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Chapter 24: The Great Depression and the New Deal
Outline
Hard times
oThe bull market
Stock market resembled a sporting arena
Millions following stock prices
Business leaders and economists told Americans it was their duty to buy stocks
John J. Raskob
Chairman of the board of GM
Wrote an article stating that a person who invested $15 in a good common stock per month would have $80,000 within 20 years
Bull market of the 1920s
Stock prices increased at twice the rate of industrial production
Paper value outran real value
4 million Americans owned stocks
Had been lured into the market through margin accounts
oAllowed investors to purchase stocks by making a small down payment and borrowing the rest from a broker
oThe Crash
The Wall Street crash if 1929 was not a one or two day catastrophe
It was a steep slide
Bull market peaked in early September
Prices lowered
October 23
Dow Jones industrials lost 21 points in one hour
Large investors concluded that the boom was over
October 28
Dow lost 28 points (13% of its value)
October 29, Black Tuesday
More than 16 million shares were traded as panic selling took hold
The markets foundation of credit crumbled
Based on margin debt
Many investors with margin accounts had no choice but to sell when the stock values fell
Shares themselves represented the security for their loans
More money had to be put up to cover the loans when prices declined
Mid-November
$30 billion in the market price of stocks had been wiped out
Half of the value of stocks listed inThe New York Timeswas lost within 10 weeks
Political and economic leaders downplayed the impact of the crash
Andrew Mellon
It will purge the rottenness out of the system High costs of living and high living will come down. People will work harder, live a more moral life. Values will be adjusted, and enterprising people will pick up the wrecks from less competent people
oUnderlying Weaknesses
The economy after the crash became less resistant to existing problems
Workers and consumers received too small a share of the enormous increases in labor productivity
o1923-1929: manufacturing output per worker-hour increased by 32%
oWages only rose 8% during the same time
oRise in productivity encouraged overproduction
Farmers hadnt regained their prosperity from the World War I years
Suffered from declining prices, drop in exports, and large debts incurred by wartime expansion
Unequal distribution of income and wealth
1929: top .1% of Americans had and aggregate income equal to the bottom 42%
Top 5% of Americans received 30% of the nations income
Bottom 60% got only 26% of nations income
80% of the nation had no savings
.5% of Americans owned 32.4% of net wealth of the entire population
Manufacturers decreased their production and laid off workers
Layoffs brought further declines in consumer spending
oPrompted another round of production cutbacks
Consumers had less to spend
Businesses were hesitant to expand
Banks began to fail as depositors withdrew their uninsured funds
Thousands of families lost their savings
oMass Unemployment
Unemployment insurance did not exist; public relief was inadequate
Loss of a job meant economic catastrophe for workers
Unemployment across America became a sign of a deepening depression
1930; Department of Labor
9% of the labor force was out of work
Doubled by 1931
By 1933, more than of workers didnt have jobs
***no statistics tell how long these people were without work or if they had part-time jobs***
Many Americans blamed themselves for their failure in finding work
Feelings of shame, guilt, inadequacy, uselessness, and despair
Joblessness was most difficult for men between 35-55
Family responsibilities were heaviest on these men
Unemployment upset the psychological balance in many families by undermining the traditional authority of the male
Women found it easier to hold onto jobs
Wages were lower
Summed up strains found in families
Fathers feel they have lost their prestige in the home; there is much nagging, mothers nag at the fathers, parents nag at the children. Children of working age who earn meager salaries find it hard to turn over all their earning and deny themselves even the greatest necessities as a result leave home
oHoovers Failure
Companies lacked the money and resources to deal with the worsening situation
Detroit and Chicago
50% unemployment by 1932
Los Angeles
70,000 nonresident jobless and homeless men
Hoover failed to respond to human suffering
Administered large-scale humanitarian efforts during WWI with efficiency, but failed to face the facts of the Depression
1931 State of the Union Address
Our people are providing against distress from unemployment in true American fashion by magnificent response to public appeal and by action of the local governments
Resisted calls from Congress
Wanted a greater federal role in relief efforts or public works projects
Worried about injuring the initiative and enterprise of the American people
The Presidents Emergency Committee for Unemployment (1930) and the Presidents Organization for Unemployment Relief (POUR)
Encouraged local groups to raise money to help the unemployed
Plan for recovery centered on restoring business confidence
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
Based on the War Finance Corporation of the WWI years
Made government credit available to banks, railroads, insurance companies
Stimulated economic activity
Assumed the credit problem was one of supply rather than demand
1932; Democrats pushed through the Emergency Relief Act
Authorized the RFC to lend $300 million to states that had exhausted their own relief funds
Hoover reluctantly signed the bill
oProtest and the Election of 1932
March 7
Communist organizers led a march of auto workers and unemployed for the Ford River Rouge factory
oFord-controlled police fired tear gas and bullets
oKilled four and wounded 50 others
Farmers Holiday Associations
oDesperate farmers in Iowa
oAimed to raise prices by refusing to sell product
o1,500 farmers turned back cargo trucks outside Sious City
Dumped milk and other perishables into ditches
Bonus Army
oProtest descending on Washington D.C. in 1932
oVeterans who were given bonds after WWI demanded immediate payment of the bonus in cash
oBy the summer, they camped out all over the capital city
oHouse passed a bill for immediate payment
Senate rejected the bill, most of the veterans left
oJuly
General Douglas MacArthur forcibly evicted the remaining veterans from their encampment
oProvided the most disturbing evidence of the failure of Hoovers administration
1932; Democrats nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt as their candidate
oI pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people
oRoosevelts plans for recovery were vague
oRoosevelt won the election by a landslide
oDemocrats won big majorities in both the House and the Senate
FDR and the First New Deal
oFDR the man
Born in 1882 in Dutchess Country, New York
Was an only child
His mother, Sara Delano, was the dominant figure in his childhood
Roosevelts education reinforced the aristocratic values of his family
Groton
Harvard
Columbia Law School
He believed in:
A strong sense of civic duty
The importance of competitive athletics
Commitment to public service
In 1905, FDR married Eleanor Roosevelt(distant cousin)
Niece of Theodore Roosevelt
Elected as a Democrat to the NY State Senate in 1910
Was assistant navy secretary from 1913-1920
Summer of 1921:
FDR gets polio
oWas told he would never walk again without support
Eleanor encouraged him to fight his handicap and continue his political career
Once I spent two years lying in bed trying to move my big toe, anything else seems easy
Governor of New York in 1928:
Instituting unemployment insurance
Strengthened child labor laws
Provided tax relief for farmers
Provided pensions for the old
Set up a Temporary Emergency Relief Administration
Set up a group of key advisers; the brains trust: rejected the old progressive dream of re-creating an ideal society
oRaymond Moley
oRexford G. Tugwell
oAdolf A. Berle
oSamuel Rosenman
oBasil OConnor
oFelix Frankfurter
oRestoring Confidence
Roosevelt conveyed a sense of optimism
Helped restore the shaken confidence of the nation
Called for a four day bank holiday
Help the countrys ailing financial system
More than 1,300 banks failed in 1930
Contemporary investigations revealed
oIllegal loans to bank officials
oTax evasion that helped erode public confidence in the banking system
Between election day and the inauguration the bank system had come close to shutting down altogether
oDue to widespread bank failures and hoarding of currency
Fireside chat
Radio broadcasts that became a standard part of Roosevelts political technique
Were enormously successful
Gave courage to Americans
Communicated a sense of compassion from the White House
Emergency Banking Act
Gave the president broad powers over all banking transactions and foreign exchange
Authorized healthy banks to reopen under licenses from the Treasury Department
Provided greater federal authority to be present in managing the affairs of failed banks
oThe hundred days
March to June 1933
The Hundred Days
FDR pushed a number of acts through Congress
oDesigned to combat various aspects of the Depression
New Deal was no unified program to end the Depression
oImprovised series of reform and relief measures
Some contradicted each other
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
oUnemployment relief effort
oProvided work for jobless young men in protecting and conserving the nations natural resources
Road construction
Reforestation
Flood control
National park improvements
oWorkers received room and board and $30 a month
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)
o$500 million given from Congress
o the money went as direct relief to the states
oThe rest was distributed on the basis of:
A dollar of federal aid for ever three dollars of state and local funds spent for relief
oEstablishment of work relief projects was left to state and local governments
oHarry Hopkins
Former NYC social worker
Driven by deep moral passion to help the less fortunate
Emerged as a key figure for New Deal relief programs
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)
oProvided immediate relief to the nations farmers
oEstablished a new federal role in agricultural planning and price setting
oEstablished parity prices for basic farm commodities
Corn, wheat, hogs, etc
Parity pricing
Based on the purchasing power that farmers had enjoyed during the prosperous years of 1909-1914
oIncorporated the principle of subsidy
Farmers received benefit payments in return for reducing acreage or cutting production where surpluses existed
oLandlords often failed to share their AAA payments with tenant farmers
Frequently used benefits to buy tractors and other equipment that displaced sharecroppers
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
oOne of the most unique projects of the New Deal era
oBuilt dams and power plants
oProduced cheap fertilizer for farmers
oBrought cheap electricity for the first time to thousands of people
oStood as a model of how careful government planning could dramatically improve the social and economic welfare of an underdeveloped region
National Industrial Recovery Act
oEach industry would be self-governed by a code hammered out by representatives of business and labor
oLed by General Hugh Johnson
oSymbolized by the Blue Eagle stamp
oAlmost all the NRA codes were written by the largest firms in any industry
Public Works Administration (PWA)
oLed by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes
Authorized $3.3 billion for the construction of roads, public building, and other projects
oIdea was to provide jobs
Stimulate the economy through increased consumer spending
opriming the pump
The government had to prime the economy with jobs for the unemployed
oPWA spent more than $4.2 billion building roads, schools, post offices, bridges, courthouses
Left Turn and the Second New Deal
oHundred Days Legislature package tried to offer something for everybody.
oWashington brought reassurance that the nation was back on track, although the Depression made millions of people think otherwise
oThe New Deal had critics that complained that FDR ruined the traditional boundaries of government action while others argued that Roosevelt hadnt done enough
Roosevelts critics
oRepublican newspapers and the American Liberty League denounced Roosevelt and his advisors.
-They held the administration responsible for what they considered an attack on property rights, the growing welfare state, and the decline of personal liberty.
oAmerican Liberty League
odominated by executives of DuPont and General Motors
-League attracted support from a group of conservative Democrats, including Al Smith
-Al Smith was the former presidential candidate who declared the New Deals laws socialistic.
oLeague supported anti-New Dealers for Congress
oIn the 1934 election, Democrats built up their majorities from 310 to 319 in the House and 60-69 in the Senate
Roosevelts loyal supporters turned critical
oFather Charles E. Coughlin
-attracted a national radio audience of 40 million listeners with sermons attacking wall streets, international bankers, and plutocratic capitalism
-supported Roosevelt and the New Deal at first and tried to build a relationship with the president
-In 1934, he was frustrated with his limited influence on the administration and began attacking FDR.
oNew Deal policies were part of a Communists Conspiracy
-Threatened community autonomy with centralized federal power.
oCouglin broke from the FDR and founded the National Union for Social Justice
oThe movements on the left were very troublesome for Roosevelt for they thought the New Deal was too timid in its measures
End Poverty in California
oUpton Sinclar
-Well known novelist and socialist
-Entered the 1934 Democratic primary party for governor by running EPIC
-Proposed a $50 a month pension for all poor people over 60
-Campaign emphasized the government system of production for use workshops for the unemployed
-Lost a close general election only because the republican candidate received heavy financial and tactical support from Hollywood studio executives and frightened regular Democrats.
Old Age Revolving Pension plan
oCreated by Francis E. Townsend
-Retired doctor
-Created a large following among citizens with this plan
-He called for payments of 200 dollars per month to all people over 60, but had to be spent within 30 days
oAttracted a nationwide following of more than 3 million by 1936
Huey Long
oposed as the greatest potential threat to Roosevelts leadership
oLong captured LAs governor ship in 1928 by attackingthe states oil industry
oHe significantly improves public education, roads, medical care, and other public services
oLong first supported Roosevelt but in 1934, his own presidential ambitions and his impatience with the pace of the New Deal measures led it a break with Roosevelt
Share Our Wealth Society
oOrganized by Huey Long
oIts purpose was to break up the swollen fortunes of America and to spread the wealth among all our people.
ohomestead worth $5000 and a $2500 annual income for everyone was promised by Long
oLongs economics were not clear
oA secret poll of the summer of 1935 stunned the Democratic National Committee by showing that Long might attract three or four million votes
oLongs third-party candidacy was prevented due to his assignation in that September
New Deal in the South and West
Southern Farming and Landholding
oImpact on South and West
Farm programs moved agriculture away from sharecropping and tenant farming
Wage labor and agribusiness
Dam building projects created electricity for Southerners
West got the most payments for welfare, work relief, and loans
New Deal rational resource use
oFarming in the South
1930 less than half of farmers owned land
oSharecroppers
African American farmers were sharecroppers
Half of white farmers
About $100 annually if any
Cotton and tobacco
oAAA
Agricultural Adjustment Administration
Boosted prices by paying farmers to plow under
Take land out of production
Went to mostly large landowners
Planters did not usually share payments with sharecroppers and tenants
oSTFU
Southern Tenant Farmers Union
Founded in 1934
Protested AAA policies
Protested evictions
Called for strikes for higher wages
Challenged landlords for fair share of payments
Six southern states
About 30,000 farmers
Half black
Drew attention but did not change national farm policy
oLabor-saving machinery
Tractors
Mechanical harvesters
oImpacts of Cash Infusion
Lower demand for labor and higher eviction rate
Many migrated to cities in search of work
oHelp of New Deal
Destroyed old sharecropping and tenant system
Helped landowners prosper
Access to government funds
Diversify crops
Consolidate holdings
Work land more efficiently
1 to 2 million sharecroppers would move to bigger cities
Memphis, Birmingham, Chicago, Detroit, etc.
Rural Electrification and Public Works
oEarly 1930s 3% of southerners had electricity
oFarmhouses
No electric lighting
No indoor plumbing
No refrigerators of washing machines
oTennessee Valley Authority
Made electricity available for the first time
Public investment and government planning
Built 16 dams across 800 miles of Tennessee River
Brought flood control and electric power to hundreds of thousands of families
7 southern states
Reduced consumer electric rates
Created landscaped parks
Built public libraries and better school systems
1944 largest power producer in US
Provided luxuries for farmers and families
Radio
Electric lights
The Dust Bowl
oDisaster in the Great Plains in the mid-1930s
oDroughts through early 1930s
oViolent dust storms during droughts
Result of stripping the landscape of vegetation
oGreat Plains became vast wheat factory
oGreat Plains suited for:
Mechanized farming
Gasoline-powered tractors
Harvester-thresher
Disc plows
All increased productivity
oIn 1830, it took 58 hours to ship an acre of wheat to granary
In 1930s, it took less than three hours
oFarmers broke more land to compensate for low wheat prices in 1920s
oNothing to prevent soil erosion
Dust storms blew away tens of millions of acres of topsoil
oEconomic and psychological losses for those who stayed
Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico
Denver journalist called calamity the Dust Bowl
oDifficult for humans and livestock to breathe
Dust pneumonia and other respiratory infections
oDestroyed crops and trees
oTravelers stuck in automobiles and trains
oWorst storms Spring 1935
oIntervention from federal agencies
Resettlement Administration
Direct emergency relief to families
Crop and seed loans
Moratoriums (freezes) on loan payments
Works Progress Administration
Provided temporary jobs
1/5to1/3applied for relief
90% in hardest-hit cities
Agricultural Adjustment Administration
Paid wheat farmers millions of dollars
oFarmers could not grow what they could not sell
oDiversion of soil for different crops
oGovernmental policies
Designed to
Alter land use patterns
Reverse soil erosion
Nourish the return of grasslands
Department of Agriculture
Led by Henry A. Wallace
oSecretary of State
Designed to change farming practices
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Researched controlling wind and water erosion
Set up demonstration projects
Offered equipment, supplies, and assistance to farmers in conservation work
Pumped funds into Great Plains
oCreated soil conservation district
Administered conservation regulations locally
oDust Bowl reduced by 1940
From 5 million acres to 4 million acres
New Deal restricted market forces in agriculture
SCS techniques abandoned due to heavy rainfall and WWII
Long-term farming reduced concern for land
oPolicies and organizations had little effect on sharecroppers and tenants
Thousands of sharecropper and tenant families forced off land
Became Okies
About 300,000 people that migrated to California in the 1930s
Included victims of the Dust Bowl but most came from blue-collar and businessmen workers looking to improve economic lot
California had better opportunities
oMore jobs
oHigher wages
oHigher relief payments
Most only found low-paying agriculture jobs in fertile areas
oSan Joaquin and Imperial Valley districts
Discriminated as poor white trash
oStruggles to create communities within migrant labor camps
Improved situation through WWII and demand for labor
oCompetition for Mexican laborers
By 1936, 85-90% of migratory workers were white Americans
Less than 20% before Great Depression
Mexicans who were still employed had decreases in their wages
Southwestern communities sought to deport Mexicans and Mexican Americans
Supported by:
oEmployers
oPrivate charities
oImmigration and Naturalization Service
Little effort to distinguish citizens from aliens
oMost deported children were actually citizens
Most aggressive campaign in Los Angeles County
oShipped out over 13,000 Mexicans by boxcar from 1931-1934
oAbout1/3of LAs 150,000 Mexicans left the city in the early 1930s
Nearly half a million (500,000) total left the United States in the 1930s
Water Policy
oLarge-scale water irrigation projects due to New Deal
Designed for cheaper power and flood prevention
oBureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior
Established under the national Reclamation Act of 1902
Originally purposed to create dams and irrigation works
Encourage growth of small farms in arid regions in West
Unsuccessful until 1920s
Focus changed to multipurpose dams to control entire river systems
Boulder (Hoover) Dam
oDesigned to harness Colorado River
Wildest and most isolated Western river
oHad many anticipated effects:
Flood prevention
Irrigation of Imperial Valley in California
Domestic water for southern California
Cheap electricity for Los Angeles and southern Arizona
oHoover opposed public power aspect
Government should not compete with private companies
Contrary to most Westerners
oBelieved cheap public power was critical for development
Roosevelts support for public power gained political backing of West in 1932
oCompleted in 1935
oFunds from Public Works Administration
Total cost was $114 million
Offset by cost of hydroelectric power
Los Angeles aqueduct
o259 miles
o$220 million
oChannel water to growing population
oLake Mead
Created by construction of dam
Worlds largest artificial lake
115 miles up canyon
Helped make Imperial Valley one of the most productive agricultural districts in the world
Boulder Dam transformed Bureau of Reclamation into major federal agency
oHuge resources
oCompleted All-American Canal in 1938
80 mile channel
Connects Colorado River to Imperial Valley
130 mile branch to Coachella Valley
$24 million
Carried flow of water equal to Potomac River
More than 1 million acres of desert land open for cultivation
Fruits
Melons
Vegetables
Cotton
Irrigation projects promised to repay cost of canal in 40 years
Interest-free loan was government subsidy to private growers
oCentral Valley Project (CVP)
Watershed that stretched through California interior
500 miles long and about 125 miles wide
Brought water from Sacramento River in North to arid lands of San Joaquin Valley in South
Completed in 1947
Cost $2.3 billion
Stored and transferred water
Provided
Electricity
flood control
municipal water
cost paid by
federal government
local municipalities
buyers of electric power
proved a boon to large-scale farmers in Sacramento and San Joaquin River Valleys
oGrand Coulee Dam
Northwest of Spokane Washington
Completed in 1941
Designed to
Convert power of Columbia River to cheap electricity
Irrigate uncultivated land
Stimulate economic development of Pacific Northwest
Employed tens of thousands of workers
Pumped millions of dollars into depressed economy
Washington ranked first in per capita federal expenditures from 1933 to 1940
Provided cheapest electricity in US in the long run
Attract new manufacturing to area of previously just lumber and metals
oEnvironmental and human cost
Grand Coulee and other dams reduced Columbia River
Tens of thousands of workers, mostly Mexican, now worked in fertile fields for very low wages
Health suffered from contact with pesticides
Colorado River no longer empties into Pacific Ocean
Built up salt deposits
oWater unfit for drinking or irrigation
Water pollution still plagues river today
A New Deal for Indians
oImportant changes for Indians
1933 Indians lived on reservations
About 320,000 people in about 200 tribes
Mostly in Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, and South Dakota
Indians suffered from poverty worse than any other group
Infant mortality rate was twice that of white people
Diseases were more prevalent on the reservation
oAlcoholism, measles, tuberculosis, etc.
Half of Indians on reservations were landless
oLived with relatives instead
oBIA
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Oldest federal bureaucracy in West
Corruption and mismanagement
Tried to assimilate Indians through education
oInterfered with religious affairs and tribal customs
oMerriam Report
1928
Prepared by Institute for Government Research
Critiqued BIA management
Scathing and widely public
No effort from Hoover to reform BIA
oJohn Collier
Appointed by Roosevelt in 1933
Roots in service and community organizations in eastern slums
Interested in Indians
Spent time with Indians in Taos, New Mexico
Involved with struggle to help Pueblo Indians hold onto tribal lands
Executive secretary of American Indian Defense Association
Driving force behind IRA
oIRA
Indian Recognition Act of 1934
Reversed allotment provisions of Dawes Severalty Act of 1887
Weakened tribal sovereignty
Shifted land from tribes to individuals
Permitted restoration of surplus lands
Allocated funds for purchase of additional land
Sought to restore tribal structure
Wanted to make tribes part of federal government
oTribes that ratified IRA could elect tribal council as legal tribal government
Congress wanted to change Colliers original plan
oIRA approval from Indians
Mixed feelings on reservations
Linguistic barriers made support and communication difficult
Ex. Papagos from Arizona had no word for budget or representative
olaw, constitution, charter, and rule were all the same word
oreservation agent, king, president, and Indian commissioner were all the same word
Approved by 181 tribes
Rejected by 77 tribes
oNavajos
Nations largest tribe
More than 40,000 members
Rejected IRA
Protest against BIA forced reduction of livestock
Part of soil conservation program
oBlamed Navajo sheep for erosion
Threatened to make Lake Mead and the Boulder Dam inoperable
oNavajos believed erosion was due to lack of water and acreage
Navajos took anger out on Collier
oSensitive BIA
BIA more sensitive to Indian culture
Increase in Indians employed in BIA
1933 a few hundred
1940 over 4,600
Indian political autonomy
BIA and Congress interfered with reservation governments
oEspecially in money matters
oDictated and underfunded tribes
oMargold Opinion
Nathan Margold
Lawyer for Department of the Interior
Wrote legal opinion of tribal governments in 1934
oSovereignty except for when limited in Congress Act
Margold Opinion upheld in United States
Led to restoration of tribal rights and land for Indian people in the West
Depression-Era Culture
oAmerican culture in the 1930s, like all other aspects of national life, was profoundly shaped by the Great Depression.
oA New Deal for the Arts
The Depression hit Americas writers, artists, and teachers just as hard as blue-collar workers
In 1935, the WPA allocated $300 million for the unemployed in these fields
Federal Project No. 1
oFederal One
oAn umbrella agency covering writing, theater, music, and the visual arts which proved to be one of the most innovative and successful New Deal programs
oOffered work to desperate artist and intellectuals, enriched the cultural lives of millions, and left a substantial legacy of artistic and cultural production
Federal Writers Project
oAt its height, employed 5,000 writers on a variety of programs
oA popular series of state and city guidebooks, each combining history, folklore, and tourism
oLife in America
Included valuable oral histories of former slaves, studies of ethnic and Indian cultures, and pioneering collections of American songs and folk tales
American writers helped by the Writers Project:
Ralph Ellison
Richard Wright
Margaret Walker
John Cheever
Saul Bellow
Zora Neale Hurston
Federal Theater Project (FTP)
oReached as many as 30 million Americans with its productions under the direction of the dynamic Hallie Flanagan of Vassar College
oSought to expand the audience for theater beyond the regular patrons of the commercial stage
oSuccessful productions:
Living Newspaper
T.S. EliotsMurder in the Cathedral
Maxwell AndersonsValley Force
Orson WellesMacbeth
oBrought vital and exciting theater to millions who had never attended before
Federal Music Project
oUnder Nikolai Sokoloff of the Cleveland Symphony Orchestra
oEmployed 15,000 musicians and financed hundreds of thousands of low priced public concerts by touring orchestras.
oThe Composers Forum Laboratory supported new works by American composers such as Aaron Copland and William Schuman
Other painters who received government assistance through the FAP:
oWillem de Kooning
oJackson Pollock
oLouise Nevelson
Holger Cahill
oDirector of the FAP
oDocumentary impulse
Documentary Impulse
A deep desire to record and communicate the experiences of ordinary Americans
During the 1930s, an enormous number of artists, novelists, journalists, photographers, and filmmakers tried to document the devastation wrought by the Depression in American communities; they also depicted peoples struggles to cope with, and reverse, hard times.
Mainstream media also adapted this stance
The documentary impulse became a prominent style in 1930s cultural expression
Photograph
In 1935, Roy Stryker, chief of the Historical Section of the Resettlement Administration gathered a remarkable group of photographers to help document the work of the agency
Stryker encouraged them to photograph whatever caught their interest, even if the pictures had no direct connection with RA projects
Photographers:
oDorothea Lange
oWalker Evans
oArthur Rothstein
oRussell Lee
oBen Shahn
oMarion Post Wolcott
THE SINGLE MOST SIGNIFICANT VISUAL RECORD OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION
oPhotographers traveled through rural areas, small towns, and migrant labor camps and produced powerful images of despair and resignation as well as hope and resilience
The double vision ^, combining pain with faith, could be found in many other cultural works of the period
oJohn SteinbecksGrapes of Wrath(1939)
Sympathetically portrayed the hardships of Oklahoma Dust Bowl migrants on their way to California
oMargaret Mitchells 1936 bestsellerGone with the Wind
oElizabeth Noble
With real events looming larger than any imagined happenings, documentary films and still photographs, reportage and the like have taken the place once held by grand invention
oJames Rorty, inWhere Life Is Better(1936)
Was encouraged by his cross-country trip
oWaiting for Lefty
Capitalism
For some, the capitalist systemwas the culprit responsible for the Great Depression
Communism
Relatively few Americans became Communists or Socialists in the 1930s at its height, the Communist Party of the United States had perhaps 100,000 membersand many of these remained active for only a brief time
Marxist analysis, with its emphasis on class conflict and the failures of capitalism, had a wide influence on the eras thought and writing
Some writers joined the Communist Party believing it to be the best hope for political revolution
Soviet Union
oAn alternative to an American system that appeared mired in exploitation, racial inequality, and human misery.
Communist writers
oWriters:
Michael Gold (novelist)
Meridel LeSueur (poet)
Granville Hicks (editor)
oSought to radicalize art and literature and celebrated collective struggle over individual achievement
Intellectuals
oA more common pattern for intellectuals, especially when they were young, was brief flirtation with communism
oAfrican American writers, attracted by the Communist Partys militant opposition to lynching, job discrimination, and segregation, briefly joined the party or found their first supportive audiences there
Richard Wright
Ralph Ellison
Langston Hughes
oMany playwrights and actors associated with New Yorks influential Group Theater were part of the Communist Party orbit in those years
Clifford OdetssWaiting for Lefty
Depicted a union organizing drive among taxi drivers
Left-wing influence
oReached its height after 1935 during the Popular Front period
Alarmed by the rise of fascism in Europe, Communists around the word followed the Soviet line of uniting with liberals and all other antifascists
The American Communist Party
Communism is Twentieth-Century Americanism
Communists became strong supporters of Roosevelts New Deal, and their influence was especially strong within various WPA arts projects
Abraham Lincoln Brigade
oAmerican volunteers against fascists
oSense of commitment and sacrifice appealed to millions of Americans sympathetic to the republican cause
Communists and other radicals, known for their dedication and effectiveness, also played a leading role in the difficult CIO unionizing drives in the auto, steel, and electrical industries
oFilm and Radio in the 1930s
Despite the Depression, the mass-culture industry expanded enormously during the 1930s
Played an more integral role than ever in shaping the rhythms and desires of the nations everyday life
Moviegoing itself, usually enjoyed with friends, family, or a date, was perhaps the most significant development of all
Film Genres
Gangster films did very well in the early Depression years
oLittle Caesar(1930), starring Edward G. Robinson
oPublic Enemy(1931) with James Cagney
oThey depicted violent criminals brought to justice by society, but along the way they gave audiences a vicarious exposure to the pleasures of wealth, power, and lawbreaking
Social disorder
oMarx Brothers films
Duck Soup(1933)
A Night at the Opera(1935)
oMae Wests popular comedies
She Done Him Wrong(1933)
Im No Angel(1933)
Movie musicals
oBusby BerkeleysGold Diggersof 1933, and42ndStreet(1933)
Screwball comedies
oClark Gable and Claudette Colbert inIt Happened One Night(1934)
oKatherine Hepburn and Cary Grant inBringing Up Baby(1938)
Socially conscious view of the Depression era
oWarner Brothers studio
I am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932)
Wild Boys of the Road (1933)
Black Legion (1936)
Walt Disney
oMoral tales that stressed keeping order and following the rules
oSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1935)
Frank Capra
oMr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936)
oYou Cant Take It with You (1938)
Radio broadcasting emerged as the most powerful medium of communication in the home, profoundly changing the rhythms and routines of everyday life.
National Broadcasting Company (NBC)
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)
The Depression actually helped radio expand
The well-financed networks offered an attractive outlet to advertisers seeking a national audience
Radio programming achieved a regularity and professionalism absent in the 1920s, making it much easier for a listener to identify a show with its sponsor
Older cultural forms
oEddie Cantor
oEd Wynn
oKate Smith
oAl Jolson
Amos n Andy
oAdapted the minstrel blackface tradition to the new medium
White comedians
oFreeman Gosden
oCharles Correll
oUsed only their two voices to invent a world of stereotyped African Americans for their millions of listeners
Soap Operas
Aimed mainly at women working in the home, these serials alone constituted 60% of all daytime shows by 1940.
Soaps
oMa Perkins
oHelen Trent
oClara Lou and Em
Revolved around strong, warm female characters who provided advice and strength to weak, indecisive friends and relaives
Thrillers:
oInner Sanctum
oThe Shadow
oEmphasized crime and suspense, made great use of music and sound effects to sharpen their impact
Radio News
Arrived in the 1930s
Showed the mediums potential for direct and immediate coverage of events
Network news and commentary shows multiplied rapidly over the decade
Complex political and economic issues and the impending European crisis fueled a news hunger among Americans
oThe Swing Era
One measure of radios cultural impact was its role in popularizing jazz
Pre-1930s, jazz was heard largely among African Americans and a small coterie of white fans and musicians
Broadcasts of live performances began to expose a broader public to the music
oAs well as radio disc jockeys who played jazz records on their shows
Black Musicians began to enjoy reputations outside of traditional jazz centers like Chicago, Kansas City, and New York
oDuke Ellington
oCount Basie
oBenny Moten
Benny Goodman
oThe key figure in the swing era largely through radio exposure
oA white, classically trained clarinetist had been inspired by African American bandleaders Fletcher Henderson and Don Redman
Purchased arrangements from them and attracted attention on late-Saturday-night broadcasts
oIn 1935, at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles, Goodman made the breakthrough that establishedhis enormous popularity
The young crowd roared its approval and began to dance wildly to Hendersons arrangements
Goodmans music was perfect for doing the jitterbug or lindy hop (dances borrowed from African American culture)
oThe King of Swing
Goodman helped make big-band jazz a hit with millions of teenagers and young adults from all backgrounds
Big band music accounted for the majority of million-selling records
oGoodman
oBasie
oJimmie Lunceford
oArtie Shaw
The Limits of Reform
oIn his second inaugural address, Roosevelt emphasized what still need to be done to remedy effects of the Great Depression
Stunning electoral victory made social reform seem bright
By 1937, the New Deal was in retreat
oCourt Packing
May 1935, Schecter v. United States
The Supreme Court found the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional in its entirety
Early 1936, Butler v. United States
Court invalidated the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, declaring it an unconstitutional attempt at regulating agriculture
Court mostly composed of Republicans over 70 years old
oRoosevelt began looking for ways to get more reform friendly judges on the court
February 1937, FDR asked Congress for legislation that would expand the Supreme Court from 9 justices to a maximum of 15
President empowered to make new appointments whenever an incumbent judge failed to retire upon reaching age 70
Roosevelt argued that age prevented justices from keeping up with their workload
oFew people believed this logic
oNewspapers denounced the court-packing bill
Opposition of conservatives and outraged New Dealers in Congress
oEx. Democratic senator Burton Wheeler
President argued the purpose was to restore the balance of power among the 3 branches of federal government
Battle for bill dragged on, and FDRs claims weakened
When justice Willis Devanter announced plans to retire, Roosevelt had the first chance to make a Court appointment
Court upheld the constitutionality of some key laws from the Second New Deals
Including the Social Security Act and National Labor Relations Act
In August, FDR backed off from his plan and accepted compromise bill that reformed lower court procedures, but left Supreme Court untouched
FDR won a more responsive Court
Court fight weakened Roosevelts relations with Congress
More conservative Democrats felt free to oppose further New Deal measures
oThe Womens Network
Great Depression and New Deal brought significant changes for women in American economics and politics
Women continued to perform unpaid domestic labor within their homes
Work was not covered by Social Security Act
oGrowing minority worked for wages and salaries outside of the act
1940, 25% of the workforce was female
Increase in married working women as a result of hard times
Sexual stereotyping still forced women into low-paying and low-status jobs
New Deal brought measurable, but temporary, increase in womens political influence
New Deal opened possibilities to effect change for women associated with social reform
Womens network was linked by personal friendships and professional connections
Made a presence in national politics and government
Most women in the network had been active in movements promoting suffrage, labor law reform, and welfare programs
Eleanor Roosevelt was a powerful political figure in her own rights
Used her prominence as First Lady to fight for liberal causes she believed in
Revolutionized the role of political wife by taking a position involving no institutional duties, and turning it into a base for independent action
Enjoyed great influence with her husband
Her support for a cause gave the cause instant credibility
Strong supporter of protective labor legislation for women
Convened a White House Conference on the Emergency Needs of Women in 1933
oHelped Ellen Woodward, head of womens projects in the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, find jobs for 100,000 women
In jobs ranging from nursery school teaching to sewing
Worked for anti-lynching legislation, compulsory health insurance, and child labor reform
Fought racial discrimination in New Deal programs
Guardian of human values within the administration
oBuffer between Depression victims and political bureaucracy
Testified before legislative committees, lobbied her husband and Congress, wrote a widely syndicated newspaper column
Closest political ally was Molly Dewon
Dewon was director of the Womens Division of the Democratic Party
oWomen for the first time played a central role in shaping the party platform and running election campaigns
oProved tireless organizer, traveled to cities and towns educating women about Democratic policies and candidates
Dewons success impressed FDR, and he went to her for advice on political appointments
Dewon placed more than 100 women in New Deal programs
Persuaded FDR to appoint Frances Perkins as secretary of labor
oThe first woman cabinet member in US history
oVeteran activist for social welfare and reform
oServed as FDRs industrial commissioner in NY before appointment
oPerkins embodied the gains made by women in appointive offices
oDepartment was responsible for creating the Social Security Act and Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
Both incorporated protective measures long advocated by women reformers
oDefined feminism as the movement of women to participate in service to society
oNew Deal agencies were spaces for scores of women in the federal bureaucracy
FERA, WPA, Social Security Board
oSocial work profession (roughly 2/3 female in the 1930s) grew rapidly in response to massive relief and welfare programs
oNew Deal for Minorities
African Americans
Always around the bottom of the economic ladder
During the Depression, they suffered disproportionately
oBlack workers were the last hired, first fired
oBecause jobs were scarce during the Depression, domestic service jobs (cooking, janitorial work, elevator opening) were coveted
Roosevelt administration made little effort to combat racism and segregation in American life
oWorked about offending the powerful southern Democratic congressman key for political coalition
oLocal administration of many federal programs meant most New Deal programs accepted discrimination
CCC established separate workers for people with the same jobs
NRA codes tolerated lower wages for black workers
TVA would not hire black Americans
AAA committees in the South reduced acreage and production to boost prices, thousands of black sharecroppers and laborers were forced off the land
Racism was also in the Social Security Act
oExcluded domestics and casual laborers from old-age insurance
Those holding these jobs were mostly African American
FDR issued executive order in 1935 banning discrimination in WPA programs
oBetween 15-20% of WPA employees were black
oThe minimum wage of $12 a week was what allowed many African Americans to survive
FDR appointed many African Americans to second level positions in his administration
oBlack Cabinet
Mexicans
Great Depression reduced their demand for labor
Faced massive layoffs, deepened poverty, and deportation
During the 1930s, 400,000 Mexican nationals and children returned to Mexico
oOften coerced by local officials unwilling to provide them relief, but happy to offer train fare to border towns
Many native born Americans said deporting Mexicans could reduce unemployment for US citizens
oClaims reflected deep racial prejudice
New Deal programs did little to help the Mexicans still in America
oAAA benefited large growers, not stoop laborers
National Labor Relations Act and Social Security Act made no provisions for farm laborers
FERA and WPA at first tried to provide relief and jobs to needy, regardless of citizenship status
oAfter 1937, these reliefs were eliminated
New Deal record for minorities was mixed
African Americans in the cities benefited from the New Deal relief
oThough assistance was not color-blind
New Deal made no attempt to attack deeply rooted patterns of racism and discrimination in American life
Deterioration faced by Mexicans resulted in a reverse exodus
By 1936, for the first time, a majority of black voters switched political allegiances to the Democrats
oEvidence that they supported the direction taken by the New Deals
oThe Roosevelt Recession
Economy had improved by 1937
Unemployment had declined to 14%
Farm prices had improved to 1930 levels
Industrial production was slightly higher than the 1929 mark
Economic traditionalists called for reducing the federal deficit
Grown to over $4 billion in fiscal year 1936
Roosevelt was uneasy about the growing debt, and called for large reductions in federal spending
Particularly in WPA and farm programs
Federal Reserve System worried about inflation and tightened credit policies
Instead of stimulating business, the retrenchment brought a steep recession
The stock market crashed again in August 1937
oIndustrial output and farm prices dropped
oBig increase in unemployment
As conditions worsened, FDR blamed the strike of capital
oClaimed businessmen had refused to invest because they wanted to hurt his prestige
oIn reality, the administrations severe spending cutbacks were mostly responsible for the decline
After 5 years, the New Deal had not brought economic recovery
Through 1937-1938, administration drifted
Roosevelt received conflicting advice
oSome urged a massive antitrust campaign against monopolies
oSome urged a return to the strategy of stimulating the economy with more federal spending
Republican gains in 1938 made new reform efforts tougher to gain
1938 Fair Labor Standards Act
Established the first federal minimum wage and set a maximum workweek of 44 hours for employees engaged in interstate commerce
National Housing Act of 1937 (aka Wagner-Steagall Act)
Funded public housing construction and slum clearance and provided rent subsidies for low-income families
By 1938, the whirlwind of New Deal was over
Conclusion
oNew Deal did little to alter fundamental property relations or distribution of wealth
Programs largely failed to help the most powerless groups in America
Changed many areas of American life
oNew Deal increased the role of federal government in American lives and communities
Western and southern communities were transformed through federal intervention
Relief programs established framework for welfare state
oEfforts to end racial and gender discrimination were modest at best