead to mob rule. President who commits a crime can be impeached by Congress. Sept. 17, 1787, approved a draft of Constitution. Specified a vote of nine states of thirteen was enough to pass Constitution. -Struggle for ratification: supporters of constitution called “federalists.” Those against, “anti-federalists.” More federalists along Atlantic Coast and large cities, Anti-Feds along frontier farmers and settlers. James Madison, Alex H, and John Jay had very persuasive “federalist papers” written for NY newspaper. 85 essays. Fed. Paper 10: beware of factions. Feds won victories in DE, NJ, PA. MA ratified after Sam Adams and John Hancock switched to be Federalists. Won NH as last of 9 to ratify by promising a bill of rights, the absence of which was the antifederalists main argument. 1788—VA most populous state. George Mason and Patrick Henry argued against it, lost by a small vote to Washington, Madison, and John Marshall after a bill of rights was promised. NY ratified after hearing of VA. + the most amazing person’s arguments for the most amazing document. NC ratified 1789, RI last in 1790. Constitution the new “supreme law of the land.” -Adding the Bill of Rights: Argument of Anti-Feds: we fought war to escape tyranny of central gov in Britain. What was to stop that form happening here? Feds said “Since members of congress were elected by the people, you don’t need to protect them from themselves. And its better to assume all rights are protected than to create a limited list of rights, since unlisted rights could be violated at will. Federalists had to agree to one, though, to allow the Constitution to be ratified.

George Washington1787-1797Federalist

-The French RevolutionFrance against Euro in 1792. Washington declared “Proclamation of Neutrality.” (1793). Jefferson resigned because of it, wanted to support France—said the “revolutionary spirit” and Britain is seizing our ships. Citizen Genet: tried to encourage pop support for France. Appealed to American people, not gov. Jefferson and Washington appealed to French gov to remove him. Genet remained in US, married and became a citizen. Jay Treaty (1794): Chief Justice John Jay sent to Britain to talk it out of seizing American ships and impressing seamen into the navy. Britain agreed to evacuate posts on western frontier. Said nothing of seizures. Ratified by the Senate, unpopular. Angered US supporters of France. Maintained policy of Neutrality. Pinckney’s Treaty (1795): Jay Treaty said to Spain that US might be coming close to Britain’s ally (a foe). Spain decided to consolidate its holdings in N. America. Thomas Pinckney (US minister to Spain) negotiated a treaty to open lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade. Right of deposit granted to Americans so they could transfer cargoes in New Orleans without paying duties to Spanish gov. Spain agreed to accept US claim that Florida’s northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel (not north as it said before).

-Organized new departments of the executive branch: appointed Secretary of state, treasury, war, and attn gen (Randolph).-Judiciary Act of 1789: Passed by Congress. Established Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associates. Empowered to rule on constitutionality of decisions made y state courts. System of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals. -Farewell address: Stay away from political parties, make no permanent alliances in foreign affairs, don’t get involved in foreign affairs, period; avoid sectionalism. -Frontier Problems: Indian tribes on NW and SW borders resisting American settlers. British in Canada encouraged Indians against frontier settlement. 1794: Gen. Anthony Wayne defeated Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and Treaty of Greenville cleared Ohio territory of Indian tribes. Public Land Act of 1796, established orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at reasonable prices.-Emergence of Political Parties: debates during 1787-88 of constitution gave hint of first beginnings. 1790s: Federalist Era, dominated by two fed presidents. Opposition became Democratic-Republicans. Federalists strength greatest in NE and favored growth of federal power. DR: supporters in South and Western frontier. Favored states rights and strict containment of fed power. 1796—already organized.-(1794): The Whisky Rebellion: Western Penn, farmers refused to pay fed excise tax on whiskey, attacked collectors, Washington sent in 15,000 state militiamen led by Hamilton. Rebellion collapse with no blood. Unwarranted force? Or Successful? Jefferson most critical, earned him support with farmers.

-New States: 1791: VT (first new state). 1792: KT. 1796: TN-The Bank Question: Hamilton proposed comprehensive plan: Pay of nat’l debt at face value, have fed gov assume war debts for states, protect nations industries and collect adequate revenues by imposing high tariffs on imported good, create a nat’l ank to deposit gov funds and to print banknotes to provide the basis for a stable US currency. Support came form northern merchants, who could directly gain from it. Antifeds feared the states would lose power as the central gov gained it. Jefferson said it benefited only the rich at expense of farmers. Jefferson agreed that US should pay off nat’l debt at face value and assume payment of the war debts of the states. In turn, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson’s idea to establish the nation’s capital in the South, along the Potomac River. Tariff rates set by Congress too low for Hamilton. He wanted to raise revenue to pay the gov’t debts, so he persuaded Congress to pass excise taxes, mostly on Whiskey. Jefferson said constitution didn’t give power to create a national bank. Hamilton said that the “necessary and proper” clause said it could. Washington agreed with Hamilton, and proposed bank was voted into law. Chartered by the Fed gov, Bnak of the US was privately owned. As a major shareholder in the bank, the Fed gov could print paper currency and use fed deposits to stimulate business.

John Adams1797-1801Federalist

-The XYZ Affair (1798)French warships and privateers kept taking US ships, angered Americans, Adams sent delegation to Paris, ministers “X” “Y””Z” called for bribes as we entered negotiations. Americans left, newspapers reported, XYZ angered Americans, wanted War “Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute” Hamilton hoped to go to war to win French and Spanish Lands. Adams knew army wasn’t strong enough, refused to declare war, sent new ministers to Paris instead. -The “Quasi-War”: Adams ended trade with France, Americans ship

-Alien and Sedition Acts ( 1798): Public anger against France strengthened Feds in congressional elections, won majority of seats in House and Senate, wanted to enact laws to restrict DemReps: Naturalization Act, increased from 5-14 the number of years required for immigrants to qualify for US citizenship (most immigrants DemReps), Alien Acts, allowed president to deport any aliens considered dangerous and to detain any enemy aliens in time of war, and Sedition Act, made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and imposed heavy penalties for editors who violated the law. Response was KT and

-Federalists rapidly losing popularity, mostly because of Alien and Sedition Acts and the new taxes to pay costs of preparing for a war against France. Voted out of office in executive and legislature. (1800)-Ran for a second term with Charles Pinckney, but lost to Jefferson and Burr.-Burr and Jefferson tied. Hamilton told them to vote for Jefferson-Passed over power with kindness and no violence: MAJOR EVENT! Never happened before: called Revolution of 1800. -Before he left, Fed Congress passed Judiciary Act of 1801 and Pres

captains authorized to attack and capture armed French ships. Congress created the Dept of the Navy, 1800, Napoleon new gov of France, signed treaty-no war

VA resolutions. 1799—DemReps argued it violated first amendment, no judicial review yet, tried to nullify laws of their own in their state legislatures. KT leg adopted a resolution written by Jefferson and VA leg adopted one by Madison. Declared states had entered into a “compact” in forming the gov, and could nullify a fed law breaking the compact. Rationale would be used in the nullification controversy of the 1830s. Controversy faded: Feds lost majority in Congress after 1800 election, and new DemRep majority let the laws expire. The Supreme Court under John Marshall asserted its power as the court of last resort to decide is a law is unconstitutional.

Adams filled the vacancies with party supporters, like John Marshall, new Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court. Guaranteed continuation of Fed policies.

Thomas Jefferson1801-1809Democratic-Republican

-The Barbary War (1801): N. African costal pirates, stole US merchant ships, Washington and Adams had paid tribute to the Barbary gov, Ruler of the Pasha of Tripoli demanded a higher sum when Jefferson took office, he sent a fleet of Naval ships to Mediterranean, fought until 1805, no decisive victory, but US got respect and offered a measure of protection for US vessels in Mediterranean waters. -The Napoleonic Wars: Britain and France kept seizing US neutral ships with their naval blockades of each other. Britain seemed worst offender since it had larger Atlantic navy. US Mad at Britain’s “Order in Council” vs. France’s “Continental System.” Britain impressed US sailors into their army. -The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: 1807: off coast of VA, British warship Leopard fired on US warship Chesapeake. Three Americans dead, four other captive, impressed into navy, anti-British feeling in US, Americans wanted war, Jefferson wanted to put on the Embargo Act of 1807. -Embargo Act of 1807:DemRep majority in Congress passed it. Prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port, hoped British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations rather than lose US trade, backfired, economic hardship to US not Britain, British substituted supplies from South America for US goods, merchant marine of US and shipbuilders of NE affected most harshly. NE almost seceded from the Union. Jefferson repealed it in 1809, said US ships could trade with all nations but Britain and France.

-Reduced size of military, eliminated federal jobs, repealed excise tax, lowered national debt. Named only DemReps to cabinet: James Madison Secy of State and Albert Gallatin Secy of Treasury-Louisiana Purchase: Louisiana Territory had port of New Orleans, claimed by Spain, but in 1800 France forced Spain to give it to the French empire to restore it in the Americas. In 1803, Napoleon lost interest because he concentrated on French resources in the fight against England and a rebellion led by Toussaint L’Ouverture against French rule on the island of Santo Domingo resulted in French losses. During Jefferson, frontier already in OK. 1802, Spain closed port of New Orleans to America. Revoked the right of deposit in the Pinckney Treaty, which allowed American farmers tax-free use of the port, Americans wanted gov action, Jefferson wanted port, feared if a foreign power controlled the river at Orleans, the US risked entanglement in euro affairs. Jefferson sent ministers to France, offer $10 million for New Orleans and strip from New Orleans to Florida. If they failed, told to talk to Britain for an ally, Napoleon wanted funds for war against Britain, offered to sell New Orleans and entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. Unconstitutional, overstepping his role as Pres, claimed his right to make treaties. Doubled size of US, removed foreigners from nations borders, guaranteed extension of the western frontier to lands beyond Mississippi. Acquisition of millions of acres gave Jefferson hopes that future would be agrarian. -Tried to overtook Fed measures, suspended Alien and Sedition Acts, released those jailed under them, tried to impeach Fed judges, eventually against Samuel Chase, Senate refused after no evidence of crime. Largely a failure. Made judges more cautious about partisanship, though.

-Federal city, Washington, designed by Pierre L’Enfant.-Marbury V. Madison: (1803) William Marbury, Adams’ midnight appointment, sued Secy of State Madison to force delivery of his commission as a justice of the peace in the fed district. Marshall refused to rule, said law that gave Supreme Court such powers exceeded that granted by the Constitution—unconstitutional. First time to assert judicial review. -Lewis and Clark, 1804, 48 men left St. Louis and returned with scientific and anthropological info, strengthened the US claim to Oregon territory, Zebulon Pike mapped Louisiana territory. -The Essex Junto: (1804) NE Feds saw Western expansion as a threat to their position in the Union, tried to organize a secession, courted Aaron Burr (angry he wasn’t renominated to be VP) by offering him governorship of NY, Hamilton crushed him. -John Randolph and the Yazoo Claims: Jefferson’s DemRep opponents, under leadership of John Randolph, called themselves Quids. Accused president of complicity in the Yazoo Land controversy which followed Georgia’s cession of her western lands to the fed gov, created strife in DemRep party, weakened Jefferson. -1806: Burr trial for treason for plan to take Mexico from Spain, unite it with Louisiana and be king. John Marshall, narrow definition of treason, acquitted him.-ushers in age of steam-powered travel-successful voyage of Robert Fulton’s Clermont (1807)-John Jacob Astor-fur post at mouth of Columbia River (Astoria)-lobby Congress to pass trade restrictions against British furs; 1st

American millionaire from American Fur Company-Second Great Awakening-1801-Cane Ridge, Kentucky-emphasis on personal salvation, emotional response to God’s grace, individualistic faith; women were major part; blacks heavily involved; nationalistic overtones-spark reform of 1830’s and 1840’s-Literature: Washington Irving, Mercy Otis Warren (History of the Revolution (1805)), Mason Weems (Life of Washington (1806)), Noah Webster (Blue Backed Speller)

James Madison1809-1817Democratic-Republican

-Nonintercourse Act of 1809-Americans can trade with all nations except Britain and France-Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)-restore U.S. trade with Britian and France; if either nation agree to respect U.S.’s neutral rights at sea, would prohibit trade w/ nation’s enemy; Napoleon agree and Madison embargo Britain; didn’t really respect rights at sea-War of 1812: Causes-Britain and France don’t respect American rights as neutral nation, Americans sympathize w/France; -Frontier Pressures-want more open land in frontier-Canada and Florida, conflict with Indians-Tecumseh and Prophet attempt to unite all tribes-William Henry Harrison defeat them at Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811; -War Hawks-1810-new young Republicans want war w/Britain (Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun); declare war June 1, 1812-invasion of Canada fail; “Old Ironsides” naval battles-blockade by Britain; Oliver Hazard Perry-fleet of ships on Lake Erie-pave way to invade Canada and defeat British at Battle of Thames

-Andrew Jackson-lead battles in SW-against Creek Indians-Horseshoe Bend-seize Spanish garrison at Pensacola-Battle of New Orleans-Andrew Jackson decisively defeat British-fought 2 weeks after peace treaty signed-Treaty of Ghent-Dec. 24, 1814: halt fighting, return all conquered territory to prewar claimant, recognition of prewar boundary between Canada and U.S.-Hartford Convention-Dec. 1814: Federalists oppose war and Daniel Webster and other NE congressmen consistently block war effort; met in Hartford-draft set of resolutions suggesting nullification and even succession if interests not protected from growing South and West; actions discredited b/c victory at New Orleans and peace treaty; FEDERALIST PARTY CEASE TO BE POLITICAL FORCE-LEGACY OF WAR OF 1812-1.U.S. gain respect of other countries-survive wars w/Britain-2. accept Canada as part of British empire

-Election 1808-backed by Jefferson-defeat Federalist Charles Pinckney-Election 1812-Madison defeat De Witt Clinton of NY-Federalist and anti-war Republicans-opposition to the War-“Mr. Madison’s War”-New England merchants-making money off European trade, Federalist politicians-view as scheme to conquer Canada and Florida, “Quids” (old Republicans)-violate classic Republican commitment to limit federal power and maintain peace-Fletcher v. Peck (1810)-states can’t pass legislation invalidating contract-first time state law ruled unconstitutional -Martin v. Hunter’s Lease (1816)-Supreme court have jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitution

-British bombard Baltimore-“Star Spangled Banner”-Barbary Wars (1815) Muslim Algiers navy led by Stephen Decatur; gave free access to Mediterranean

-3. Federalist party end as national force-4. nullification and secession set precedent used later by South-5. Native Americans forced to surrender large areas of land-6. U.S. factories built-step toward industrial self-sufficiency-7. Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison-political leaders-8. American nationalism; believe U.S. future in West not Europe -1811-NY passes law-easier to raise money in stock market

James Monroe1817-1825Democratic-Republican

-Protective Tariff: (1816): first protective tariff in US history: attempt to protect the US industry that developed to provide traditionally euro goods to US during the War of 1812…feared without it those new industries would be flooded by euro goods again and would die out. Opposed by NE (had little manufacturing at the time)-Rush- Bagot Treaty (1817): Treaty of Ghent left many problems with Canada unresolved. British and Americans agreed to disarmament pact: limited naval armament on the Great Lakes, extended to place limits on border fortifications, led to border between US and Canada longest unfortified boundary in world. -1817: Monroe told General Jackson to stop raiders across the Florida border, get them into Spanish west Florida, even. 1818, Jackson led militia into Florida, destroyed Seminole villages, hanged some chiefs, captured Pensacola, drove out Spanish Gov, and hanged two British traders accused of aiding Seminoles. -Florida Purchase Treaty (1819) aka Adams-Onis Treaty: Spain afraid US could take FL by force, concerned with Latin America, gave western FL with all the east and own claims in Oregon Territory to the US for the assumption of the $5 million in claims against Spain and give up any US territorial claims to TX. -Treaty of 1818: from improved relations between US and Britain, led to shared fishing rights of the coast of Newfoundland, joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years, the setting of northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel, establishing the western US CANADA border line. -Monroe Doctrine: feared euro would try to restore New World colonies, Euro monarchies being restored after Napoleon falls, Russia in Alaska (est. trading post at San Francisco Bay), British navy powerful, Foreign Secy George Canning of Britain wanted to keep their trade with Latin American republics, suggested to Rich Rush, US minister in London to issue a joint Anglo American warning to Euro powers not to intervene in South America, 1823, Monroe: no joint efforts, only US: Monroe said no euros in NW hemisphere’s affairs. Angers Britain, applied to them too!-NEW ECONOMY: Cotton King, thanks to Cotton Gin, NE and Chesapeake fished, deep=sea whaling (MA/RI) profitable, Eastern seaboard and Gulf Coast ports timber, John Jacob Astor opened up business to the NW coast for fur trade, Santa Fe Trial, from New Mexico to Missouri, opened up Spanish territories to American migration, influence, and claims.

-EDUCATION:-1815-Few public schools, some states like idea of free schools, but hard to finance, most schools private, coporate in NE, religious in South and Mid-Atlantic, most aristocratic, trained leaders, most didn’t train poor. Women unfit for training, female schools concentrated on homemaking skills and fine arts, NY Free School, one school for the poor-Lancastrian system—older student tutor younger ones, gets around budget. Soon higher education school more common, mostly in theology, some in law and medicine, however.

-The Panic of 1819: first major financial panic since the Constitution, fault of Second Bank of US, which tightened credit to control inflation, state banks closed, value of money deflated, large increases in unemployment, bankruptcies, imprisonment for debt, most sever in West: Land speculation based on postwar euphoria placed many in debt, Bank foreclosed large amounts of western farmland, shook nationalism, led to demand for land reform, hatred of national bank. -After Panic, great prosperity: Demand for cotton, grain and tobacco: American commerce good. Second national bank was good for inflation, raised prices rapidly. -Missouri Compromise: since 1819, balance of 11 and 11 (VT and KT) in senate (free to slave rep), though North states outnumbered South states in House of Rep (pop of north faster growing). Missouri wanted to be a state-slavery well established: frightened North, plus future status of slavery/no slavery in other Louisiana Territory? Tallmadge Amendment: NY Rep proposed this amendment to the bill for Missouri’s admission: Prohibition of introduction of more slaves into Missouri and requiring of children of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at 25. Would have been gradual freeing of slaves in Missouri, defeated in Senate, enraged southerners, Clay’s proposal: “Missouri Compromise”: Missouri is slave state, ME is free state, rest of Louisiana Territory north of 36’30 slavery is prohibited. Ended sectional feelings for a while, preserved sectional balance for over 30 years. -Population quadrupled since 1800: high birthrate, many new immigrants. African-American and Natives grew even though slaves couldn’t be imported after 1808, but not nearly as fast as the white population. More people lived out west than previously (1/3 West of the Alleghenies) Most immigration from British Isles.-Roads: Pennsylvania’s Lancaster Turnpike (built early 1790s) connected Philly with the farmlands around Lancaster. Success stimulated construction of more toll roads that connected most of the nation’s major cities by the 1820s. National (Cumberland) Road, paved highway to west from MA to IL. Began in 1811, ended in 1850s. Diff states, different ownership of segments of it, fed/state funded. -Erie Canal completed in NYS in 1825 linked western farms and eastern cities, stimulated growth, canal-age. -Steamboats made transportation fast, cheap. First industry to receive public funding (large amt)-Railroads built in late 1820s, began in 1830s to compete with canals as a method for carrying passengers and freight. Changed small western towns, i.e. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, Chicago became commercial centers.-Farming became “commercial agriculture”-Market Revolution: As society became urban, women wanted employment in cities: domestic servants, teachers, very few in Lowell system/factory work, most working women were single, married women worked at home with kids, arranged marriages less common, legal restrictions on women still existed.

-Madison’s Secy of State, won overwhelming majority against Rufus King-won decisively again in 1820, all electoral votes but one!-Clay’s American System: Clay (KT): leader of house of rep, method to advance nation’s growth, three parts: protective tariff, national bank, and internal improvements. Protective tariffs promote American manufacturing and raise revenue to build a national transportation system of federally constructed roads and canals, national bank help keep system running by providing national currency, tariffs benefit the east, internal improvements benefit the west and south, national bank helps all. Two parts already around in 1816: Congress adopted protective tariff and chartered the Second Bank of the US (First expired in 1811). Madison and Monroe objected to internal improvements, Monroe vetoed acts of Congress providing funds for road-building and canal-building projects. -Cultural Nationalism: Monroe voted for by younger voters than usual, excited about new nation expanding westward and had little interest in Euro politics now that the Napoleonic Wars and War of 1812 were over. Though nation was entering an era of unlimited prosperity. People like Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale and John Trumball (painters), Noah Webster’s speller, promoted patriotism. -Era of “Good Feelings”: Nationalistic, optimistic, goodwill…istic, DemReps dominating politics. -Federalists die: opposed war of 1812, presided over convention at Harford, defeat in 1816 election. -DemRep party began adopting some more Federalist ideas: national bank, building up navy.-Western settlement/migration: WH Harrison and Andrew Jackson got Indian lands in Indiana and Florida, NE had economic problems (embargo) and wanted to seek a new future across Appalachians, south tobacco planters needed new land to replace the soil used up (good land for cotton in AL, Mississippi, AR), new roads/canals/steamboats/railroads=better transportation, Euros came more by cheap land speculation in Great Lakes and Ohio, the Cumberland, and Mississippi River valleys. Led to question: should West have slavery? -Manufacturing began in America: inventions protected by patent laws, interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney), factory system based on Sam Slater’s first in 1791, caused by War of 1812 and tariffs stimulating need for domestic manufacturing, NE became nation’s leading manufacturer (good waterpower for new machinery and good seaports for goods, decline in maritime industry made capital available). NY, NJ, PA, followed lead. Led to growth of financial businesses. -Craft Unions organized in 1790s and increased with the factory system, skilled workers couldn’t compete with factories, had to get jobs there, long hours, low pay, poor conditions, goal to reduce workday to ten hours, lots of obstacles: Immigrant replacement workers, state laws outlawing unions, frequent economic depressions with high unemployment.-Darthmouth College v. Woodward (1819)-contract for private corp can’t be altered by state-McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)-constitutionality of national bank, could state tax federal institution; implied powers for bank, state

can’t tax b/c federal law supreme-Cohens v. Virginia (1821)-Supreme Court could review state court’s decision involving powers of fed gov’t -Gibbons v. Ogden (1821)-could NY grant monopoly if conflicted w/ congressional charter; no, fed gov’t interstate trade

John Quincy Adams1825-1829Democratic-Republican

-Election of 1824-candidates Sec of Treasury William H. Crawford, Sec of State John Quincy Adams, Speaker of House Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson-war hero; vote split, Jackson and Adams voted on by House-Clay support Adams, House chooses Adams-Clay become Sec of State-“Corrupt Bargain”-Tariff of Abominations (1828)-high tariff-satisfy northern manufacturers but alienate southern planters-ask Congress for money for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, national university, astronomical observatory-viewed as waste of money by Jacksonians-Election of 1828-Adams sought reelection, Jacksonians use discontent of south and west; dirty campaign-accuse Adams’s wife of being born out of wedlock and accuse Jackson’s wife of adultery; Jackson Wins

-Expansion of the Electorate: most states eliminated property qualifications for voting; Mass. First, Thomas Dorr led bloodless “rebellion” in RI to expand franchise; free blacks excluded from polls in most states-gradually more excluded from social and economic mainstream when they did have vote-elections normally do not attract enthusiasm until 1824-legsislative caucuses made presidential nominations and kept ruling cliques in power-system failed; members of electoral college elected by people-1828-first labor strike-Paterson, NJ; child workers

Andrew Jackson1829-1837Democrat

-Role of President-present himself as president of the people; frugal-oppose federal spending and national debt; interpret powers of Congress narrowly-vetoed more bills than all 6 presidents before (Maysville Road in Kentucky)-“kitchen cabinet”-group of politicians not in the official cabinet but advise him; official cabinet have less power-Peggy Eaton affair-wife of Sec of War, not accepted by other cabinet wives, when Jackson try to force them to accept her, most of cabinet resign, leads to resignation of Calhoun as vice president, Van Buren is vice president-Indian Removal Act (1830)-force resettlement of Native Americans-create Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1836 to assist resettled tribes; Georgia pass laws forcing Cherokees to migrate west-Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)-Cherokees not foreign nation, can’t sue in federal court; Worcester v. Georgia (1832)-laws of Georgia had no force w/in boundaries of Cherokee territory-clash between Marshall & Jackson; “Trail of tears”-Cherokees leave Georgia-Nullification crisis-SC declare Tariff of Abominations unconstitutional-nullification theory-each state had right to decide whether to obey a federal low or declare it null and void-advanced by Calhoun; Webster (Mass)-Hayne (SC) debates (1830)-nature of the Union under Constitution; Jackson support protecting Union, Calhoun-liberties first; 1832-SC hold convention to nullify tariffs of 1828 and 1832-Jackson persuade Congress to pass Force Bill-give him authority to take military action; Proclamation to the People of South Carolina-nullification and disunion were treason-Bank of the United States-managed by Nicholas Biddle-Jackson and others suspicious that Biddle abuse power and help rich; Clay bring up bank in 1832 to make it an issue in election (recharter bill)-vetoed by Jackson-Jackson win election of 1832 -Killing the Bank-withdraw all federal funds; aided by Sec of Treasury Roger Taney-transfer funds to various state banks-“pet banks”-Specie Circular-require all purchases of federal lands made in gold and silver rather than paper-banknotes lost value and land sales drop-Panic of 1837MANIFEST DESTINY-nationalism, rapidly expanding population, reform impulse of 1830s, desire to acquire new markets and resources

-Lowell System-textile mills-Mass. Young women-factories also use child labor-Two-Party System: Democrats-supporters of Jackson (resemble old Jeffersonain Democrats); Whigs-supporters of Henry Clay (resemble Federalist party); Democrats (Southerners, westerners, small farmers, urban workers)-favor local rule, limited gov’t, free trade, oppose monopolies, national bank, high tariffs; Whigs (NE and mid-Atlantic, upper-midwest states, Protestants of old English stock, middle class professionals)-support Clay’s American system, oppose immorality, vice, crime-Election of 1836-Van Buren nominated by Democrats; Whigs nominate 3 candidates and hope to put in House, fail; Van Buren elected-Mexico offer land grants to Americans (ie. Stephen Austin); sought to tighten control (restrict immigration and increase taxes)-1836-declare independence-Antonio López de Santa Anna defeat Texans at Alamo and Goliad; 4/23/36-defeat Santa Anna at San Jacinto; Jackson refuse to admit Texas b/c slavery issue-California also settled by Americans (Santa Fe Trail)-traders, merchants whalers-has potential to be slave-Charles River Bridge-could take away grant for monopoly if not in best interest of people (Roger B. Taney)

Martin Van Buren1837-1841Democrat

-Tension between U.S. and Great Britain: -1. Canada-Maine boundary in Aroostook Valley disputed-Britain try to build road, conflict with Maine’s militia-“Aroostook War” (1838); -2. Caroline Affair (1837)-Caroline carry supplies to Canadian rebels, burned by Canadian loyalists; -3. British decline to return escaped slaves who had taken over U.S. merchant ship (Creole); -4.British ships patrolling African coast to suppress slave-smuggling sometimes stop American Ships

-Panic of 1837-inherit the problems; persuade Congress to establish Independent Treasury to handle gov’t funds-begin in 1840-Election of 1840-Whigs nominate William Henry Harrison-“Old Tippecanoe”-vice president, John Tyler; Democrats-Van Buren, no vice president; stress “log cabin” origins of Harrison compared to opulence of Van Buren; Harrison wins

-does not recognize and annex Texas-seeks recognition in Europe-British and French hope to counterbalance American power-trade agreements

William Henry Harrison1841Whig

-dies 1 month after inauguration from pneumonia -serve shortest term in history

John Tyler1841-1845Whig

-Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)-deal with problems with Britain: -1. Canada-Maine boundary compromised; -2. British express regret over destruction of Caroline; -3. British promise to avoid “officious interference” in freeing slaves in cases such as Creole; -4. cooperate in patrolling African coast to prevent slave-smuggling-joint resolution to annex Texas (1845)

-reject entire Whig program of national bank, high protective tariffs, internal improvements; Clay tries to push bills through, vetoed-all Cabinet members resign, Tyler expelled from party-Preemption Act (1841)-allow settlers who squatted on unserveyed federal lands 1st chance to buy once put up on market

-Texas: Sam Houston negotiate w/Britain to hasten annexation; Southerners fear Britain would use Texas as base to undermine slavery; obstacle to manifest Destiny; Calhoun, Sec of State, negotiate annexation treaty w/Texas-too pro-slavery and rejected by Congress-Election of 1844-Democrats nominate Polk, staunch Jacksonian and favored territorial expansion; Tyler drop out; Whigs nominate Clay, wavered and cost votes; anti-slavery Liberty Party-James G. Birney-take votes away from Clay and Polk wins

James K. Polk1845-1849Democrat

-Oregon Treaty (1846)-1.divies Oregon territory in half at 49th

parallel; -2. U.S. grant Vancouver Island to Britain and guaranteed right to navigate Columbia River-Slidell Mission (1845): -1. persuade Mexico to sell California and New Mexico territories; -2. settle dispute between Mexico-Texas

-Wilmont Proviso-would forbid slavery in any of the territories acquired from Mexico; made by Penn. Congressman David Wilmont

-Election of 1844-favored territorial expansion, especially Oregon (“Fifty-four Forty or Fight”)—for all of Oregon form Britain-California declare independence from Mexico (June 1846)-Bear Flag Republic; John C. Frémont-Free-Soil Movement-Northern Democrats and Whigs who support

border; mission fail-War with Mexico: 2/24/46-Mexican army cross Rio Grande and kill 11 Americans; Zachary Taylor-drove Mexican army across Rio Grande; General Winfield Scott-invade Mexico and take Mexico City-Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo-Mexican Cession (1848)-1. Mexico recognize Rio Grande as southern border of Texas; -2. U.S. take California and New Mexico for $15 million and assume claims of American citizens against Mexico-offer to buy Cuba for $100 million but Spain refuse; small forays fail

Wilmont Proviso and all blacks excluded from Mexican Cession –keep territories open for whites; advocate free homesteads-South sees attempts to restrict expansion of slavery as violation of constitutional right to property-some propose extending Missouri Compromise line to Pacific-Popular Sovereignty (squatter sovereignty)-Lewis Cass-issue of slavery determined by residents of territory

Zachary Taylor1849-1850Whig

-Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)-Great Britain and U.S. agree that neither nation attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal route in Central America

SETTLEMENT OF WESTERN TERRITORIES -Fur Traders’ Frontier-1820s trade w/ Native Americans for animal skins-James Beckwourth, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, Jedediah Smith-info about trails and frontier conditions-Overland Trails-Oregon, California, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails; threat of disease and depression, harsh conditions, few Indian attacks-Farming Frontier: 1830s and 1840s-Preemption Acts-gave squatters rights to settle public lands and purchase cheaply once for sale; move west cost some money-eliminate poorer; isolation of life, rural communities develop (schools, churches, clubs, political parties)-Urban Frontier-rose b/c of railroads, mineral wealth, farming-professionals and businesspeople attracted-San Francisco and Denver-instant cities; Salt Lake City-supplies to travelersINDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOY-1840s-new factories (shoes, sewing machines (Elias Howe) , clothing, firearms, precision tools, iron products)-Samuel F. B. Morse-electric telegraphy (1844)RAILROADS-1840s and 1850s-largest industry-local merchants and farmers buy stock to connect area; 1850-U.S. gov’t grant 2.6 mil acres of land to build Illinois Central Railroad; cheap and rapid transportation-promote western agriculture; united NE and MW

-The Compromise of 1850-California want to enter as free state (Taylor support both CA and NM as free; some southerners want to secede-meet in Nashville); Henry Clay makes compromise: -1. admit CA as free; -2. divide remainder of Mexican Cession into 2 territories (Utah and NM)-allow popular sovereignty; -3. give land in dispute between Texas and NM territory to NM and fed gov’t assume Texas’s public debt of $10 million; -4. ban slave trade in D.C. but slavery allowed; -5. new Fugitive Slave Law and enforce; Webster, Clay, and Calhoun give last speeches of lives-Webster pro-union and Calhoun con-rights for South; William H. Seward-con-antislavery

-Election of 1848-Democrats-Cass and popular sovereignty; Whigs-war hero Taylor-no position on slavery; Free-Soil party-Van Buren; Taylor wins-1849-gold rush in California-population soar-gold and silver rushes to Colorado, Nevada, Black Hills in Dakotas-mining camps-1/3 miners Chinese

Millard Fillmore1850-1853Whig

-when Taylor dies, Fillmore president-strong supporter of Compromise of 1850-Stephen A. Douglas-diff. Coalitions to pass each part of compromise separately -Fugitive Slave Law-track runaway slaves and return to owners; cases under jurisdiction of federal gov’t; special U.S. commissioners authorized to issue warrants and arrest fugitives; citizens who attempt to hide runaways subject; any captured person who claim to be free black and not slave-denied trial by jury

-Underground Railroad-“conductors” and “stations”-help escaped slaves reach North or Canada; Harriet Tubman made at least 19 trips to help slaves escape; Frederick Douglas, Sojourner Truth-help emancipate slaves-Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)-Harriet Beecher Stowe-about conflict between Tom and owner Simon Legree; move northerners, South claim it as proof of North’s prejudice-South reaction-argue slavery beneficial for slave and master; found in Bible; contrasted northern wage workers with slaves-Sociology for the South (1854)-George Fitzhugh-question principle of equal rights for unequal men

FOREIGN COMMERCE-1. shipping firms encourage trade and travel across Atlantic-regular schedule; -2. whale oil to light homes-whaling boom 1830 to 1860-NE merchants; -3. clipper ship-shorten trip from east and west coast; -4. steamships-mid-1850s-took place of clipper ships-carry more, lower cost, follow more regular schedule

Franklin Pierce1853-1857Democrat

-Ostend Manifesto (1852)-dispatch 3 diplomats and secretly negotiate to buy Cuba from Spain; -Gadsden Purchase (1853)-strip of land in SW for railroads; purchased from Mexico for $10 million-Commodore Matthew C. Perry-persuade Japan’s gov’t to open 2 ports to U.S. vessels-Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)

-Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-Stephan A. Douglas want northern railroad and promote western settlement; propose Nebraska Territory be divided up into Nebraska and Kansas-settlers free to decide slavery issue; nullify Missouri Compromise-Republican Party-Wisconsin (1854)-reaction of Kansas Nebraska Act; Free-Soilers and antislavery Whigs and Democrats; call for repeal of Kansas-Nebraska Act and Fugitive Slave law; northern

-Impending Crisis of the South (1857)-Hinton R. Helper-use statistics to demonstrate that slavery has negative impact on economy-Cannibals All! (1857)-Fitzhugh-Know-Nothing Party (American Party)-opposition to Catholics and immigrants; drew support away from Whigs-“Bleeding Kansas”-anti-slavery farmers mostly settle Kansas,

and western moderates-oppose slavery in territories-Election of 1856; Republicans-John C. Frémont from CA-no expansion of slavery, free homesteads, protective tariff (11 of 16 free states); Know-Nothings-Fillmore; Democrats-James Buchanan of Penn.-not identified w/K & N act; -stay out of Kansas

slaveholders from Missouri set up homesteads to win state for South; New England Emigrant Aid Company (1855)-abolitionists and Free-Soilers, pay to transport antislavery settlers to Kansas-fighting; pro-slavery creates legislature at Lecompton; anti-slavery create legislature in Topeka; 1856-proslavery kill 2 in Lawrence, John Brown retaliate and kill 5 in Pottawatomie Creek-1856-Senator Charles Sumner attack Democrats-“The Crime Against Kansas”-charges against Butler; Butler’s nephew Preston Brooks beat Sumner with cane; Southerners applaud Brooks

James Buchanan1857-1861 Democrat

ELECTION OF 1860-Republicans: Abe Lincoln-exclusion of slavery from territories, protective tariff, free land for homesteaders, internal improvements; South warned if Lincoln elected, would secede-Democrats-divided North and South; N. Douglas-popular sovereignty; S. John C. Breckinridge-unrestricted extension of slavery in territories and annexation of Cuba-Constitutional Union-former Whigs, Know-Nothings, moderate Democrats-nominate John Bell-Lincoln win w/o single S. stateRESULTS OF THE ELECTION: SC hold special convention-vote unanimously to secede (Dec. 1860); Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas secede; Feb. 1861-meet in Montgomery, AL-Confederate States of America-create constitution-restrict gov’t power to impose tariffs and restrict slavery; Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens (pres and vice-pres)

-Panic of 1857-prices drop for mid-western farmers, increase unemployment in N. cities; cotton prices high-South less affected-believe plantation economy superior-Lecompton Constitution-proslavery from Kansas-not supported by most settlers-Buchanan ask Congress to accept, did not; 1858-cons. defeated by settlers-1858-Republicans did well in elections; Southerners feel threatened by economic program (tariffs) and antislavery plank; threat to “constitutional right” to hold slaves as property-doesn’t prevent secession of south-compromise-Crittenden compromise-Senator John Crittenden of Kentucky propose constitutional amendment to guarantee right to hold slaves in all territories south of 36˚30’-rejected by Lincoln

-Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)-Scott live in free territory of Wisconsin for 2 yrs-sue for freedom; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney and court rule: -1. Scott had no right to sue in federal court b/c not a citizen; -2. Congress had no power to take property w/o due process-slaves property, can’t exclude slavery from any territory; -3. Missouri Compromise unconstitutional -Lincoln-Douglas Debates-1858-Lincoln challenge Douglas for IL Senate seat-attack Douglas’s indifference to slavery- “house-divided” speech; Freeport-Lincoln question how popular sovereignty and Dred Scott decision can coexist-Douglas respond that slavery cannot exist if local citizens didn’t pass and enforce laws-piss off Southerners; Lincoln emerge as national figure-John Brown-Oct. 1859—led small band of followers to attack federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, VA-want to use guns to arm VA slaves for revolt; federal troops under Robert. E. Lee capture Brown-hanged for treason-further divide N. and S.

Abraham Lincoln1861-1865 Republican

-South hope Britain and France aid war effort b/c need cotton-Trent Affair-Confederate diplomats James Mason and John Slidell go to Britain on Trent to gain recognition for gov’t; stopped by Union warship and Mason and Slidell POWs; Britain threaten war unless diplomats released; Lincoln give in -Confederate commerce-raiders-purchased from Britain-damage U.S. merchant ships-ie. Alabama -U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams persuade Britain to cancel sale of Laird rams to Confederacy-failure of cotton diplomacy-getting cotton from Egypt and India; no decisive Confederate victory; Emancipation Proclamation-antislavery feelings of British population

THE CIVIL WAR-Fort Sumter-SC attack fort in Charleston harbor-Lincoln send supplies-4/12/61-begin war-executive power-1. call for 75,000 volunteers to put down “insurrection” in South; -2. spending for war; -3. suspend writ of habeas corpus-Virginia, NC, Tennessee, Arkansas secede after Fort Sumter-keeping border states (Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky)-MD- martial law; Missouri-U.S. troops prevent pro-S. from gaining control (active guerrilla forces throughout war); Kentucky-neutrality-Advantages and Disadvantages: Military-South: defensive war, coastline diff. To blockade, experienced military leaders and high troop morale; North: larger population and U.S. Navy; Economic-North-most banking and capital of country, factories, railroads, farmland; Political-South-“States’ rights” liability-need strong central gov’t-Confederate States of America-1 6 yr term for president; states hold back power from central gov’t; shortage of money tried loans, income taxes, impressment of private property-issue inflationary paper money-Union Strategy (Winfield Scott)-1. use U.S. navy to blockade southern ports (Anaconda Plan) and cut supplies from reaching the South; -2. divide Confederacy in 2-take Mississippi River; -3. army of 500,000 to take Richmond-Major Battles-First Battle of Bull Run-1st major battle of war, Antietam-Lee try to win in North to convince Britain to join; General George McClellan (commander of Union forces)-fail to follow, Fredericksburg-McClellan replaced with Ambrose Burnside-reckless; Monitor vs. Merrimac-ironclad ships-prevent South from challenging blockade; Ulysses S. Grant fights in West-victorious; battle at Shiloh-losses on both sides; Vicksburg-Union gain control of Mississippi River; Gettysburg-Lee invade Penn. Lose much of army; Grant become commander-“total war”; Sherman’s March-sweep across south and destroy everything, burn Columbia, SC, destroy will to fight; Appomattox Court House (April 9, 1865)-Lee surrender-Confiscation Acts (Aug. 1861 and July 1862)-refuse to return captured slaves to Confederate owners; free slaves of people rebelling against U.S.; use freed slaves in Union army-Emancipation Proclamation (Jan. 1, 1863)-free all slaves in states still in rebellion; enlarge purpose of war and more slaves escape-Election of 1864-Union Party-Lincoln and Andrew Johnson (Senator from Tennessee); McClellan runs; Lincoln wins-killed by John Wilkes Booth-April 14, 1865EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON CIVILIAN LIFE-620,000 dead-Political change: Republicans: radical faction (immediate abolition of slavery), moderate faction (concerned about eco for whites); Democrats-most support war but criticize Lincoln’s handling, Peace Democrats (Copperheads)-oppose war and want peace-ie. Clement L. Vallandigham-Draft-both N. and S.-Conscription Act (March 1863 N)-men 20-45 liable for draft; can be exempt if find substitute or pay $300 fee; opposition among poor-fear jobs taken by blacks; draft riots-Irish attack blacks and wealthy whites in NY; send troops and temp suspend draft-political dominance of North; “Gettysburg Address” (11/19/63)-Financing war-N. $2.6 bil from bonds, raise tariffs, excise taxes, income tax, issue Greenbacks (paper money)=inflation; National Banking System (1863)-speed up mass production and organization of factories; many made money selling war goods (finance industrialization in post-war)-Economic Program: Morrill Tariff Act (1861)-raise tariff rates for revenue and protection; Homestead Act (1862)-settlement of Great Plains-free 160 acres land if farm it for at least 5 yrs; Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)-use sale of federal land to maintain agricultural and technical colleges; Pacific Railway Act (1862)-building of transcontinental railroad over northern route-Women at work-farms, plantations, factory jobs, military nurses, soldiers’ aid society; nursing open to women; further women’s rights movementRECONSTRUCTION-Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)-1. full presidential pardons granted to most southerners who took oath of allegiance to Union and U.S. Constitution and accept emancipation of slaves; -2. state gov’t reestablished once 10% of citizens took loyalty oath-Wade-Davis Bill (1864)-require 50% of voters to take loyalty oath; permit only non-Confederates to vote for new state constitution; pocket vetoed by Lincoln-Freedmen’s Bureau (March 1865)-provide food, shelter, medical aid for blacks and homeless whites; efforts at resettlement failed; create schools for blacks under Oliver O. Howard; taught 200,000 blacks how to read-Last Speech-4/11/65-urge acceptance of Louisiana and think intelligent or soldier blacks get vote

Andrew Johnson1865-1869Republican

-French Emperor Napoleon III take Mexico; General Philip Sheridan sent w/military force, U.S. recognize revolutionary Benito Juarez; invoke Monroe Doc and put pressure; Napoleon III withdraws-Seward’s Folly-purchase Alaska from Russia (1867) for $7.2 mil

CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION-Radical Republicans (Thaddeus Stephens, Charles Sumner, Ben Wade)-pass a Civil Rights Act and extend Freedman’s Bureau over Johnson’s veto-Fourteen Amendment-define citizenship and forbade states to deny rights to citizens, reduce representation for states that forbade blacks to vote, forbade paying Confederate debt, former Confederates ineligible to hold public office-Military Reconstruction Act (1866)-divide South into 5 military districts ruled by governors; have to make constitution giving votes to blacks and ratify 14th amendment-limit Supreme Court power to review cases about congressional reconstruction-new Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase acquiesced-reduce presidential power: Army Act-reduce president’s control of army, Tenure of Office Act-forbid cabinet members to be dismissed w/o Senate permission-impeach Johnson b/c dismiss Stanton (TOA violation)-not removed

-Thirteenth Amendment (Dec. 1865)-abolish slavery-Reconstruction proclamation similar to Lincoln’s but disenfranchisement of former leaders and officials of Confederacy and ones w/ more than $20,000 in taxable prop; ratify 13th

amendment and recommend vote for blacks; retain pardoning ability-Black Codes-restrict rights and movements of newly freed blacks: -1. can’t rent property or borrow money for it; -2. forced to accept working contracts; -3. can’t testify against whites in court-Fifteenth Amendment-suffrage for all blacks-Election of 1868: Democrats: Horatio Seymour of NY and Francis P. Blair Jr; Republicans: Grant and Schuyler Colfax; Grant wins narrowly

-Ex Parte Milligan (1866)-gov’t act improperly in Indiana where some civilians subject to military trial; can only be used when civilian courts unavailable-Election of 1866-Johnson’s political enemies, radical and moderate Republicans-win 2/3 majority in both houses

POST-WAR SOUTHERN LIFE-Economic results: property destroyed or confiscated by Treasury agents, many men killed or maimed, poverty-Political Results-“carpetbaggers”-Northerners who came to South to participate in Reconstruction gov’t; “scalawags”-Southerners who support Reconstruction regimes-Social programs expanded-higher taxes and state debts; corruption: political machines (ie. “Boss” Tweed’s Tammany Hall machine)-Ku Klux Klan-intimidate blacks and white Republicans out of voting; response to Union League-Republicans control black vote; want to redeem S. gov’t

Ulysses S. Grant1869-1877Republican

-corruption in administration-rely on dishonest men b/c has no political experience-“Black Friday” Scandal-Jim Fiske and Jay Gould scheme to corner the gold market; persuade Grant that stopping gold sales good for farmers; price of gold increase a lot, businessmen ruined-Credit Mobilier Scandal-Union Pacific Railroad use dummy construction company to take millions in subsidies; bribe many congressmen-“Salary Grab Act” (1873)-100% pay raise for president and 50% for Congress-retractable in 2 yrs-Sanborn Contract Fraud-Sanborn given contract to collect unpaid taxes 50% commission-commission was in Republican campaign funds-Whiskey Ring Fraud-distillers and treasury officials defraud money from excise tax on whisky; Grant’s sec involved-Bribing of Belknap-sec of war accept bribes involved in admin of Indian affairs-Panic of 1873-overspeculation and overbuilding-business failure; debtors on farms sought Greenback paper money; Grant veto bill for more Greenbacks; Congress demonize silver-“crime of ‘73”; Specie Resumption Act (1875)-call for nation’s paper money to be redeemed in gold-Amnesty Act of 1872-remove last restrictions on ex-Confederates except for top leaders; allow southern conservatives to vote Democratic and take state gov’t-National Labor Union (1868)-attempt to organize all workers; higher wages, 8hr day, equal rights for women and blacks, monetary reform, worker cooperatives; win 8 hr day for federal gov’t workers; decline after unsuccessful strikes in 1877-Knights of Labor-Terence V. Powderly-(1869)-membership to all workers; worker cooperatives, abolition of child labor, abolition of trusts and monopolies; favor settling disputes by arbitration not strikes, some locals still strike; Haymarket bombing-meeting of workers, someone throw bomb in Chicago and lose support

-Liberal Republicans-oppose corruption and favor sectional harmony, hard money, laissez-faire economics: ran Horace Greeley for president in 1872 but lost-Election of 1876-Republicans nominate Rutherford B. Hayes; Democrats-NY reform governor Samuel J. Tilden; disputed electoral votes-special commission give all to Hayes; Democrats threaten to send to House-The Compromise of 1877-Hayes become president if: -1. end federal support for Republicans in South; -2. support building of S. transcontinental railroad; -3. serve 1 term -National Grange Movement-started in 1868 by Oliver H. Kelley-social and educational organization for farmers; political actions to defend against middlemen, trusts, railroads; cooperatives-businesses owned and run by farmers to save costs; attack storage fees for crops and freight rates-lobby state legislatures and laws passes regulating rates charged by railroads; illegal for railroads to fix prices and give rebates to privileged-Munn v. Illinois (1877)-Supreme Court upheld right of state to regulate businesses of public nature- transcontinental railroads Union Pacific and Central Pacific (hire Chinese)-1869-meet at Promontory Point

Rutherford B. Hayes1877-1881Republican

-recognize gov’t of Porfirio Diaz in Mexico-encourage trade expansion and U.S. investment in railroads, mines, agri, oil-Pan American-Sec of State James Blaine advocate creation of International Bureau of American Republics to promote customs union of trade and political stability in W. Hemisphere-mediate border disputes: Argentina and Paraguay in 1876; 1880 Colombia and Chile; 1881 Mexico and Guatemala, Argentina and Chile, Peru and Chile-end War of the Pacific-1876-Interoceanic Canal Commission recommend Nicaraguan route for canal linking Atlantic and Pacific-1878-treaty w/ Samoa-trading rights and naval base at Pago Pago-1878-treay w/ Japan granting tariff autonomy

-pull last of federal troops protecting blacks and other Republicans-Sioux War (1876-1877)-discovery of gold in SD; George A. Custer’s “last stand”-1887-Nex Perece War in Idaho-Indians defeated (military, disease, railway construction, alcoholism, virtual extermination of bison)-Helen Hunt Jackson-A Century of Dishonor-use federal troops to restore order after strikes in many cities-Great Railroad Strike of 1877-strike on Baltimore and Ohio Railroad shut down 2/3 of trackage; joined by 500,000 workers from other industries, Hayes use federal troops to end labor violence

-Republican Factions: “Stalwarts”-led by Roscoe Conkling-favor old spoils system; “Half-Breeds”-led by James G. Blaine-civil service reform and merit appointments to gov’t posts-Election of 1880-“Half-Breed” James A. Garfield and “Stalwart” Chester A. Arthur; defeat Winfield S. Hancock and William English-Greenback Labor Party-elect 14 members to Congress in 1878-promoote inflation of farm prices and cooperative marketing of agricultural produce; 1880 ran James Weaver for president-public control and regulation of private enterprises (ie. Railroads)-INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION: U.S. become leader in iron, oil, coal-Andrew Carnegie-modern steel industry; John. D. Rockefeller-Standard Oil-New South-Birmingham, AL-South’s leading steel producer; textile industry; Duke family-tobacco producers -elite class rise up at this time; many suffer crushing poverty-“Gospel of Wealth”-God grant wealth to few; wealthy use wealth to help society: philanthropy: libraries, schools-Social Darwinism-Graham Sumner-survival of the fittest

James A. Garfield1881Republican

-assassinated by Charles Guiteau (wanted job)

Chester A. Arthur1881-1885Republican

-1882-Robert Wilson Shufeldt-open trade and diplomatic relations with Korea-Berlin Conference (1884)-trade in Congo; attend Third International Red Cross Conference-1884-pact w/ Nicaragua for joint ownership of isthmian canal in Central America

-Pendleton Act (1883) –establish open competitive exams for civil service positions-1883-construction of new steel ships; 1884-establishement of U. S. Naval War College-Newport, RI-1882-suspend Chinese immigration to U.S. for 10 yrs

-missionaries in Pacific, Asia, Africa, Latin America, Middle East-religion, W. edu, science, technology, commercial ventures-Railroads-Cornelius Vanderbilt to merge local railroads to New York Central Railroad; promote settlement on Great Plains, link west with east; gov’t give land grants; offer rebates to larger businesses and charge exorbitant freight rates for smaller customers

Grover Cleveland1885-1889Democrat

-1886-U.S. refuse to hand over Irish national accused of terrorist attack in London-diseased meat in Britain and Germany-ban uninspected meat; gov’t regulation and inspection of meat for export -1886-Treaty w/ Hawaii for Pearl Harbor Naval Base-1889-after Haitian revolution, Blaine resist pressure for U.S. to establish naval base at Port-au-Prince

-Presidential Succession Act of 1886-death of Vice President Hendricks-succession from president pro tempore of Senate to Cabinet officers in order of creation of departments-insist executive appointments and removal prerogative of executive and not Senate -Election of 1888-Democrat Cleveland lose to Republican Ben Harrison-want high protective tariff-Interstate Commerce Act (1886)-require railroad rates to be reasonable and just; set up Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)-investigate and prosecute pools, rebates; help railroads more than farmers

-Wabash v. Illinois (1886)-individual states couldn’t regulate interstate commerce-Farmers Alliances-serve need for edu and scientific methods-National Alliance (1890)-meet in Ocala, Florida, platform: -1. direct election of U.S. senators; -2. lower tariff rates; -3. graduated income tax; -4. new banking system regulated by federal gov’t; treasury notes to increase amount of money in circulation-Andrew Carnegie-Carnegie Steel-vertical integration-control every stage of industrial process; turned into U.S. steel by J.P. Morgan-John D. Rockefeller-Standard Oil Trust-horizontal integration-buy out competitors-monopoly-American Federation of Labor (1886)-Samuel Gompers-skilled workers; higher wages and improved working conditions; urge walk out until employer agree to negotiate contract; largest union by 1901

Benjamin Harrison1889-1893Republican

-sailors from U.S.S. Baltimore killed in Valparaiso (1891)-threaten war with anti-American revolutionary gov’t of President Balmaceda; Blaine bring about Chilean apology-1891-Queen Lydia Kamekeha Liliuokalani resist American attempts to promote protectorate over Hawaii; 1893-American sugar planters overthrow Hawaiian gov’t and establish one friendly to U.S.

-Republican Thomas B. Reed-Speaker of House and change rules so he has absolute control in running House-Force Bill (1890)-try to protect black voters in South through federal supervision of state elections; blocked in Senate-Dependent Pensions Act (1890)-grant service pensions to Union veterans-Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)-trusts subject to federal prosecution if found to be combinations or conspiracies in restraint of trade: often applied to labor unions and farmers’ cooperatives-Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)-Congress buy 4.5 mil oz of silver each month and issue Treasury notes redeemable in gold and silver=inflation and lowered gold reserves-McKinley Tariff (1890)-raise tax on foreign products to 48%-Depression of 1893-withdrawl of British investments from American market; loss of business confidence; National Cordage Comp bankrupt

-1890-naval Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan publish The Influence of Sea Power on History-control of seas w/strong navy necessary for world power-Our Country-Josiah Strong-Americans had duty to spread word of God around the world-1893-Frederick Jackson Turner-“Frontier Thesis”-frontier necessary for democracy-Election of 1892-Democrat Grover Cleveland and Adlai Stevenson defeat Republican Ben Harrison and Whitelaw Reid-Cleveland-conservative economic stand (gold standard)-Populist Party-James Weaver and James Field for 1892 election; leaders of party (Ignatius Donnally, Thomas Watson, Mary Lease, Jerry Simpson)-party platform: coinage of silver to gold at ratio of 16:1; federal loans to farmers; graduated income tax; postal savings banks; public ownership of railroads; telephone and telegraph system; prohibition of alien land ownership; immigration restriction; ban on private armies to break strikes; 8hr wor day; 1 6yr term for president; direct election of senators; initiave and referendum; secret ballot-Homestead Strike (1892)-Iron and steel workers strike against Carnegie Steel to protest wage cuts; strikebreaking Pinkerton security guards; some deaths-Jacob Riis-How the Other Half Lives (1890)-document poverty, illness, crime, despair of slums

Grover Cleveland1893-1897Democrat

-Britain and Venezuela (1895)-border disputes between Guiana and Venezuela-America mediate and support Britain once it recognize Monroe Doctrine in Latin America-Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)-Japan win over China-signal that China’s weakness may lead to colonization-U.S. want Pacific naval base to protect interests-1894-revolutions in Brazil and Nicaragua-U.S. support existing gov’t to maintain stability and favorable trade treaties -reject annexation of Hawaii in 1894

-Repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act-Cleveland try to limit outflow of gold reserves-Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894)-protective tariff to ease depression; -Pollack v. Farmers’ Loan and Trust co. 1895-graduated income tax declared unconstitutional -Dingley Tariff (1897)-raise protection to new highs

-1895-The Laws of Civilization and Decay-Brooks Adams-nation must expand or face decline-Election of 1896-Rep. William McKinley vs. Dem. William Jennings Bryan-support platform similar to Populists; “cross of gold speech”; McKinley win-promise to stabilize Cuban revolution-March of Unemployed (1894)-Jacob Coxey led march on Washington-want gov’t work relief program; force and arrests-Pullman Strike (1894)-Eugene V. Debs and American Railway Union struck over wage cuts and job losses; broken w/ federal troops-United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895)-Sherman Anti-Trust Act apply only to commerce, not manufacturing -Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)-“separate but equal”

William McKinley -1889-U.S.-establish 3-party protectorate over Samoa with Britain -Yellow Journalism-Joseph Pulitzer-New York World, William -Election of 1900-Rep choose Roosevelt for Vice President; run

1897-1901 Republican

and Germany-Cuban revolt against Spain hurting American interests in economy; “yellow journalism” spur war and Assistant Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt push for war -annex Hawaii in 1898-War declared April 21, 1898-Teller Amendment-War to free Cuba; Spain quickly defeated-Philippines-Commodore George Dewey take-capture Manila-Treaty of Paris (1900)-end war; Cuban independence, cede Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam to U.S., payment of $20 mil for Philippines-Philippines rebel under Emilio Aguinaldo b/c not given independence-revolution suppressed -Hawaii annexed 1898, 1900 claim Wake Island-Open Door Notes-Sec of State John Hay-guarantee equal opportunity of trade and sovereignty of Manchu gov’t -Boxer Rebellion (1900)-struck at foreign settlements in China-multinational force suppress rebellion-gain concessions-Platt Amendment (1901)-Cuba cannot make treaty with foreign state, contract excessive public debt, required to allow U.S. to preserve order and keep naval base at Guantanamo Bay

Randolph Hearst New York Journal-exaggerate Spanish atrocities in Cuba-create climate receptive to war-DeLôme Letter-Feb. 9, 1898-Spanish minister in Washington criticize McKinley; U.S.S. Maine blown up in Havana harbor-demand for war with Spain-Federal Bankruptcy Act (1898)-reform and standardize procedures for bankruptcy and responsibilities of creditors and debtors-Erdman Act (1898)-mediation by chair of Interstate Commerce Commission and commissioner of Bureau of Labor in unresolved railroad labor controversies-Currency Act (1900)-standardized amount of gold in the dollar; separate gold reserve set apart from general funds-gov’t bonds sold to maintain reserveINDUSTRIAL WARFARE: lockout, blacklisting, yellow-dog contracts-to be hired, must agree not to join union, private guards and state militia, court injunctions against strikes

against Bryan-against imperialism and gold standard; McKinley wins -U.S. Steel Corp-1901; Standard Oil Company of NJ-1899-Thorstein Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class (1899)-attack predatory wealth and conspicuous consumption of new rich-Frank Norris’s McTeague (1899)-man’s regression to animalistic behavior in world of unregulated capitalist competition; The Octopus (1901)-condemn monopoly-Thomas Edison-inventor-Menlo Park, NJ, research lab, light bulb, phonograph, motion pic. Camera; George Westinghouse-inventor-air brake for railroads, transformer-Consumer goods: R. H. Macy, Marshall Field. Frank Woolworth 5 and 10 cent stores; mail-order comp: Sears, Roebuck and Montgomery Ward; packaged food-Horatio Alger myth-self-made man-work hard=success-expanding middle class: accountants, clerks, salespeople, lawyers, doctors, public employees-wages barely above level for subsistence; need women and children to work; women: textile, garment, food-processing-Workplace-monotonous, dangerous

Theodore Roosevelt1901-1909Republican

“Big Stick” diplomacy-Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)-U.S. can build canal w/o Britain-Panama Canal-engineer separation of Panama from Colombia; recognize as independent country; Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)-grant U.S. control of canal zone for $10 million and annual $250,000; canal completed in 1914-Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine-U.S. reserve right to intervene in internal affairs of Latin American nations to keep European powers from using military force to collect debts to Western Hemisphere; interfere in Venezuela, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Cuba-Rio de Janeiro Conference (1906)-meeting of International Bureau of American Republics-Sec of State Elihu Root attempt to de-emphasize U.S. military and political intervention to promote political goodwill, economic development, trade and finance in Latin America; promote Pan American Railway project-China-promote trade and other interests; segregation and restrictions of Chinese immigrants, Chinese leaders boycott American goods and services-no major effect-Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)-Japan win war against Russia; Roosevelt negotiate Treaty of Portsmouth, NH which ended war; receive Nobel Peace Prize in 1906; Japan want more territory and blame U.S.-Taft-Katsura Memo (1905) and Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)-Japan and U.S. pledge -1. mutual respect for Pacific possessions; -2. support for Open Door policy in China-Great White Fleet (1907)-show American strength; naval fleet to Asian ports-Algeciras Conference (1906)-U.S. participate w/8 other European nations, guarantee equal opportunity of trade for Morocco-The Second Hague Conference (1907)-46 nations meet in Netherlands to discuss disarmament and creation of international court of justice; little more than resolution banning use of military force for collection of foreign debts accomplished-“Gentlemen’s Agreement” (1908)-Japanese gov’t agree to restrict emigration of workers to U.S.; Roosevelt persuade California to repeal discriminatory laws-Insular Cases (1901-1903)-Supreme Court rule that constitutional rights do not extend to territorial possessions; Congress had right to administer islands

-“square deal”-favor neither labor nor business; square deal for both-Roosevelt’s Anti-Trust Policy (1902)-pledge strict enforcement of Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break up illegal monopolies and regulate large corps for public good; order Justice Department (Attorney General P. C. Knox) to prosecute corps: Northern Securities Company-railroad holding corp by J.P. Morgan, Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company-Hepburn Act (1906)-ICC membership 5->7, set own fair freight rates, regulatory power extended over piplines, bridges, express companies, require uniform system of accounting by regulated transportation companies (strengthen Interstate Commerce Act)-Elkins Act (1903)-illegality of railroad rebates -Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)-prohibit manufacture, sale, and transportation of adulterated or fraudulently labeled foods and drugs-Meat Inspection Act (1906)-federal and sanitary regulations and inspections in meat packing facilities-Immunity of Witness Act (1906)-corporate officials could no longer make plea of immunity to avoid testifying in cases dealing w/their corporation’s illegal activities-Conservation Laws-1901-1908-create federal irrigation projects, national parks and forests, water power (Internal Waterways Commission), National Conservation Commission-oversee resources -Department of Commerce and Labor (1903)-address concerns of business and labor; Bureau of Corporations investigate and report on illegal activities of corporations-Coal Strike (1902)-negotiate between Union Mine Workers union and anthracite mine owners after strike over wages, safety conditions, and union recognition; 1st time gov’t didn’t automatically side w/management-Panic of 1907-brief economic recession-caused by: questionable bank speculations, lack of flexible monetary and credit policies, gold standard-St. Louis World’s Fair (1904)-celebrate centennial of Louisiana Purchase; participation of Asian nations to promote foreign trade-National Monetary Commission (1908)-chaired by Senator Nelson Aldrich-recommend what would later become basis for Federal Reserve System: secure Treasury reserve and branch banks to add and subtract currency from monetary supply

-Progressive reform in states: primary elections, initiative referendum, root out political bosses on state and municipal levels-Commission form of Government (1903)-progressives remove corrupt mayor of Galveston, Texas; replace w/ 5 elected commissioners who were experts in fields-many cities adopt-Manager-Council-expert manager hired by elected city council to direct work of various departments of city (Dayton, Ohio 1913)-State Reform Leaders: Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin, Albert Cummins of Iowa, Charles Evans Hughes of New York, James M. Cox of Ohio, Hiram Johnson of California, William S. Wren of Oregon, Albert Beveridge of Indiana, Woodrow Wilson of NJ-City Reformers-John Purroy Mitchell of NYC, Tom L. Johnson and Newton Baker of Cleveland, Hazen Pingree of Detroit, Sam Jones of Toledo, Joseph Folk of St. Louis -Reformer’s goals-middle-class-correct excessive powers of corps and radical extremes; business and labor-preserve economic opportunities and free trade; goals: honest gov’t, economic regulation, environmental conservation, labor recognition, new political structures, gender equality in work force (Oregon Ten Hour Law), end racial segregation (NAACP), child labor laws, prison reform, regulation of stock market, direct election of senators, more efficient foreign service-Muckrakers-investigative journalists and authors who advocate reform; McClure’s, Collier’s, Cosmopolitan, Everybody’s (magazines); “The Shame of the Cities”-Lincoln Steffens, “History of Standard Oil Company”-Ida Tarbell, “The Treason of the Senate”-David Phillips, “Frenzied Finance”-Thomas Lawson -Literature with social message: Following the Color Line-Ray Stannard Baker, The Bitter Cry of the Children-John Spargo, Poverty-Robert Hunter, The Story of Life Insurance-Burton Hendrick, The Financier-Theodore Dreiser, The Jungle-Upton Sinclair, The Boss-Henry Lewis, Call of the Wild, The Iron Heel and The War of the Classes-Jack London, A Certain Rich Man-William Allen White, The Promise of American Life-Herbert Croly-1903-Wright Brothers 1st piloted flight at Kitty Hawk, NC-Election of 1908-William H. Taft for Rep, Williams Jennings Bryan for Dem (low tariff, anti-monopoly) endorsed by AFL; Socialists-Eugene Debs; Taft win, Rep get Congress-1905-W.E.B. DuBois-Niagara movement-call for federal legislation to protect racial equality and full rights of citizenship

William H. Taft -Reciprocal trade agreement between U.S. and Canada repudiated -anti-trust policy-Attorney General George Wickersham-44 -1913-Henry Ford introduce continuous-flow process on automobile

1909-1913Republican

by Canadian legislature-fear economic and political domination-Dollar Diplomacy-avoid military intervention; hope American financial investments would encourage economic, social, political stability-thwarted by growing anti-imperialism -Railroads in China (1911)-want U.S. bankers included in British, French, and German plan to invest in railroads in China, secure American participation; U.S. excluded from agreement between Russia and Japan to build railroads in Manchuria-Intervention in Nicaragua (1911-1912)-U.S. intervene in financial affairs and send marines when civil war break out-Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine-non-European powers excluded from owning territory in Western Hemisphere; Henry Cabot Lodge (Mass.); Japan wanted to buy Baja Peninsula from Mexico

indictments in anti-trust suits; broke American Tobacco Trust (1911) and suit against Standard Oil-Political Rift-can’t heal Rep. split between conservatives and progressives over tariff reform, conservation, almost dictatorial power held by Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon-Anti-Cannon Crusade-1910, Rep and Dem join to strip Speaker Cannon of power to appoint the Committee on Rules and serve on it himself; Taft fail to align w/ progressive; Democrats gain House in 1910 elections, Rep Dem coalition run Senate-Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute (1909-1910)-Gifford Pinchot (chief of U.S. Forest Service) charge Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger of giving away natural resources to private corporate interests; Taft support Ballinger-Mann-Elins Act (1910)-extend regulatory function of ICC over cable and wireless companies, telephone and telegraph lines, power to begin own court proceedings, suspend questionable rates, separate but temp commerce court to handle rate-dispute cases-Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909)-turn measure to lower tariff into protective measure-Taft made mistake of endorsing it-Postal Savings Bank (1910)-certain U.S. post offices authorized to receive deposits and pay interest-New Battleship Contract (1910)-State Department arrange for Bethlehem Steel Corporation to receive contract to build battleships in Argentina -New Cabinet Posts-Department of Commerce and Labor divided into 2 positions

assembly line-Social programs-public aid to mothers of dependent children (1911, Illinois); minimum wage (Mass. 1912)-1909-NAACP created-Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies)-radical labor organization; promote violence and revolution; Carlo Tresca, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Daniel DeLeon, Mary Harris Jones-strikes against textiles in 1912; little appeal to average worker; decline after Red Scare of 1919-literature: optimistic in realism, put faith in American people to solve social and economic problems w/honest and efficient programs-1912-Hollywood center for silent film production; Paramount Pictures; serials, epic features, Mack Sennett comedies-1913-X-ray tube; William Coolidge; 1909-Arthur Little-plastics; 1909-Leo Baekeland-synthetic fibers; 1912-Adolphus Busch-applied Diesel engine to submarine-Election of 1912; Roosevelt return to national politics-Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party)-“New Nationalism”-regulation of large corps, tariff commission, women’s suffrage, minimum wages and benefits, direct election of Senator, initiative, referendum, recall, presidential primaries, prohibition of child labor, Federal Trade Commission to regulate economy, stronger executive, gov’t plans; Rep Taft; Dem-Woodrow Wilson-“New Freedom”-progressive programs similar to Roosevelt, break-up of large corporations -1910-all states have secret or Australian ballot (state not political party printed ballots)-1911-National Urban League-help blacks migrating to northern cities

Woodrow Wilson1913-1921Democrat

-Moral Diplomacy-moral approach to foreign affairs-Jones Act (1916)-1. grant full territorial status to Philippines; -2. guaranteed bill of rights and universal male suffrage; -3. promise independence as soon as stable gov’t established-Puerto Rico (1917)-grant U.S. citizenship to all inhabitants and limited self-gov’t-Panama Canal (1914)-persuade Congress repeal act that granted U.S. ships exemption from paying standard canal tolls-Conciliation treaties-Sec of State William Jennings Bryan-negotiate treaties in which nations pledge to: -1. submit disputes to international commissions; -2. observe 1-yr cooling off period b/f taking military action-troops in Haiti (1915) and Dominican Republic (1916)-Mexico-General Victoriano Huerta seize power in 1913; U.S. put arms embargo and send fleet to blockage port of Vera Cruz to aid revolutionaries; several American seamen arrested and Huerta refuse to apologize (1914)-U.S. navy occupy Vera Cruz-Argentina, Brazil, Chile mediate dispute; Huerta replaced with Venustiano Carranza (1914)-U.S. first support Pancho Villa (revolutionary against Carranza) b/c Carranza refuse to agree to American terms allowing businesses; withdraw support from Pancho Villa once Carranza agree; Villa attacks U.S. settlements in Texas and NM; Wilson order General John J. Pershing to pursue Villa into MexicoWORLD WAR I-breaks out in Europe in 1914 (assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand-heir to Austrian throne); U.S. declares neutrality-Unrestricted submarine warfare by Germans; sink Lusitania-British passenger ship w/Americans on it; Wilson angry b/c violates Americans’ rights as citizens of neutral nation-Gore-McLemore Resolution-try to prohibit American travel on armed ships or on ships carrying munitions (failed)-“Sussex pledge”-Germans attack Sussex-Americans insist Germany cease all surprise sub attacks; agree but reserve right to

-Sixteenth Amendment (1913)-graduated income tax-Seventeenth Amendment (1913)-all U.S. senators elected by popular vote-New Freedom-limit big business and big gov’t-reform by ending corruption and reviving competition by supporting small businesses-Underwood Tariff (1913)-substantial lowering of tariffs; done by special session of Congress 1st day of presidency; graduated income tax 1% to 6%-Federal Reserve Act (1914)-national system of 12 district banks supervised by Federal Reserve Board; Federal Reserve Notes (dollar bills)-Clayton Antitrust Act-strengthened provisions of Sherman Antitrust Act for breaking up monopolies; exempt unions from being prosecuted as trusts-Federal Trade Commission-regulatory agency can investigate and take action against any “unfair trade practice” in any industry except banking and transportation-Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)-12 regional federal farm loan banks established to provide farm loans at low interest rates-Child Labor Act (1916)-prohibited shipment in interstate commerce of products manufactured by children under 14 yrs old-Nineteenth Amendment (1920)-women’s suffrage-Adamson Act (1916)-8-hr day for workers on interstate railroads w/time and half for overtime and max of 16 hrs in shift-Kerr-McGillicuddy Act-workmen’s compensation for federal employees MOBILIZATION AT HOME-first ship supplies (faster)-create war agencies: Bernard Baruch-War Industries Board set production priorities and established centralized control over raw materials and prices; Herbert Hoover-Food Administration-encourage rationing; Harry Garfield-Fuel Administration-efforts to save coal, nonessential factories closed, daylight saving time; Taft-National War Labor Board-help arbitrate

-1914-Robert Goddard-liquid rocket fuel-1915-some form of direct primary in every state-try to stop party bosses-Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918)-declare Child Labor Act (1916) unconstitutional-Black Rights (progressives did nothing about segregation and lynching b/c view other reforms more important b/c benefit all Americans and also prejudiced); Booker T. Washington: head of Tuskeggee Institute, Alabama Exposition speech-argue blacks’ needs for education and economic progress foremost importance, only after establishing secure base hope to gain political and social equality; W.E.B. Du Bois-The Souls of the Black Folk (1903)-criticize Washington’s approach and demand equal rights for blacks; political and social rights prerequisite for economic independence-Urban migration (1910-1930)-blacks from South migrate to northern cities b/c: -1. deteriorating race relations; -2. destruction of cotton crop by boll weevil; -3. job opportunities in factories-Campaign for women’s suffrage-1900-National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)-vote to broaden democracy (allow them to care more for families); National Woman’s party-more militant (mass pickets, parades, hunger strikes)-Alice Paul -WORLD WAR I-Committee on Public Information-George Creel-propaganda urging Americans to “do your bit” for the war-American Protective League-“Hate the Hun”-attack all things German-Schenck v. United States-Supreme Court upheld constitutionality of Espionage Act-right to free speech could be limited when it represented a “clear and present danger” to public safety-African Americans fight in war; segregated units; few allowed to be officers; barred from Marine Corps-hope to earn equal rights at home-effects on society: more jobs for women (lead to 19th amendment),

continue if British didn’t stop violations of international law-Entering the War-Jan. 17, 1917-Germans resume unlimited submarine warfare against all ships; Zimmerman Telegram-Feb. 24, 1917-German telegram to Mexico, want Mexico to attack U.S. to regain Texas, New Mexico, Arizona-many believe war w/Germany necessary; Russian Revolution-wouldn’t be allied to czarist regime and can fight war to “defend democracy”-declared 3/2/17-Fighting the War: U.S. Navy implement convoy system of armed escorts for merchant ships-ensure Britain and France not starved; American Expeditionary Force (AEF)-General John J. Pershing; push back Germans at Château-Thierry; defeat Germans at Meuse-Argonne offensive; Germans surrender Nov. 11, 1918-Fourteen Points (Wilson’s plan for “peace without victory”)-recognition of freedom of seas, end to secret treaties, reduction of national armaments, “impartial adjustment of all colonial claims”, self-determination in Austria-Hungary, general association of nations for peace (League of Nations)-Treaty of Versailles-Big Four (David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, Vittorio Orlando, Wilson); terms of treaty: -1. Germany stripped of all colonies in Asia and Africa, admit guild for war, French occupation of Rhineland for 15 yrs, reparations to Britain and France; -2. new nations formed from land taken from Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia; -3. join League of Nations-Article X call for each nation to stand ready to protect independence of other nations

disputes between workers and employers-labor gain higher wages, 8-hr day, union membership-financing the war-Liberty Bonds, personal income and corporate taxes, excise tax on luxury goods-Espionage Act (1917)-imprisonment for up to 20yrs for people who tried to incite rebellion in armed forces or obstruct draft-Sedition Act (1918)-prohibit anyone from making “disloyal” or “abusive” remarks about U.S. gov’t-Selective Service Act (1917)-sec of War Newton D. Baker-people drafted by lottery-Battle for Ratification: irreconcilable faction-don’t want U.S. membership in League; reservationists-Senator Lodge-would accept League if certain reservations added; Wilson tours West speaking for treaty, suffers stroke, treaty defeated; new treaty made with Germany

blacks migrate northPOSTWAR PROBLEMS-soldiers returning from work looking for jobs, take away from women and blacks-farmers-falling prices; consumers go on buying spree-inflation and short boom-1921-recession and 10% unemployed-Red Scare: anti-Communist hysteria; Palmer raids-Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer-special office under J. Edgar Hoover to gather information on radicals-many arrested and deported, loss of credibility b/c no riots on May Day 1920 as warned and concerns about civil liberties-Labor Conflicts-1919 strike in Seattle-shipyard workers for higher pay, troops called; Boston (Sept. 1919)-police strike to protest firing of few officers who tried to unionize-Mass. Gov Calvin Coolidge send in National Guard; strike of U.S. Steel Corporation-federal troops called (1919-1920)-Race Riots-migration of blacks cause tensions b/c competition for jobs and housing; East St. Louis, IL (1917)-largest riot, 1919-Chicago, 40 people killed; return of African American soldiers=racial violence and lynchings in South

Warren G. Harding1921-1923 Republican

-Washington Conference: 1921: reps from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, three agreements: The 5 Power Treaty: largest navies would maintain the ratio with their largest warships US: 5, Great Britain: 5, Japan: 3, France and Italy 1.67. and US can’t fortify its possessions in Pacific. Four Power Treaty: US, France, Great Britain, and Japan had to respect each other’s territory in the Pacific. 9 Power Treaty: all nations at conference had to respect Open Door policy of China. Gave Japan unintentional naval supremacy in Pacific.

-Quota Act of 1921: limited immigration to 3% of the amount of foreign-born people from a given country counted in the 1910 Census-Appointed Charles Evans Hughes as the Secy of State, Herbert Hoover as Secy of Commerce, Andrew Mellon as Sec of the Treasury, Chief Justice became Taft. Corrupt choices: Harry M. Daugherty as attn gen and Albert Fall as Secy of Interior -Pardoned Eugene Debs-The Revenue Act of 1921 (and 1924): reduced maximum tax rate to 50%, lower bracket taxes reduced, inheritance/corporate income taxes stayed same. Idea by Mellon, reduced debt by ave of 500 mill a year. -The Fordney-McCumber Tariff: 1922, high rates on farm products and protected rayon, china, toys, and chemical industries, others got mod protection, farm equipment duty-free, Tariff Commission could approve raising or lowing rates.-The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921: Fed gov had unified budget, established Bureau of the Budget, Congress could vote on it.

-Harding (people called him a “dark-horse” candidate) v. James Cox v. Eugene Debs. Harding with 61% pop vote and 4:1 ratio electoral votes-Wilson had angered many previously Democratic supporters like immigrants and civil libertarians during his administration; Harding won on isolationism and anti-League of Nations. -Sacco and Venzetti Case: 1921 convicted of robbery and murder, poor Italians/anarchists, put to death in 1927. Meant people were racist. -1923, Harding died heart attack, Coolidge (VP) become President–Daugherty, took bribes in exchange for not prosecuting criminals, Fall took bribes for granting oil leases new Teapot Dome. Charles R. Forbes, head of Veterans’ Bureau, stole millions from funds.

Calvin Coolidge1923-1929 Republican

-Kellogg-Briand Pact: Led by Jane Addams and other women. Arranged by Secy of State Frank Kellogg and Aristide Briand (French minister) signed by most nations in the world, renounced war, but permitted defensive wars and didn’t provide for action against violators of the agreement. -The Dawes Plan: Proposed by Charles Dawes, accepted in 1924, American banks loaned money to Germany so they can pay off their reparations to the Allies. -Latin America: US investment there doubled during the 1920s. Marines removed from Nicaragua in 1925, revolution erupted, Marines went back, Revolutionary Augusto Sandino fought Marines until national guard under Anastasio Somoza replaced them. Somoza ruled Nicaragua until 1979 when they were overthrown by the Sandinistas.

-Quota Act of 1924: set quotas of 2% based on the Census of 1990 (before the “new” immigrants arrived: to discriminate against those of Southern and eastern Europe)-Said “The Business of America is Business” and “The man who builds a factory builds a temple”-McNary-Haugen Bill: Coolidge vetoed it twice. George Peek and Hugh Johnson wanted gov to buy and resell wheat at the world price plus the tariff, surplus would be sold abroad at the world price, and the difference made up by a fee on all farmers in proportion to the amount of the things they had sold. 1927 and 1928, didn’t’ pass Coolidge.-1925: George Norris of Nebraska wanted to lease the dam and nitrate plants at Muscle Shoals AL to private business, Coolidge vetoes in 1928. Later becomes the base for the TVA. -1924, Coolidge vetoes the idea to give veterans of WWI 20 year endowment policies with values based on their length of service. -The Revenue Act of 1926:cut surtax to max of 20%, abolished gift tax, cut estate tax in half.

-Election of 1928: Coolidge v. John W. Davis *dark horse* : Progressive party formed after Robert Lafollette did not win the Republican nomination: attacked monopolies, wanted nationalized railroads, direct election of the President, etc. -Coolidge won by HUGE popular vote percentage, 3:1 ratio electoral votes. -Election of 1928: Coolidge declined to run again, Hoover v. Alfred E. Smith, Hoover wins by a huge electoral majority and popular majority.

Herbert C. Hoover1929-1933Republican

-agreed with isolationism: viewed peace conferences and treaties as moral efforts and opposed using economic sanctions against aggressors b/c lead to military involvement-Japanese Aggression in Manchuria-Sept. 1931-take over terriroty, rename Manchukuo, establish puppet gov’t-League condone action but Japan walks out-Stimson Doctrine-Sec of State Henry Stimson declare U.S. honor Nine-Power Treaty (1922) by refusing to recognize legitimacy of any regime like “Manchukuo” established by force-pursue friendly relations w/countries in Latin America-arrange for troops to leave Nicaragua by 1933 and leave Haiti by 1934

-The Agricultural Marketing Act: 1929 (before crash) created Federal Farm Board to lend money to agriculture to buy wheat and cotton and held them for higher prices. -Hawley-Smoot Tariff: 1930, raised duties on agricultural and manufactured imports, Euros did it to US imports, both economies failed. -Voluntarism: urged business leaders to avoid lay-offs and wage cuts, and got no-strike pledges form labor leaders, urged all citizens to contribute to charities to help their suffering. -Debt moratorium: 1931, Dawes Plan ended, Hoover suspended payment of international debts, Britain and German accepted, not France, international economy suffered from loan defaults. -Public works: 1930, $750 million for public buildings, river and harbor improvements, and highway construction to stimulate employment. -Reconstruction Finance Corporation: 1932, authority to borrow money to loan to railroads, banks, etc. prevented failure of firms but criticized as relief for the rich. -The Federal Home Load Bank Act: 1932, created home loan banks to make loans to building and loan associations, savings banks, and insurance companies to help avoid foreclosures on homes. -Relief: 1932: Garner-Wagner Bill vetoed, which would have given funds for relief. Did compromise, allowed RFC to lend money to states for relief, to make loans to states and cities for public works. -1932, Bonus Army veterans marched to DC, wanted immediate payment of bonus approved in 1926 for payment in 1945, Hoover sent in Douglas MacArthur and Dwight D. Eisenhower and George Patton to remove them. -Farm Holiday Association: 1932: Headed by Milo Reno, urged farmers not to take their products to market to try to raise prices. Picketing led to violence, strike collapsed.

-Wanted voluntary cooperation of business and gov to abolish poverty-Why Prosperity? Productivity Increased: Frederick Taylor’s time and motion studies applied, scientific management, Henry Ford’s assembly line. Energy technologies: more use of oil and electivity, coal used only for railroads and some homes. Oil used for factories and accounted for 23% of US energy (3% in 1900), electrical motors increased production 300 times. Gov Policy: Favored growth of big business, offered tax cuts and didn’t enforce antitrust laws.-Farm Problems: crop prices kept high during wartime demands and policy of a wartime minimum price for crops. Farmers losing money fast, high burden of debt. -Wages rose but the union movement didn’t, membership declined, most companies had open shop (open hiring of nonunion members), welfare capitalism (offering their employees improved benefits and higher wages), efforts to unionize turned violent. -Stock prices increased, especially after 1925 and 1928-9, but in 1929, “Black Thursday,” millions shares traded, investment banks tried to raise it again by busing, “Black Tuesday,” market crashed.-Causes of Crash: Uneven distribution of income, top 5% had 33% of wealth, Stock market speculation (buying on margin), Excessive use of credit, Overproduction of consumer goods, weak farm economy, government policies (too little regulation) Global economic problems (US forced all reparations be paid in full, but tariff policies reduced sale of Euro goods in America)-25% of workforce unemployed, 20% of banks closed, GNP dropped almost to ½ its original value, national income declined by ½ its value. -Klu Klux Klan: as strong in Midwest as in South, against Catholics, Jews, foreigners, communists, and blacks. Founded in 1915, declined after Grand Dragon David Stephenson convicted of murder (leader of Indiana’s Klan). -Scopes Trial: 1925, taught evolution in school in TN, ended career of William Jennings Bryan (acted like an expert on Bible). Convicted, but overturned.-Volstead Act 1919: enfourced prohibition, but now people hated it. People smuggled in beer into speakeasies, Chicago Gang by Al Capone fought for control of the industry, lots of Organized crime became big business. -Nativism: People didn’t like new Catholic/Jewish Eastern/Southern European immigrants—Feared they would steal jobs.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt1933-1945Democrat

-Good-Neighbor Policy-improve relations w/other countries in Western Hemisphere b/c: interventionist policies don’t make sense b/c businesses no longer have capital to invest, and b/c rise of militarist regimes in Germany and Italy-seek cooperation for defense of Hemisphere-Pan-American conferences-1933-U.S. pledge never again to intervene in internal affairs of Latin American Country; 1936-pledge to submit future disputes to arbitration and warn if European power attempt to attack, Hemisphere would retaliate-1934-Platt Amendment nullified-only naval base at Guantanamo Bay kept-Mexico-1938-Lázaro Cárdenas seize oil properties owned by U.S. corps, Roosevelt encourage negotiation-London Economic Conference (1933)-international economic conference called by League of Nations-Hoover allowed U.S. participation-Roosevelt w/drew support-1933-recognize Soviet Union-to increase trade and boost economy-Philippines-Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)-provide for independence of Philippines by 1946 and gradual removal of U.S. military presence from islands

-New Deal-three R’s-relief, recovery, reform; Brain Trust-group of advisers who assisted him while governor of NY, Louis Howe-chief political advisor-advise on economic matters; appoint most diverse cabinet-Frances Perkins-first woman to serve on cabinet-First Hundred Days-call special session for Congress to enact all laws requested by Roosevelt-Bank Holiday-president ordered banks to close Mar. 6, 1933-gov’t help reorganize them-reopened once sound-Beer-Wine Revenue Act-legalize sale of beer and wine-Twenty-first Amendment (1933)-end Prohibition-Fireside chats-March 12, 1933-go on radio to assure listeners banks reopened after Holiday safe-Emergency Banking Relief Act-gov’t examine finances of banks closed during Bank Holiday; reopen those judged to be sound-Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)-guaranteed individual bank deposits up to $5,000-Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)-refinancing of small homes to prevent foreclosure-Farm Credit Administration-provide low-interest farm loans and mortgages to prevent foreclosures on property of farmers

-Election of 1936-Roosevelt vs. Alf Landon-criticize Democrats for spending too much money but accept New Deal legislation; Roosevelt win with landslide-support of Solid South, white ethnic groups, Midwestern farmers, labor unions, blacks-Liberal Critics-Socialists and extreme liberals criticize as doing too little for unemployed and working poor; feel president fail to address problems of minorities, women, elderly-Conservative Critics-business leaders alarmed by increasing regulations, prounion stance, deficit financing; American Liberty League-anti-New Deal-conservative Democrats and Republicans-Father Charles E. Coughlin-Catholic priest-found National Union for Social Justice-call for issuing inflated currency and nationalizing all banks-radio broadcasts-Dr. Francis E. Townsend-propose 2 % federal sales tax to create fund by which every retired person over age 60 receive $200/month if spent-lead to Social Security System-Huey Long-“Share Our Wealth” program-promise minimum annual income of $5,000 for every American family paid for by taxing wealthy-Committee of Industrial Organizations (CIO)-John L. Lewis-part

-Reciprocal Trade Agreements-gave president power to reduce tariffs by up to 50% if nations reciprocate w/similar reductions-Fascism: Italy-Benito Mussolini; Germany-Adolf Hitler and Nazis; Japan-militarists and nationalists pursuade emperor best way to gain raw materials is to invade China and SE Asia -American isolationists-Nye committee conclude in 1934 main reason for going to war was to serve greed of bankers and arms manufacturers (led by Gerald Nye)-Neutrality Acts: 1935-president can prohibit all arms shipments and forbid U.S. citizens to travel on ships of belligerent nations; 1936-forbade extension of loans and credits to belligerents; 1937-forbade shipment of arms to opposing sides in civil war in Spain-Spanish Civil War-General Francisco Franco (Fascist) vs. Loyalists-1939, fascists prevailed-America First Committee (1940)-isolationists mobilize American public opinion against war, speakers-appeasement: allow aggression: Ethiopia (1935)-allow Italy to invade; Rhineland (1936)-Germany march troops into, violate treaty of Versailles; China (1936)-U.S. gunboat Panay sunk by Japanese planes, apology quickly accepted; Sudetenland (1938)-Germany take it, Britain and French agree to allow Hitler to take-Start of War-Germany invade Poland; Blitzkrieg-lightning war-air power and fast moving tanks used by Germany-“Cash and Carry” (1939)-belligerent could buy U.S. arms if used own ships and paid cash-Destroyers-for-bases deal (1940)-Britain receive 50 older but still serviceable destroyers in exchange for U.S. rights to build military bases on British islands in Caribbean -Four Freedoms-propose lending money to Britain for purchase of U.S. war materials-defense of freedom of speech, religion, from want, from fear-Lend-Lease Act (1941)-permit Britain to obtain all U.S. arms it needed on credit-Atlantic Charter-Roosevelt and Winston Churchill affirm peace objectives after war: sound peace, self-determination, no territorial expansion, free trade-Shoot on Sight-U.S. defend British ships carrying Lend-Lease materials-Greer sunk, Roosevelt order Navy to attack all German ships on sight-U.S. prohibit export of steel and scrap iron to all countries but Britain and W. Hemisphere (after Japan join Axis); froze all Japanese credits in U.S. and cut off Japanese access to vital materials (after Japan occupy French Indochina); attempt at negotiation fail-Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)-Japanese planes bomb Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; declare war Dec. 8, 1941-overcome German subs on Atlantic (sonar, radar, bomb naval bases) and bomb German cities; Operation Torch (Nov. 1942)-General Dwight Eisenhower and Bernard Montgomery-take North Africa; invade Italy-Mussolini fell from power-D-Day-liberate France-Battle at Normandy; final push toward Berlin; Battle of the Bulge (desperate counterattack by Germans); Germans surrender May 7, 1945; discover Holocaust-6 million Jews murdered by Hitler-Battle against Japan-Battle of Coral Sea (May 7-8, 1942)-aircraft carriers stop Japanese invasion of Australia; Battle of Midway-decisive battle; “island hopping”-isolate Japanese islands w/naval and air power; Douglas MacArthur command army in S. Pacific-Casablanca (Jan. 1943)-Roosevelt and Churchill agree to invade Sicily and demand “unconditional surrender” from Axis powers-Teheran (Nov 1943)-Big Three-Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin-meet for first time-British and Americans drive to liberate France in

-Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)-grants of federal money to states and local gov’ts that were operating relief for jobless and homeless-director Harry Hopkins-Public Works Administration (PWA)-directed by Sec of Interior Harold Ickes-allotted money to state and local gov’t for building roads, bridges, dams, and other public works-source of jobs-Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)-employed young men on projects on federal lands and paid families-Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)-regional development and public planning-build dams, operate electric power plants, control flooding and erosion, manufacture fertilizer-sold cheap electricity-National Recovery Administration (NRA)-Hugh Johnson-temporarily suspend antitrust laws-set codes for wages, hours of work, levels of production, and prices of finished goods-attempt to guarantee reasonable profits and fair wages; allow workers right to organize and bargain collectively (declared unconstitutional in Schechter v. U.S.)-Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)-encourage farmers to reduce production and paid subsidies to reduce output-attempt to raise prices (declared unconstitutional in 1935)-Civil Works Administration (CWA)-hired labors for temporary construction projects sponsored by federal gov’t-Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)-regulate stock market and limit speculative practices that led to Wall Street crash-Federal Housing Administration (FHA)-insuring bank loans for building new houses and repairing old ones-took U.S. off gold standard-dollar set at $35 per oz of gold, no longer redeemable in gold-Works Progress Administration (WPA)-provide jobs-construction or painting murals, write histories, perform in plays-National Youth Administration (NYA)-provide part-time jobs to help young people stay in school or until they could get job-Resettlement Administration (RA)-Rexford Tugwell-provide loans to sharecroppers, tenants, and small farmers; federal camps where migrant workers could find decent housing-National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935)-guaranteed worker’s right to join union and union’s right to bargain collectively; outlaw practices unfair to labor; National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)-enforce law and protect workers’ rights-revenue act of 1935-significantly increased tax on incomes of wealthy few; increase tax on large gifts from parent to child and on capital gains-Social Security Act (1935)-federal insurance program based on automatic collection of taxes from employees and employers; give monthly payments to those over 65; unemployment compensation, disability benefits, dependent children and mothers receive benefits-Court-reorganization plan-Roosevelt angry Supreme Court defeating New Deal programs-president can appoint additional justice to court for everyone over 70.5 years-outraged-Congress refuse to pass -Fair Labor Standards Act-minimum wage, maximum workweek of 40 hrs and time and half for overtime, child-labor restrictions on those under 16 yrs old-Fair Employment Practices Committee (1941)-set up committee to assist minorities in gaining jobs in defense industries-Indian Reorganization Act (Wheeler-Howard) (1934)-return lands to control of tribes and support preservation of Native American cultures-repeal Dawes Act of 1887-Selective Service Act (1940)-registration of all American men between 21 and 35 and for training of 1.2 million troops-1942-War Production Board (WPB)-established to manage war industries; Office of War Mobilization (OWM)-set production

of AFL and want union membership to be extended to all workers; suspended from AFL and became Congress of Industrial Organization and break away from AFL-chief rival-organize unskilled workers in automobile, steel, and southern textile industries-Strikes-General Motors plant in Michigan-sit-down-yield to demands to recognize United Auto Workers union (UAW); strike fail at Ford plant; U.S. Steel Corporation recognize CIO union; Memorial Day 1937-demonstration at Republic Steel in Chicago=4 deaths-most steel companies agree to deal with CIO by 1945 -U.S. v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941)-upheld constitutionality of Fair Labor Standards Act-Keynesian economics-deficit spending acceptable b/c in difficult times gov’t need to spend to initiate economic growth-Life During the Great Depressioin-Women: accused of taking jobs from men even though jobs they took men didn’t want; Dust Bowl Farmers-drought-many migrate to CA-look for non-existent jobs; John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath (1939); blacks-racial discrimination for jobs-increased racial tensions-no support from Roosevelt b/c fear losing S. vote; support from Eleanor Roosevelt and Harold Ickes-singer Marian Anderson refused use of Constitution Hall, arrange special concert at Lincoln memorial-Mexican Americans-discriminated against for agricultural jobs in CA and South; many forced to return to Mexico-Election of 1940-Rep choose Wendell Willkie; Roosevelt win b/c strong economic recovery and fear of war-African Americans during war-move North and West b/c of jobs; serve in armed forces; race riots in New York and Detroit (1943); “Double V” slogan-victory over fascism and for equality at home; membership in NAACP and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)-1942-work more militantly for black interests-Smith v. Allwright (1944)-unconstitutional to deny blacks membership into political party to prevent from voting in primaries-Mexican Americans-many work in defense industries or serve in military; 1942 agreement-allow Mexican farm workers to enter U.S. during harvest season w/o going through formal immigration process-riots-zoot suit riots-Native Americans-serve in military and defense industry-many never return to reservations-Japanese Americans-those on West Coast sent to interment camps (1942-Executive order 9066)-Korematsu v. U.S. (1944)-upheld constitutionality of internment policy as necessary during war-Women-many work in military in noncombat roles or enter workforce-“Rosie the Riveter” -Propaganda-maintain public morale and encourage people to sacrifice and conserve resources-Office of War Information control news about troop movements and battles-Election of 1944-FDR run again against Thomas Dewey-win 53% of popular vote -Costs of War: 300,000 Americans die, 800,000 wounded; $320 billion, debt $250 billion-United Nations (1944)-Dumbarton Oaks-U.S. Soviet Union, Great Britain, China propose UN; 50 nations meet in San Francisco in April 1945-Oct. 24, 1945 come into existence

spring 1944; Soviets invade Germany and eventually join war against Japan-Yalta (Feb 1945)-Germany would be divided into occupation zones; free elections in liberated countries of Eastern Europe; Soviets enter war against Japan; Soviets control southern half of Sakhalin island and Kurile Islands-special concessions in Manchuria; New world peace organization (United Nations) formed at conference in San Francisco

priorities and controlled raw materials; cost-plus system-pay contractors cost of production plus certain percent for profit; destroy unemployment; Office of Price Administration (OPA)-freeze prices, wages, rents, rationing commodities such as meat, sugar, gasoline, tires-Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943)-empower gov’t to take over war-related business whose operations threatened by strike; used in 1944 to run railroads briefly-Financing the War-increase income tax, sell war bonds

Harry S. Truman1945-1953Democrat

-Ending the War: Allies crossed into the Rhine in March 1945, Eisenhower’s forces met the Soviet Army at the Elbe. Battle for Okinawa, many dead Americans, but destroyed Japan’s defenses. In 1945, Germany surrendered. -Potsdam: Stalin, Truman, and Attlee met in Germany in 1945 and agreed to issue a warning to Japan to surrender unconditionally, and to hold war-crime trials of Nazi leaders. -Bombing Japan: Manhattan Project (1942) directed by J. Robert Oppenheimer developed atomic bomb (A-Bomb). Successfully tested on July 16 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Truman warned Japan to surrender after Okinawa, they refused. Truman launched bomb on Hiroshima, than on Nagasaki. 250,000 Japanese died from impact and aftermath. -Japanese surrender: after second bomb, as long as Emperor could be a titular head of state. Formal surrender received by Gen. MacArthur on Sept. 2, 1945 in Tokyo harbor about the battleship Missouri.-Effects of the War: 300,000 Americans died, 800,000 wounded. Spent over $320 billion, ten times greater than spending for WWI. Federal spending increased 1000% from 1939-1945. National debt reached $250 billion. Establish UN in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks near Washington DC. Reps from US, Soviet Unions, Great Britain, China, proposed name to be United Nations. 1945, first meeting of 50 nations in San Francisco, drafted a charter for it. Senate approved, came into existence in 1945. -End of 1945, Soviet Union controlled most of Eastern Europe, Outer Mongolia, Manchuria, N. Korea, Kurile Islands, and Sakhalin Island, took over Poland, Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria…failure of Soviet containment. -Bolshevik Rev in 1917 was a threat to capitalism, led to US Red Scare of 1919; US didn’t recognize govt of Soviet Union until 1933, Stalin can’t be trusted: Nonagression Pct of 1939 (Stalin and Hitler agreed to divide E.Euro), rejected UN Baruch Plan (removal of atomic weapons, but Russia agreed to have Atomic Energy Commission); denial for Soviets to participate in the World Bank created at the Vretton Woods Conference in 1944 (said it was capitalistic). -Soviets brought Communists to power in their land, said it was a buffer against “Hitler behavior.”—US said violates self-determination-Germany and Austria divided into four zones, one French, British, US, and Soviet. Soviet zone (E. Germany) became communist (German Democratic-Republic). Soviets wanted it weak and wanted it to pay a lot of money. US and Britain refused to allow reparations from their zones because they thought Germany needed to develop economically. Soviets tightened their control, attempted to force Americans, British, and French out of their subdivided Berlin City. -Containment policy: stop spread of communism (1947) formed by Gen. George Marshall (Secy State), Dean Acheson, and George F. Kennan, expert on Siviet affairs. “Russia will abandon its Communism if we contain.”-The Truman Doctrine: because of communism in Greece and

-G.I. Bill: Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944: as soldiers returned, they were allowed to continue education at the gov expense. 2 million GIs attended college, started postwar boom in higher education. Veterans got $16 billion in low-interest gov backed loans to buy homes/farms/stat businesses. Stimulated postwar economic expansion. -Truman was moderate, not liberal like FDR-Employment Act of 1946: watered down version of Truman’s full employment bill. Created council of Economic Advisors to counsel the president and Congress on means of promoting national economic welfare. Hindered later by conservative congress. -Truman wanted to keep inflation in check by controlling prices as in wartime. Democrats sided with Reps by relaxing controls of Office of Price Administration, inflation rate of almost 25% in first year of peace. -Strikes: workers wanted wages to catch up after wage controls. 4.5 million workers struck in 1946. United Auto Workers under Walter Reuther and steelworkers under Philip Murray struck General Motors and US Steel, want wage increases. Truman says 18 cent increase, US Steel raises prices to do it. Truman seized the mines and used soldiers to keep them operating until the United Mine Workers under John L. Lewis finally ended strike.-Established Committee on Civil Rights in 1946: strengthened the civil rights division of the Justice Dept which aided black leaders against segregation. -1948: ordered end of racial discrimination in the dept of the fed gov and all three branches of the military. End of segregation within the military also change life on bases, which were mostly Southern. -Truman wanted to pass Fair Employment Practices Commission to prevent employers from discriminating against hiring blacks, southern Dems blocked it. -Taft-Hartley Act (1947): pro-business. Truman vetoes, overrode his veto. Check union power. Outlawed closed shop, permitted states to pass laws outlawing the union shop, outlawed secondary boycotts, president can invoke 80-day period before a strike a strike could be called. Divided the parties further. -Rep Congress passes 1951 22 Amendment-The Fair Deal: 1949, mostly defeated because Congress=hate Truman, too concerned with Cold war. Wanted to enact health insurance, aid to edu, civil rights leg, funds for schools, housing, farm reform. Only pass was increase in minimum wage and the inclusion of more workers under Social Security. -Farm Policy: Charles Brannan wants to continue price supports for crops and minimum incomes, failed.-1947: Truman appoints Hoover to Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch. 1949: Organization Act, allowed president to make changes that congress could veto. -Presidential Succession Act of 1947: speaker of the House and president Pro tempore of Senate ahead of Secy of state and after VP. -Used Smith Act of 1940 (illegal to advocate overthrow of gov by force) to jail Communist leaders. -Loyalty Review Board: reviews gov employees in response to the House Committee on Un-American Activities.

-Post WWII USA: 15 million soldiers returning, scarcity of jobs, but the per-capita income of Americans increased, in savings accounts since wartime shortages meant there had been few consumer goods to buy. Consumer demand for cars and housing combined with gov and road-building overcame uncertainty, introduced unprecedented prosperity and growth. -1950s: Highest SOL ever in US History. -Baby boom: marriages and births increased, young/larger families=50 million new babies born from 1945-1960, focused women on raising kids, but1960 1/3 married women worked outside the home. -William J. Levitt: developed suburbia with Levittown, mass-produced, low-priced family home son Long Island, NY. Most middle class Americans lived in the suburbs, but cities become poorer as the wealthier moved to suburbs. -The Sunbelt: people moved to FL and CA because of lower taxes, better climate. -1946: Churchill’s Iron Curtain: separates democracies from authoritarian communist states. From news of a communist-spy ring.-1946: Reps get control of Congress (people mad at inflation and strikes)-1948: clear victory by Truman over Thomas E. Dewey. COLD WAR WITH ASIA:-Douglas MacArthur—reconstruction of Japan. Set up parliament, Hirohito ceremonial head of state, no power, new constitution, renounced war, limited military, Japan depends on US military. -US Japanese Security Treaty: 1951 occupation ends, Japan gives up Korea and Pacific islands, Us troops can be in military bases. -The Philippines: 1946: Philippines republic (passed by Congress 1934), US stayed in naval and air bases there.-China: Chiang Kai-Shek controlled Kyomintang (Nationalist) party and central gov. We gave aid to prevent Japanese conquering. George Marshall to settle Nationalists v. Communists, Mao wins, Nationalists went to Taiwan. Mao makes People’s Republic of China. -Korean War: 1950, N, Korea invades South, MacArthur commands, drives N. Koreans north of 38th parallel, wants a naval blockade of China and bombs north of the Yalu River, Truman says no, criticizes the president for the war, Truman removes him 1951. -The Hiss Case: 1948: Whittaker Chambers charged Alger Hiss as a communist spy. Convicted of perjury.-McCarran Internal Security Act: 1950, communist organizations must register with attn gen and prevent members from defense work and travel abroad. Truman vetoed, passed anyway. -Rosenberg Case: 1950: Julius and Ethel, Harry Gold, charged with giving atomic secrets to Russia, executed after conviction 1953.

demand for control of Turkey’s Dardanelles by Russia. Congress, give $400 mill to aid democracies in 1947.-The Marshall Plan: 1947: Europe ruined by war, spread communism. George Marshall aid Euro nations’ economy and strengthen their democratic gov. Called “European Recovery Program” aka Marshall Plan over 4 year period. Western Europe grew, increased US exports, ended threat of communism. -The Berlin Airlift: 1948: first crisis. Soviets cut off access to Berlin, Truman sent in planes with supplies to West Berlin, send bombers to English bases, 1949, Stalin opened up Berlin. Led to two Germanys, one US ally (Fed Rep) and one soviet (German DemRep..East)-NATO: 1949: join military defense to protect Western Europe. Military alliance, led by Eisenhower, troops went to protect Europe. Soviets responded with Warsaw Pact 1955, defense of communist states.-Arms Race: Soviets tested first atomic bomb in 1949, Truman approved development of the H-bomb (1952)-NSC – 68: Report, said Cold War can win if defense spending goes 20% GNP, ally with non-communists, build up arms (1950).

-Joseph McCarthy: 1950, from Wisconsin, list of communists working in the State Dept, attacked diplomats, scholars, actors, contributed to defeat of two senators in electoral votes, made charges against Army (Army-McCarthy hearings), televised, was censured and discredited by the Senate in 1954. -National Security Act of 1947: centralized Dept of Defense (no war Dept) to coordinate military, creation of National security Council (NSC) to make foreign policy, creation of CIA for spies.-1948: Selective Service System and draft (peacetime) made-Walter Lippman, journalist, coined term COLD WAR and said containment tried to do too much.

Dwight D. Eisenhower1953-1961Republican

-New Foreign Policy: Secy State John Foster Dulles: more aggressive. Wanted to challenge Soviet Union and China. : “Brinkmanship” -First H-Bomb from US exploded 1952, Russia, 1953-Stalin dies, 1953. Nikita Khrushchev becomes leader in 1955.-1954: -French wanted to take back Indochina (lost it to Japan). Vietnamese resisted, increased support for Ho Chi Minh. Anti-colonial war integrated into Cold war rivalry against communists and anticommies. Truman gave aid to French, China and Soviets helped Viet Minh guerrillas. French wanted US to help rescue forces at Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam, besieged by Ho Chi Minh, Eisenhower refused. Dien Bien Phu fell to Nationalists.-Dulles wanted a SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) but got only Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan in 1954. -Quemoy and Matsu (off coast of China) occupied by Chiang Kai-Shek but China claimed in. 1955, Eisenhower got permission to defend Taiwan. -The Suez Canal Crisis: US lend money to Egypt under Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser to build Aswan Dam, didn’t give arms. Nasser befriended China 1956 US took back loan, Nasser nationalized the Canal in turn. France, Great Britain, and Israel attacked Egypt but Eisenhower told them to leave, mad they hadn’t told him of it. Last time Britain/France act as major powers in Global History. Cease fire. -The Geneva Accords: France, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and China signed them in 1954. Divided Vietnam along 17th parallel. North by Ho Chi Minh, south by Bao Dai, Ngo Dinh Diem overthrew Bao and prevented elections. 1953, Armistice, border the same.-Used covert action (1953) (Undercover intervention) CIA helped overthrow gov’t in Iran that tried to nationalize foreign oil companies. Allowed return for Reza Pahlavi (shah or Iran). He gave use cheap oil and bought our exports. -1954: Guatemala, CIA overthrew liberal gov that threatened business (Jacobo Arbenz Guzman). Supported ruthless dictator. Anti-American feeling, Venezuelans attacked Nixon during his tour in 1958. -Domino Theory: If South Vietnam falls, others will fall to Communism too.-The Eisenhower Doctrine: 1957: economic and military aid to Mid Eastern lands threatened by communism. Applied in 1958 in Lebanon, sent marines to prevent civil war between Christians and

-Secy of Defense, Charles Wilson—he was pro-business-Fiscal conservative: first priority to balance budget, accepted New Deal programs, but was a moderate. He extended social Security to 10 million more, raised minimum wage, added public housing. -Created Dept of Health, Education and Welfare, led by Oveta Culp Hobby, first woman in Republican cabinet. (1953)-Soil-bank program for farmers to reduce production and increase income.-Opposed fed health care insurance and federal aid to education-1956 Highway Act: authorized lots of miles of highways linking the major cities. Taxes on fuel, tires, and vehicles to improve defense. Created jobs, accelerated growth of suburbs, helped trucking industry, more homogenous national culture. Hurt environment. -1957 and 1960: provided for a Civil rights Commission and Justice Dept had power to protect blacks voting rights. Southerners ignored it. -Opposed TVA: Instead, privately owned power plant )(Dixon Yates) to supply electricity to TN. Corruption, turned to Idaho Power Company , right to build three dams on Snake River. -Atomic Energy Act of 1954: allowed construction of private nuclear power plants under Atomic Energy Commission license and oversight. -Rural Electrification Administration: 97% American farms had electricity. 1954: gov financed export of farm surpluses in exchange for foreign currencies and provided surpluses free to needy nations, including milk to children and the poor for governmentally issued food stamps. -1954: Joint Canadian US construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway.-Appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1953 and William Brannan as associate justice. -Sherman Adams Scandal: 1958: Chief of Staff took a bribe to help an Industrialist in Boston deal with the bureaucracy. -Landrum-Griffen Labor-Management Act of 1959: control unfair union practices by establishing rules like penalties for misuse of funds. -Alaska (49th state) –1959 and Hawaii same year. -Completed integration of military, desegregated public services in DC-Civil Rights Act of 1960: right for blacks to register at fed courts-1959: VA laws nullified which prevented state funds from going to integrated schools. Beginning of the end for Southern “Massive

-On ticket with Nixon, Nixon almost dropped, may have stolen funds, stayed with Checkers speech. Versus Adlai Stevenson. Won electoral landslide.-Steady growth rate, inflation averabing 1.5%, small surplus-Per capita income more than tripled from 1945-1960.-Sputnik: 1957, Russian satellites orbited earth, US wanted to prove they were powerful too: (1958) National Defense and Education Act (NDEA)—authorized giving millions of money to schools for science and foreign language education. Created NASA to explore space. Space Race Start. -Background to Board (Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents and Sweatt V. Painter (1949 and 1950) said blacks can attend integrated law schools) Civil Rights: Desegregating schools: Brown V. Board overturned Plessy (South tried to close schools, White Citizens Councils arose, Gov Faubus of AK sent Nat’l Guard to prevent nine blacks from entering—Eisenhower sent in fed troops to help the kids enter) NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall. 1955: Montgomery Bus Boycott: Rosa Parks—1956: segregation laws determined unconstitutional. -Nonviolent protests: MLK Jr formed Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), organized ministers and churches in South to get behind the struggle. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) formed later to keep it organized. -Popular Culture in the Fifties: Television center of life, one TV for every 3 1/3 Americans, comedies, westerns, quiz shows, sports. FCC chairman Newton Minnow “Vast wasteland (is what TV is). Media advertising, McDonalds golden arches as ex. People shopped at franchises, not “mom and pop” stores anymore. Read more than ever, new paperback books, popular music had new mass marketing of LP record albums and 45 rpm records. -Corporations rose in America, “Fortune” magazine list of 500 best companies; William Whyte documented loss of individuality in corporate world in book The Organization Man (1956). Big unions powerful after AFL and CIO merged in 1955, became more conservative as workers got middle class status. Disneyland opens (1955)-Religion: Organized religions expanded. Will Herberg’s Protestant, Catholic, Jew commented on religious tolerance of the times and the lack of interest in doctrine as religion became a form of social interaction.

Muslims. -OPEC and Oil: 1960: Arab nations formed OPEC. -Spirit of Geneva: Stalin died in 1953, Ike wanted to slow arms race. Met in Geneva (1955). Soviets refused to allow photography of planes, but Khrushchev called for a “peaceful coexistence with West,” step to end CWar. -Hungarian revolt: German and Polish demanded reforms form Communist government. US Neutral, didn’t want to go against Moscow (backing the Communist leaders). -Second Berlin Crisis: 1958, Khrushchev gave West six months to pull troops out of West Berlin. US refused Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to US in 1959, met at Camp David, put off the crisis, agreed to a Paris summit. -U-2 INCIDENT: May 1960, American spy plane shot down over Soviet Union, and pilot Francis Gary Powers was captured. Eisenhower took responsibility and Khrushchev called of the Paris summit conference to take place in a few days. -Cuban communism: 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista. Castro nationalized American businesses in Cuba, Eisenhower cut off US trade with it, Castro asked Soviets for help, set up communist state, CIA trained anticommunist Cuban exiles to retake island, but that left up to Kennedy.

resistance.” -1960: Woolworth lunch counter in NC: Four blacks had a sit-in, followed by many other sit-ins as a peaceful way to protest. -1958: first arms limitation by voluntarily suspending the above-ground testing of nuclear weapons.-Farewell address: warned nation to guard against influencesRole of Women:-Baby and Child Care (1946) by Dr. Benjamin Spock—reaffirmed traditional role of women, but well educated women began working, but got lower wages.-Social Critics:“The Lonely Crowd” by David Riesman criticized replacement of individuals with conformists. “The Affluent Society” by John Kenneth Galbraith failure of rich Americans to address need for social spending for the common good. “White Collar” and “The Power Elite” by C. Wright Mills portrayed dehumanizing corporate world and threats to freedom. “The Catcher in the Rye”-J.D. Salinger comments on phoniness. Joseph Heller “Catch-22)—on stupidity of the military and war. -Jack Kerouac (“On the Road”) and Allen Ginsberg (“Howl”) advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion. Called “Beatniks”. Influenced 60s

John F. Kennedy 1961-1963Democrat

-Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): Kennedy let CIA train exiles to retake Cuba. Cubans landed, didn’t set off the uprising, trapped on beach, surrendered after Kennedy rejected idea of using more forces to save them. Castro used it to get aid from Soviets.-Berlin Wall: 1961, Kennedy and Khrushchev met, Nikita told him in Vienna to pull Us out of Berlin, Kennedy refused and built up his defense funds, East Germans built a wall around them, Kennedy said he’d keep the support coming to West Berlin. -Cuban Missile Crisis: (1962): Russians preparing sites in Cuba that could launch weapons at US, Kennedy set up a naval blockade of Cuba until weapons were removed, Nikita agreed to get rid of weapons if Kennedy didn’t invade Cuba again. 1963: nations signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, banning the testing of nuclear weapons. All signed but France and China. -Flexible-Response Policy: Kennedy and McNamara, increase spending on conventional arms and military forces, not nuclear, increased temptation to send troops into Vietnam, reduced risk of nuclear war.-1961—Alliance for Progress, US give money to Latin America. -1963: supported successful military coup against Diem after French defeat in 1954.

-The New Frontier: difficult , wanted to aid education, support health care, create a Dept of Urban Arrairs, civil rights reforms, but died in Congress, some passed later under Johnson. -Economically, faced down big steel execs over inflationary price increase, achieved a price rollback, increased spending for defense and space exploration, raise in minimum wage and extending it to more people-The Housing Act: provided almost $5 billion over four years to preserve urban lands, develop mass transit, and construct housing. (1961)-didn’t want to press civil rights: might alienate white voters. But 1962, James Meredith, black air force veteran, wanted to enroll in University of Mississippi, Kennedy sent in federal marshals and troops to control violence and protect his right to attend class. Happened again in Alabama in 1963. -Justice Department began to push for civil rights, desegregation of interstate transportation in the south, integration of schools , and supervision of elections.

-Election of 1960: Nixon v. Kennedy; televised debates showed positive image of Kennedy-Kennedy attacked Nixon’s administration for recession-One of closest election in history-Youngest President-Assassinated in 1963 in Texas by Lee Harvey Oswald, determined as lone assassin by the Warren Commission, headed by Earl Warren (Chief Justice)-Peace Corps established in 1961.-MLK’s march onto Washington 963, most successful demonstration in US history, blacks and whites marked in sup[port of Kennedy’s civil rights bill, I have a dream speech. -Freedom riders, 1961, sponsored by the CORE, boarded buses in Washington and traveled to New Orleans to test racial discrimination ban laws. Met some violence, but continued to their destination.

Lyndon B. Johnson1963-1969 Democrat

-1964, Johnson pushed Gulf of Tonkin resolution through Congress, allowing them to use military force in Vietnam once N. Vietnamese gunboats fired on American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. -1965 attack by the Vietcong on Pleiku, Johnson ordered Operation Tolling Thunder, first long bombing of N. Vietnam, sent troops to South Vietnam led by Gen. William Westmoreland, search and destroy operations, increased troops almost 4x from 1965-1968. -“Hawks” defended policy, said we had to resist aggression, Secy State Dean Rusk spoke on domino theory, justified their presence, otherwise other Asian countries would fall. -Tet Offensive: 1968, Vietcong attacked a lot of bases and Saigon, won a victory as Americans began turning against the war.

-Free Speech movement: U.CA @ Berkeley had sit-ins in 1964 to protest prohibition of political canvassing on campus, led by Mario Savio, police broke it up, protests spread. -Students protested Vietnam War in Central Park in NYC in 1967, SDS became more militant, turned to Lenin for ideology. -1968, over 100 campus demonstrations took place, led to

-tax cut of $10 led to economic book in 1964. -Civil Rights Act of 1964: outlawed racial discrimination by employers and unions, created Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce law, eliminated remaining restriction on African American voting-Medicare Act of 1965: hospital insurance for retirees, voluntary plan to cover physicians’ bills, Medicaid to grant states money to help poor below retirement age. -Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): gave money to school districts to improve lower-class education. Head State available to educate mentally-challenged kids. -Immigration Act of 1965:discontinued national origin system, based immigration on skills and political asylum.-Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965: provided housing units and money to renew urban communities. Established Dept of Housing and urban Affairs in 1966, made rent supplements available to poor.-1965-Voting Rights Act: allowed attn gen to appoint officials to register voters, response to MLKs voter registration drive, marching

-1969: Man on the moon, Aldrin and Armstrong.-Racial Riots: 70% of blacks lived in city ghettoes, 1965, Watts in LA erupted in riot, national guard brought in, casualties, many wounded, thousands arrested, damages to property. 1966, riots in NY, Chicago, and Newark, Detroit in 1967. Kerner Commission appointed to investigate riots said they were directed at a system that prevented blacks from getting good jobs and put them in ghettoes. -Black Power: SNCC, Stokely Carmichael, violent, 1964, unwilling to work with whites, 1966, wanted civil rights movements only done by blacks, moved to Black Panthers, urban revolutionaries in California (Oakland) H. Rap Brown also called for “Black Power.”-1968, MLK killed in Memphis by James Earl Ray, let to riots in over 100 cities. -Black officials: Associate Justice Thurgood Marshall, Secy of Housing and Urban Affairs Robert Weaver, Senator Edward W. Brooke. -United Farm Workers, under Cesar Chavez, turned a grape picker strike in Delano, CA, into a national campaign by attaching the

occupation of Columbia University to protest its involvement in military research and its poor relations with minority groups, police with clubs broke it up, some gathered in Chicago to protest the war during the DNC, police violence against them aroused anger, the antiwar movement began to split between those favoring violence and those opposed to it. SDS broke into rival groups, radical factions used bombs, Tom Hayden left, in 1970 the New Left had lost political influence b/c it abandoned its original commitment to nonviolence and democracy.

-Election of 1964: Johnson against Barry Goldwater, won over 60% of the vote.-His reforms part of a system called “The Great Society”.-Election of 1868, Johnson withdrew candidacy, Humphrey took place, vs. Nixon, Nixon won by 1%.

from Selma to Montgomery AL.

-The Counterculture: Founders alienated by bureaucracy, materialism, and Vietnam War, turned from politics in favor of alternative society, heirs of the Beatniks. Formed communes in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district or in rural areas, called Hippies, experimented with eastern religions, drugs, sex, etc, Tim Leary, Theodore Roszak, and Charles Reich.-Women’s Lib: Betty Friedan wrote “The Feminine Mystique” in 1963, argued middle class society stifled women, attacked cult of domesticity.-NOW: National Organization for Women, Friedan and others founded it in 1966, wanted equal employment and pay. Limited to middle class, Equal rights amendment failed to pass. Abortion rights stirred up a counter “right to life” movement during the women’s liberation movement in 1966.

migrant labor system through a grape boycott.-American Indian Movement (AIM) founded 1968, had sit-ins, then turned to courts.-The New Left: most Americans under 30 by 1965, college enrollments increased, SDS organized by Tom Hayden and AL Haber of the U. of Michigan in 1960, Hayden’s Port Huron Statement in 1962 called for democracy, SDS got most ideology from C. Wright Mills, Paul Goodman, and Herbert Marcuse.

Richard M. Nixon1969-1974Republican

-Vietnamization: all non-South Vietnamese troops be withdrawn in phases, rejected by North Vietnamese, Vietnamization, tried to build up South Vietnamese forces while withdrawing American ones. 1969, reduced troop strength considerably, but ordered bombing of Cambodia, a neutral country to flush out Vietcong. -Two Moratorium Days in 1969 brought about several hundred thousand protesters, and reports of an American massacre of Vietnamese at My Lai began controversy over the war again. -Nixon instituted the draft with a lottery system in 1970, in 1973 he abolished the draft and established an all-volunteer army. -1970, Nixon sent troops into Cambodia to clear Vietcong, resumed bombing of N. Vietnam.-1970: Kent State University, National Guardsmen fired on protestors against the war, murder at Jackson state University, colleges closed down by strikes, Congress repeals the Gulf of Tonkin resolution. -Pentagon Papers: Def. Department documents leaked to press, revealed gov had misled Congress about its intentions in Vietnam (1971). -1972, US and N. Vietnam negotiated in Paris, cease-fire, return of American POW, withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam, Henry Kissinger, National Security Advisor, “Peace is at hand.”-1972, Nixon resumed bombing, said North Vietnam was not nice, 1973, settlement, N. Vietnam has control over the South and will release American POWs, when the US would withdraw its remaining troops. Huge amount of American casualties, cost a lot of money. -War Powers Act of 1973L need congressional approval to commit combat troops over 90 days. -China: Henry Kissinger traveled to China and Soviet Union. Nixon went to meet Mao in 1972, US agreed to support China’s admission to the UN. -1972, the SALT was signed, US and USSR agreed to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the number of antiballistic missiles to 200 each. -Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Arabian staged an oil boycott to push western nations into forcing Israel to withdraw. Kissinger negotiated withdrawal of Israel from some land and the Arabs lifted boycott. OPEC raised oil from $3 to $11.65 a barrel. US gas prices doubled and inflation shot above 10 percent.

-Tried to block renewal of Voting Rights Act and delay implementation of school desegregation in Mississippi-Proposed anti-busing bill after Supreme Court ordered busing of students in 1971 to achieve desegregation, failed in Congress. -1969—Appointed Warren Burger as Chief Justice, but railed with Clement Haynesworth and Harrold Carswell, then chose Harry Blackmun, Lewis Powell Jr, and William Rehnquist as associate justices: Burger court more conservative than Warren court, but still struck down death penalty in 1972 and abortion. -“New Federalism”: Passed in 1972, 5 year plan to give federal revenues to the states.-Congressional Bills: 18 year olds right to vote (1970), increased social security benefits and funding for food stamps (1970), established occupational safety and Health Act (1970), Clean Air Act (1970) laws to control water pollution (1970, 1972) and Federal Election Campaign Act (1972)…none supported by Nixon. -Unemployment increasing , inflation increasing, GNP decreasing, because of federal deficits in the 1960s, international competition, and rising energy costs. Nixon cut spending, raised taxes, encouraged Fed Reserve to raise interest rates, economy got worse, 1970, Congress gave him the power to regulate prices and wages, declared a 90-day price and wage freeze, took US off the gold standard, then established mandatory guidelines for wage and price increases, 1973 returned to voluntary wage and price controls, except on health care, food, and construction, inflation increased, cut back on gov expenditures, impounding funds already appropriated by congress. -Congressional Laws after Watergate: (1974) limited amounts of contributions and expenditures in presidential campaign, strengthened the 1966 Freedom of Information Act by requiring gov to act when asked for information and to prove its case for classification when attempting to withhold information on grounds of national security. ELECTION OF 1972: George McGovern V. Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew. Nixon won landslide. George Wallace ran again as Independent Party candidate, paralyzed in 1972 from Arthur Bremer.

-The Watergate Scandal:1972: James McCord, security officer for the Committee for the Re-election of the President, and four others broke into Democratic headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in DC, caught going through files and installing electronic devices. Nixon said he didn’t’ know about it. 1973, trial began, McCord wrote a letter to US District Judge John J. Sirica saying Republican officials had known in advance about the burglary. Jeb Stuart Magruder and John W. Dean said they were involved. Dean said that Nixon had been involved in covering it up. H.R Haldeman, John Ehrlichman, Richard Kleindienst resigned, Nixon said he wasn’t involved, refused to allow investigation into White House documents. Nixon agreed to let Archibald Cox to be appointed, Cox got warrant for tape recordings of White House conversations, Nixon ordered Elliot Richardson to fire Cox, Richardson and William Ruckelshaus resigned. Called the “Saturday Night Massacre” in 1973. Peter Rodino of NJ looked into impeachment. Nixon accused of not paying income taxes from 1969-1972 and of using public funds for improvements to his house in CA and FL, IRS assessed him ½ million in back taxes and interest. 1974, aides named Nixon as a conspirator, Nixon refused to give in 64 tapes, went to Supreme Court, Nixon finally released tape of June 1972, revealed he had used the CIA to keep the FBI from investigating it. Nixon resigned in 1974.-THE VICE PRESIDENTIAL SCANDAL: Spiro accused on income tax fraud and bribe acceptance in MD, reigned in 1973, replaced by Gerald Ford under new 25th amendment.

Gerald Ford1974-1977Republican

-North Vietnamese pushed into South Vietnam, wanted more arms to South, Congress rejected, Saigon fell to North Vietnamese 1975. -Democrats ran James Carter, Gov. of Georgia. Carter wins.-1975-U.S. friendly gov’t in Cambodia fell to Khmer Rouge-Ford ordered attack on base that captured the Mayguez

-Pardoned Nixon in 1974-Faced economic problems: said it was because of inflation, “Whip Inflation Now” (WIN) buttons given to public, ,economy declined, Ford asked for tax cuts for business and argued against social program spending.-search for abuses in CIA-found engineered assassinations of

-Opposite of Nixon-NYC almost bankrupt in 1975, Ford opposed federal aid but Senate and House Banking Committees guaranteed the loan.

Salvador Allende Jimmy Carter1977-1981Democrat

-Wanted to base it on human rights-Panama Canal: Negotiated treaty with Panama, passed 1978, transferred canal to Panama in 1999. -Ended recognition of Taiwan in 1979 and recognized the People’s Republic of China. -1979, proposed SALT II, limited strategic arms with the Soviet Union, cap of amount of bombers and missiles for each side, limited warheards and new weapons systems, didn’t reach Senate. -1978: Camp David Accords: Israel and Egypt, Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin to MD to end war, Israel said to return occupied land in the Sinai in exchange for Egyptian recognition, completed in 1982, could not negotiate Palestinian refugee problem. -1979, Soviets invaded Afghanistan, Carter stopped shipments of grain and tech to them, withdrew support for SALT II, and barred Americans form the Moscow Summer Olympics (1980).

-1978: voluntary wage and price guidelines, successful, but did not apply to oil/housing/food.-Named Paul A Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Paul tightened money supply to reduce inflation, but it increased interest rates, which depressed sales of cats/houses, and increased unemployment. -Offered amnesty to Americans who fled draft during Vietnam War-Established departments of Energy and Education, placed civil service on Merit basis, created a “superfund” to cleanup chemical waste dumps, established controls over strip mining, protected Alaska from development.

RELEASED HOSTAGES BY UNFREEZING IRANIAN ASSETS AFTER A NEGOTIATION WITH ALGERIA AND IRAN (1981)

IRANIAN CRISIS! HOSTAGES GALORE!- 1978, shah of Iran fled country, replaced with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, US supported shah with arms and money, revolutionaries hated America, exiled Shah came to US for cancer treatment, Iranians attacked US embassy in Teheran, took occupants hostage, demanded shah be returned to Iran for trial and wealth be given to Iran, carter said no, froze Iranian assets in US, put trade embargo against them, appealed to UN and world court, Iranians freed the black and women hostages, but kept the 52 others, 1980, Carter tried to rescue them, didn’t work, Secy of State Cyrus Vance reigned before the raid, Carter criticized.

Ronald Reagan1981-1989 Republican

-Challenged Muammar al-Qadhafi, leady of Libya, sent sixth fleet ships within the Gulf of Sidra, gunboats challenged American ships, planes destroyed the gunboats and bombed Libyan shoreline, Reagan launched air strike against Libyan bases from Great Britain in 1986 thinking the pub popular with his soldiers was ordered to be bombed by Qadhafi. -Mikhail Gorbachev ruled Russia in 1985, Reagan softened stance, Reagan thought they hadn’t adhered to the SALT II (even though it didn’t get passed), and he would expand his American defense system. -Arms Control: 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev signed an agreement eliminating medium-range missiles from Europe. -Iran-Contra: 1986, William Casey, head of CIA, Colonel Oliver North of the NSC, Admiral John Poindexter, NSA, and Robert McFarlane sold arms to Iranians to encourage them to use influence to get American hostages in Lebanon released, profits then given to the Nicaraguan Contras to get around congressional restriction on funding them. President forced to appoint a special prosecutor, and Congress held hearing on it in 1987. -Nicaragua: US didn’t support peace plan signed by five Central American nations in 1987, but the Sandinistas and the Contras agreed on a cease-fire.

- Tax Policy: “Supply-side” economics, if gov left more money in the hands of the people, they would invest not spend the excess on consumer goods, would mean greater production, more jobs, more prosperity, and more income for the govt despite lower tax rates. -Economic Recovery Tax Act: 1983, wanted 30% tax cut, got 25% over 3 years, percentage the same for everyone, to encourage investment, capital gains, gift, and inheritance taxes reduced and business taxes liberalized, anyone with income could invest up to $2000 a year in an Individual Retirement Account (IRA), deferring all taxes on both the principal and its earning until retirement. -wanted funding for Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)SDI would destroy incoming enemy missiles from outer space, Congress didn’t give it to him because they feared it was impossible. -1982 Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act revered some concessions made to business in 1981, Social Security benefits became taxable income in 1983, 1984 Deficit Reduction Act increased taxes by another $50 billion. Deficit increased. -Opposed “equal pay for equal work” and the renewal of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. -Ended antitrust suits against IBM and ATT, fulfilling promise to reduce govt involvement in business. - Tax Reform Act of 1986 lowered tax rates, got rid of progressive taxation-Opposed debt relief for bankrupt farmers that Congress wanted to pass-1987: “Black Monday” Dow Jones dropped over 500 points, market losing money fast, in 1988 Congress reduced taxes b/c feared a recession.

-Ran against Carter, won with a large victory.-Assassination attempt by John W. Hinckley in 1981.-Appointed Sandra Day O’Connor to Supreme Court, but didn’t give lots of positions to minorities or women. -In first term, appointees accused of conflict of interest (Anne Gorsuch Burford and Rita Lavelle of the EPA, Edwin Meese advisor and later attn gen and Michael Deaver, deputy chief of staff). Ray Donovan, Secy of Labor was indicted but acquitted of charges that he made payoffs to government officials while he was in private business. -1984: Election: Reagan v. Walter Mondale. Reagan supported by Moral Majority, founded by Jerry Falwell. Reagan got 60% of the vote. -Unemployment declined. -US became debtor nation for first time-Challenger space shuttle exploded in 1986, reinforced doubts about the SDI. First private citizen to go to space died. -Supreme Court: Replaced Burger with Rehnquist, appointed O’Connor, Scalia, and Kennedy (all conservatives)