Archaeological horizons and fluvial processes at the Lower

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Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2011) 508e522

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Journal of Human Evolution

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Archaeological horizons and fluvial processes at the Lower Paleolithicopen-air site of Revadim (Israel)q

Ofer Marder a,*, Ariel Malinsky-Buller b, Ruth Shahack-Gross c,d, Oren Ackermann c, Avner Ayalon e,Miryam Bar-Matthews e, Yonaton Goldsmith f, Moshe Inbar g, Rivka Rabinovich b,f, Erella Hovers b

a Israel Antiquities Authority, P. O. Box 586, Jerusalem 91004, Israelb The Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem 91905, Israelc The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, IsraeldKimmel Center for Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israele The Israel Geological Survey, 30 Malchei Israel street, Jerusalem 95501, Israelf Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelgDepartment of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 14 July 2009Accepted 16 January 2010

Keywords:Paleo-landscapeSite formation processesSedimentological historyOpen-air siteLower PaleolithicLate AcheulianLevantRevadim

q Special Issue title is: Early-Middle PleistoceneLevant.* Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (O. Mardil (A. Malinsky-Buller), [email protected] (E. Hov

0047-2484/$ e see front matter � 2010 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.007

a b s t r a c t

In this paper we present new data pertaining to the paleo-landscape characteristics at the Acheulian siteof Revadim, on the southern coastal plain of Israel. Sedimentological, isotopic, granulometric andmicromorphological studies showed that the archaeological remains accumulated in an active fluvialenvironment where channel action, overbank flooding and episodic inundation occurred. Measurementsof total organic matter and its carbon isotopic composition indicate that the hominin activity at the sitestarted at a period of relatively drier conditions, which coincided with erosion of the preceding soilsequence. This process led to the formation of a gently-undulating topography, as reconstructed by a GISmodel. Later deposition documents relatively wetter conditions, as indicated by carbon isotopiccomposition. Formation processes identified at the site include fluvial processes, inundation episodesthat resulted in anaerobic conditions and formation of oxide nodules, as well as small-scale bioturbationand later infiltration of carbonate-rich solutions that resulted in the formation of calcite nodules andcrusts. The combination of micro-habitats created favorable conditions that repeatedly drew hominins tothe area, as seen by a series of super-imposed archaeological horizons. This study shows that site-specificpaleo-landscape reconstructions should play an important role in understanding regional variationamong hominin occupations and in extrapolating long-term behavioral patterns during the MiddlePleistocene.

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Introduction

Throughout the duration of the Pleistocene, the existence ofhominins depended on their interaction with both immediate andmore distant environments. Such interactions played an importantrole not only in shaping hominin subsistence and mobility strate-gies to ensure their physical survival, but also influenced, to varyingdegrees, the nature and efficiency of information exchangenetworks and of demographic and social relations (Blumenschine

palaeoenvironments in the

er), [email protected]).

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and Masao, 1991; Blumenschine et al., 2003; Hosfield, 2005;Goring-Morris et al., 2009).

The practice of extrapolation from the data obtained froma single site to regional and global records, studied by biogeogra-phers, paleoclimatologists and geologists, offers a workable evolu-tionary perspective of hominins in their environments, yet doeslittle to refine our understanding of behavior on a more realistic,anthropological scale (for example, Cerling et al., 1991; deMenocal,1995, 2001; Goren-Inbar et al., 2002; Bar-Matthews et al., 2003;Schoeninger et al., 2003; Almogi-Labin et al., 2004; Bobe andBehrensmeyer, 2004; Drucker and Bocherens, 2004; Feibel, 2004;Levin et al., 2004; Feakins et al., 2005; Sponheimer et al., 2005). Thestudy of paleo-landscapes can provide behavioral insights ontemporal and spatial scales that are intermediate between thesetwo extremes.

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O. Marder et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2011) 508e522 509

Reconstructing the paleo-landscape and the understanding thedifferent strategies by which hominins exploited it are bothfundamental to our understanding of early periods in humanevolution (Isaac, 1981a, b). “Landscape archaeology,” as perceivedby Isaac and Harris (1980) and Isaac (1981a), is an archaeologicalapproach that aims to investigate the variability of hominin landuse patterns within a well-constrained stratigraphic horizon. Overthe last two decades there has been a considerable increase inefforts invested in applying variants of this methodology to thestudy of Early-Middle Pleistocene hominin activities across thelandscape (e.g., Potts, 1988, 1989; Stern, 1994; Stern et al., 2002;Petraglia et al., 2003; Tacktikos, 2005; Blumenschine et al., 2008;Braun et al., 2008).

The application of landscape archaeology requires that a single,well-defined horizon containing archaeological traces be investi-gated on a spatial scale of a few hundred meters to severalkilometers. Open-air sites of various periods abound in theLevantine prehistoric record, yet, with the exception of a few LowerPaleolithic sites with extensive exposures (e.g., ‘Ubeidiya), onlya few occurrences from this or later periods offer the necessaryconditions for landscape-scale investigations. This situation resultsfrom limited exposures of specific stratigraphic horizons, fromdistortions caused by syn- and post-occupation tectonics (e.g., at‘Ubeidiya or Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov), or from limited sizes of exca-vation areas. In other cases, particularly along the coastal plain ofIsrael, the cyclicity of depositional conditions and their complexitythroughout the Pleistocene (Gvirtzman et al., 1997; Neber, 2002;Frechen et al., 2004; Laukhin et al., 2007: Fig. 2) hamper correla-tions of stratigraphic horizons over distances sufficient forlandscape-type investigations.

Against this background, the open-air Late Acheulian site ofRevadim stands out in its potential for using a landscape-basedapproach toward understanding the interactions of homininswith their environment. Surface finds of lithics and faunalremains were found scattered over an area of ca. 3500 m2. Theexcavation of 250 m2 is among the largest conducted in sites ofthis period, offering a relatively extensive exposure of well-preserved finds within securely correlated stratigraphic unitsbetween the excavations and surrounding areas. These circum-stances provide opportunities for studying how human activitieswere distributed across various facies of the landscape duringconstrained time intervals. Additionally, Revadim is exceptional inthat it consists of a sequence of super-positioned archaeologicaloccurrences, a situation that differs markedly from other open-airLate Acheulian sites along the coastal plain of Israel (e.g., Holon,Kefar Menahem). By comparing habitat changes along definedstratigraphic intervals it is possible to study how hominin activ-ities vary geographically and through time in response to shifts intheir immediate environments (e.g., Blumenschine and Peters,1998). We hypothesize that specific patterns of lithic produc-tion, transport and use, as well as strategies of faunal exploitationand discard, may vary spatially in response to facies changes.However, before any conclusions can be drawn about homininbehavior in relation to paleo-geography and paleo-landscape, it isimperative that the role of formation processes, both during andafter site occupation by hominins, be understood.

In this paper we focus on a reconstruction of the paleo-landscape of Revadim and how its configuration changed overtime. Our treatment of the cultural aspects of the Revadim site ispurposefully brief and general as a prelude to more detailed studiescurrently underway (Malinsky-Buller et al., n.d.). At the same time,the current emphasis on the role of water-related site formationprocesses is partly a result of the significant influence of wateravailability and the characteristics of water bodies on behavioraladaptations of Paleolithic hominins in the Levant.

The reconstruction of Revadim's micro-environment is achievedby stratigraphic, geomorphological and micromorphological anal-yses, through which we describe the sedimentological history ofdeposition. The exposure of a marker horizon, documented inexcavation and in stratigraphic sections over a relatively largesurface, allows a study of the paleo-landscape at the time of initialoccupation of the site. The characteristics of this landscape serve asa baseline for understanding developments in the site's immediatevicinity during later phases of occupation. We employ several typesof analysis to reconstruct paleo-hydrological patterns and ancienthabitats. We present stratigraphic, grain size, and carbon isotopicanalyses of the various sedimentological units in which the homi-nin occupation horizons are embedded. Micromorphology andmineralogy bear information on geochemical formation processes,leading to reconstruction of the availability of water bodies in thesite's vicinity and their geomorphic characteristics. We also presentthe results of a detailed pebble analysis of archaeology-bearinglayers within the site, in which artifacts and eco-facts werefound. These results pertain to issues of water-related formationprocesses. Isotopic studies inform of the paleo-vegetation at thesite and faunal studies describe the animal communities thatexploited these microenvironments. All these lines of evidence arecombined in order to reconstruct the paleo-geography and micro-environments of human occupations at the site.

The site

The site of Revadim is located on the southern coastal plain,40 km southeast of Tel Aviv (Fig. 1). It is situated on a hillock at anelevation of 71e73 m above sea level. The site is located 300 mnorth of a confluence of two tributaries of Nahal Timna, which isitself a small wadi in the drainage basin of Nahal Soreq (Gvirtzmanet al. 1999: Fig. 1). The site was discovered as a result of quarryingactivity. Three seasons of excavations (1996e2004) were conductedin four areas (AeD).

Sedimentological sequence

The Revadim sequence as defined by Gvirtzman and Wiederrevealed 21 meters of alternating paleosols comprising seven units(Gvirtzman et al., 1999; Marder et al., 1999; Wieder and Gvirtzman,1999). Later, some refinements were established, and six unitswere described (Marder et al., 2006a, b). These are described herefrom top to bottom. The archaeological occurrences are foundwithin a single unit of this revised stratigraphy. These are describedhere from top to bottom.Unit 1- Dark Brown Grumusol (vertisol; 0.3-4.0 m) A brown clayeyto sandy clay unit with a compound prismatic structure, whichbreaks into smaller cubic peds and calcic horizons (Gvirtzman et al.,1999). In the vicinity of the site the thickness of this unit rangesfrom 30 m to 4 m (Marder et al., 1999). Soil slickensides can beobserved in Units 1 and the underlying Unit 2.Unit 2 - quartzic Gray-Brown Paleosol (ca. 2-2.5 m) Gvirtzman et al.(1999) describe this unit as a loamy sand to sandy loam paleosol,with abundant carbonate nodules. They identified another unit,10e90 cm thick, which they named Unit 3, overlying an underlyingcontact with the red paleosol (their Unit 4). They described Unit 3as a mixture of the Quartzic Gray Brown Paleosol with the under-lying Red Paleosol.

Based on our observations at the site during 1999 and 2004 fieldseasons, the mixture zone (their Unit 3) occurs locally and does notappear in all the sections. We therefore do not consider it asa stand-alone pedologic/geologic unit. Still, it shows some distinctchemical and sedimentological characteristics, due to which it isdefined as a transition zone within our Unit 2 (see below). The

Figure 1. Map of excavation areas in Revadim, showing also the location of Trenches 12 and 23, and of sections 500 and CD63 (see text for details).

O. Marder et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2011) 508e522510

unconformity surface between Units 2 and 3 represents a time gapbetween the deposition of the two units (see Fig. 6 below).Unit 3- Red Paleosol- Hamra and Husmas (ca. 2 m) A massive Redsandy clay loamy soil to sandy loam. Elongated whole and frag-mented carbonate nodules and calcified roots appear in the upperpart of this unit.Unit 4- loose dune sand (ca. 6 m) Yellowish-white, loose,medium-to coarse-grained sand (Gvirtzman et al., 1999; Marderet al., 1999).

The nature of the sediments at the contact between Units 2 and3 varies laterally. In the southern part (Area C; see Fig. 1) erosionexposed horizons A and B of the Hamra/Husmas; in the northernpart (Area B) erosion sometimes cut deeper, at places truncating theC horizon of the Hamra paleosol and exposing the soil's parentmaterial (i.e., the sand of Unit 4).

The earliest archaeological layer (designated B2 and C5 in therespective areas) was deposited on top of the erosional surface(Marder et al., 2006a). The majority of the archaeological horizons

(Layers C1eC4 and B1) accumulated within the Quartzic Gray-Brown Paleosol of Unit 2. Paleomagnetic analyses of thegeological sequence show normal polarity and indicate that thewhole sequence is younger than 780 ka (Marder et al., 1999,2006a, b).

Archaeological stratigraphy

Fieldwork focused mainly on Area B in the northeast part of thesite and Area C in the southern part. Seven archaeological layerswere exposed in the two areas. Two trenches (T-12 and T-23) wereexcavated in order to correlate the different areas of excavationstratigraphically and to follow the spatial distribution of flint arti-facts and faunal remains. Of ca. 250 m2 that were excavated to date,170 m2 were exposed in Areas AeD and ca. 80 m2 in Trenches 12and 23 (Fig. 1).

A UeTh dating program of the archaeological remains in Reva-dim is currently in progress. Preliminary dating of carbonate


coatings of flint artifacts yielded dates between 300 ka and 500 kaand possibly older, setting the minimal age estimate for humanoccupation of the site. Given the characteristics of the lithicassemblages, the entire anthropogenic accumulation is ascribed tothe Late Acheulian techno-complex (Marder et al., 2006a, b).

In Area B two archaeological layers were discerned, labeled B1and B2 from top to bottom (Fig. 2a). Layer B1 was limited in extentand was identified mostly in the eastern part of Area B over an areaof ca. 20 m2. Stratigraphically it is found in the Quartzic Gray BrownPaleosol of Unit 2, some 20e40 cm above the contact between thisUnit and Unit 3. The Layer consists of a few isolated patches ofbones and lithics. Layer B2 extends over an area of ca. 70 m2 and isthe most distinct archaeological layer in Area B. It is located directlyat the contact between Units 2 and 3. Finds in this Layer includea continuous distribution of flint items and animal bones, withinwhich dense clusters can be discerned, i.e., “patches between thescatters” phenomena. The denser clusters of Layer B2 occur withindepressions. These clusters often consist of remains (tusks,

Figure 2. a) Stratigraphic section of Area B, showing the archaeological Layers in Unit 2 andArea C. Trench 12, Squares BAeBB 18, looking south. B¼ bone, Bf¼ biface, CaCO3¼ carbona

mandibles, scapulae, ribs) of the straight-tusked elephant (Palae-oloxodon antiquus) concentrated within several large pits cut intothe redHamra soil. Numerous flint artifacts, among them handaxes,were discovered next to and above these bones.

Area C was excavated in two separate sub-areas, designated CEast and C West, over a total area of 44 m2 (Fig. 1). Five archaeo-logical layers, labeled (from top to bottom) C1 to C5, were discernedin Area C West (Fig. 2b). Layers C1eC4 were encountered withinUnit 2. Layers C2 and C3 are the main occupation Layers in thissequence. Layer C2 (20e30 cm thick) is characterized by the pres-ence of densely packed lithic artifacts (choppers, flake tools, cores,and significant amounts of debitage and debris) and bonefragments. This Layer consists of different occupational levels, andits field appearance is characterized by bands of manganesenodules and carbonates. Layer C3 (20e40 cm thick) contains thehighest density of flint artifacts and bones in Area C. While it issedimentologically and chemically similar to Layer C2, the two areseparated in places by sterile sediments.

the contact with Unit 3. Squares CGeCE 65, looking south; b) Stratigraphic section ofte nodules, Fl¼ flint, Mn/Fe¼manganese oxides. Pb¼ pebble.


The stratigraphic position of Layer C5 (ca. 25-cm thick), exposedover 8 m2 in the northwest part of Area C West, is similar to that ofLayer B2, at the interface between Units 2 and 3. Archaeologically, itresembles Layers C3 and C2, with the addition of numerous bifacesand large animal bones, which are absent from the two upperhorizons (Marder et al., 2006a)

Area C East was excavated over an area of 11 m2. A single Layer,ca. 40 cm thick was discovered; this is a continuation of Layer C3 inArea C West. The Layer is stratigraphically ca. 40 cm above theunconformity surface between Units 3 and 2. Two archaeologicalhorizons (C3a and C3b) were identified within Layer C3 in this area(Fig. 3). In C3a more manganese oxide nodules were observedcompared to carbonate nodules, appearing in discrete, thinhorizons. The reversed proportions were noted in C3b, wheremanganese oxide nodules occur more sporadically. A youngercomponent that was not well-defined stratigraphically was dubbed“above C3a.”

Materials and methods

Sedimentology and granulometry

The sedimentological and pedological characteristics of the sitewere investigated by surveying 20 exposures and probe sections.Each sectionwas described in detail according to structure, texture,sediment compaction unit boundaries, and color. In the laboratory,particle size distribution of the fine material (grains <2 mm) wasmeasured by sedimentation using the hydrometer method (Klute,1986). Section S-500 was chosen as representative of the site, asit is comprised of a continuous sedimentological sequence. Twenty-four spot samples were collected along the section in stratigraphicorder, at 20 cm intervals. Each sedimentary unit was sampled.

A total of four representative sediment samples were analyzedin triplicate in order to determine the precision of the granulo-metric data. For each of the samples the average and standarddeviation of the sand, silt and clay fractions were calculated. Thecoefficient of variance was calculated as well. The latter valueenables a quick evaluation of the range expected for eachmeasurement in each grain size category. For example, if themeasured silt content in a given sample is 10%, and the coefficientof variance is 10%, then 10% out of 10 is 1%, meaning that the “true”silt content is between 9 and 11%. We calculated the averagecoefficient of variance in the four triplicate samples and the resultsshow that the precision in measuring the clay content is 7%, the silt

Figure 3. View of the top part of the southern profile of Trench 12 showing thestratigraphic position of Area C East. Lithics seen in the photo are artifacts andunmodified clasts. The w20-cm thick concentration represents Layer C3b (¼Levels IIIand IV). On the right side, the top of Level IV is seen after mapping and excavtion oflithics belonging to Level III. Across the bottom third of the photo, the contact betweenthe archaeological Layer C3 and the gray sediment of Unit 2 can be observed. Thecontact between Unit 2 and the red Hamra of Unit 3 is marked by the black line.

content is 29%, and the sand content is 5%. For the sedimentsamples in this study, the measurement of silt content is the leastprecise, rendering insignificant the seemingly large changes alongthe studied profiles.

Total organic carbon (TOC) and carbon isotopic composition

The total organic carbon (TOC) and d13C measurements wereperformed using a ThermoFinnigan Elemental Analyzer (EA). Priorto TOC measurement, the carbonate fraction had to be removed.There are several suggested methods for the removal of carbonateprior to the TOC measurement (e.g., Harris et al., 2001; Ryba andBurgess, 2002; Bisutti et al., 2004; Kennedy et al., 2005), and inthe present study, we used the fumigation method with 12N-HCl(Harris et al., 2001). We fumigated the soil samples in a desiccatorover-night (at least 8 hours) in silver capsules, dried them, and thenwrapped themwith tin capsules. The advantage of this procedure isthat it avoids direct contact between the sample and the acid, allsamples get exactly the same treatment, and the carbonate fractionis totally dissolved. Ten soil samples were measured, twice each.The analytical error is less than 0.1% for the TOC, and 0.2& for thed13C measurement.

Geographic information systems and digital elevation modelanalyses

This unconformity surface between Units 3 and 2 was docu-mented at 247 points located in the various excavation areas andtrenches aswell as in sections along the quarrywalls. For geographicinformation systems (GIS) analyses, we used the ArcMap module ofArcGIS 9.2 (ArcGIS, 2008) to create a digital elevationmodel (DEM) inorder to visualize the topography of the unconformity surface. Afterexaminingseveralmodelingoptions,wechose themethodofNaturalNeighbor Interpolation. Thismethod finds the closest subset of inputsamples to a query point and applies weights to them based onproportionate areas in order to interpolate a value. It does not infertrends andwill not produce peaks, pits, ridges or valleys that are notalready represented by the input samples, and works equally wellwith regularly and irregularly distributed data. The properties of thismethod are best suited to the structure of our dataset. The DEMrelates to elevations above mean sea level.

Pebble analysis

Artifacts (“modified”) and natural (“unmodified”) specimenswere classified as large or small in relation to a cutoff point of20 mm and studied through an attribute analysis. This cutoff pointwas used following common procedures for the analyses of knap-ped stone assemblages. The same criterion was applied to theunmodified elements so as to facilitate comparisons between thetwo components of the assemblages. All artifacts were measuredwith digital calipers and weighed to the closest 0.1 g and describedaccording to raw materials, state of preservation and breakage.

Unmodified items were measured according to Schattner(1970), where the “a-axis ” corresponds to the longest dimensionand “c-axis” is the shortest measurement. The b-axis” is the inter-mediate measurement. Dimensions of the modified items weremeasured in relation to the knapping axis. Additionally, these itemswere documented according to a large number of technologicalvariables.

Infrared spectroscopy and micromorphology

Approximately 50 sediment samples from sedimentary unitsin areas B and C were collected using a metal spatula and placed

Table 2Granulometric composition and isotopic values for soil profiles.

Section SampleID

Depth(cm)

Unit TOC(%)

d13C(& VPDB)

Clay(%)

Silt(%)

Sand(%)

S-CD63 CJ-57 0 Grumusol 0.07 �28.24 48 10 43S-118 118 Quartzic Gray

Brown soil0.06 �29.46 33 10 58

S-119 129 0.06 �31.00 30 8 63S-120 139 0.06 �30.21 30 10 60S-121 152 Quartzic Gray

Brown soil0.05 �29.34 28 8 65

S-122 164 0.11 �27.13 28 8 65S-123 174 0.05 �29.48 25 5 70S-124-A 191 Hamra/Husmas 0.05 �30.78 23 3 75


in plastic vials. These sediments were subjected to a FourierTransform Infrared (FTIR) analysis following Weiner et al. (1993),using a MIDAC (M400) spectrometer equipped with a referencelibrary for the identification of mineral and organic archaeolog-ical remains. For the micromorphological analyses 10 undis-turbed blocks of sediment were collected at different localities inthe site, mostly from Area C. The blocks were embedded inpolyester resin and thin sections of 30 mm thickness wereprepared and analyzed using a Nikon petrographic microscope(Labophot 2-POL). Micromorphological descriptions are based onStoops (2003).

S-117-A 191 Gray-Brown soil 0.06 �31.05 15 0 85

S-500 1 5 Grumusol 0.3 �34.58 41 11 482 25 Quartzic Gray

Brown soil0.21 �35.80 41 14 45

3 45 0.33 �36.43 33 11 564 65 0.16 �37.89 33 11 565 85 0.18 �36.70 29 11 606 105 0.11 �37.31 21 15 647 125 Quartzic Gray

Brown soil0.25 �29.09 25 11 64

8 145 Hamra/Husmas 0.18 �27.65 21 7 729 165 Hamra/Husmas 0.21 �30.81 25 3 7210 200 0.13 �36.13 25 3 72

T-12 S-3011 55 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

0.08 �30.60 25 8 68

S-3012 65 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

0.07 �29.75 28 5 68S-3013 75 0.07 �28.63 25 8 68S-3014 100 0.07 �30.36 25 10 65S-3015 120 Hamra/Husmas 0.08 �28.83 28 8 65

*Shaded rows mark the transition zone.

Results

Sedimentology and isotopic studies

Sedimentological and isotopic results are currently available forthree sections, S-500, S-CD63 and T-12 (Fig. 1). S-500 and S-CD63encompass a continuous series of the sedimentary Units 3-1 andare considered representative of the sequence at the site, whereasT-12 spans Units 2 and 3. Three laboratory methods were used tostudy the sediments: the method of Klute (1986) for size distri-bution of fine grains (<2 mm, i.e., granulometry); total organiccarbon (TOC) and its isotopic composition (d13C). The sections aredescribed in Tables 1 and 2.

The sediments in S-500 and in S-CD63 are sandy in general.Sand content decreases from the top of the transition zone (seesection on geological stratigraphy, above) upwards in each of thetwo sections, from 85% to 43% (Table 2), and clay content increasesfrom 15% to 48%. In the S-500 profile (Fig. 4) sharp declines in sandcontent are registered in the transition zone (at a depth of145e125 cm) from 72% to 64% as well as the contact between the

Table 1Main characteristics of sections S-500, T-12 and CD-63 at Revadim Quarry.

Section Depth (cm) Unit Munsell Color (dry) Structure

S-500 0e30 Grumusol* 10YR 5/2grayish brown

Angular blocky

30e120/130 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

10YR 5/3e7/2brown to light gray

Prismatic tosubangular blocky

140e200 Hamra/Husmas 5YR 5/6yellowish red

Massive tosubangular

T-12 0e30/50 Grumusol* 10YR 6/3pale brown

Angular blocky

30/50e120 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

10YR 5/3e6/2brown to lightbrownish gray

Massive crumbto granular

120þ Hamra/Husmas 7.5YR 5/6strong brown

Massive

S-CD63 0e40 Grumusol* 7.5YR 5/2brown

Prismatic

40e200 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

10YR 5/2grayish brown

Prismaticto massive

200e210 Quartzic GrayBrown soil

10YR 6/2light brownish gray

Massive

Hamra/Husmas 7.5YR 6/6reddish yellow

* Previous to the excavation the top of this unit was removed.**Assessed using texture-by-feel analysis.

Quartzic Gray Brown Paleosol and the Grumusol (at a depth of45e25 cm), from 56% to 45%.

Measures of TOC and its d13C were measured in these sections.The TOC values show insignificant variations within and across

Texture Boundary Notes

Sandy clay Gradual Horizontal, vertical, and diagonal cracksRounded carbonate nodulesElliptic crotovinas filled withred material, 5YR 5/6

Sandy clay loam Clear andundulating

Rounded carbonate nodulesElliptic cortovinas filled with red material,5YR 5/6

Sandy clay loam Not exposed Archaeological artifacts exist in transitionbetween this unit and upper unitElongated carbonate nodules

Sandy clay** Clear andwavy

Carbonates sediments skin the peds edgesRich manganese and iron nodules up to 3 cmin diameter

Loam to sandyclay loam

Gradual Archaeological artifacts combined with a lineof wavy pebblesRich manganese and iron nodules up to 3 cmin diameterRounded and elongated carbonate nodules

Sandy clay loam Not exposed Rounded (10e20 mm diameter) and elongated(60 mm length) carbonate nodules

Medium clay Gradual Horizontal and vertical and diagonal crackswith well-developed slickensides

Sandy clay loam Abrupt Rounded carbonate nodules

Loam sandy Not exposed Quartzic Gray Brown soil and Hamra/Husmasexist at the same level

Sandy clay loam

Figure 4. Field appearance and analytical data for S-500. See Methods section and Table 1 for details.


stratigraphic units. In section S-500 these values range between0.11% and 0.33%, whereas much lower values were measured in S-CD63, ranging from 0.05% to 0.11%. The values of d13C along thesection range between w�27& and w�38 &, falling within thelower-end of the C3 vegetation- type. C3 vegetation includesvirtually all trees, most shrubs, herbs, and cool-season grasses, withd13C values ranging mostly from �35& to �22& and averaging w�27 &. C4 plants, mainly composed of warm-season grasses andsedges, have d13C values that normally range from �17& to �8 &with an average value of �12 &. (e.g., Smith and Epstein, 1971;Deins, 1980; Cerling et al., 1991; Connin et al., 1997). In the calcitictransition zone (in which Layers B2 and C5 are situated) and theuppermost horizon of the Hamra/Husmas unit, d13C readings shiftmarkedly to higher values ranging between �29.1& to �27.7&(S-500), and �29.5& to �27.1& (S-CD63) (Table 2). These d13C arehigher than those obtained for the soil above and below the tran-sition horizon, where d13C values are as low as �31& in S-CD63,and still lower (�37.9&) in S-500. This trend of changes in therelative amount of C3-C4 vegetation reflects a change to somewhatdrier conditions, with a relatively higher distribution of C4 vege-tation (shrubs and grasses) in the transition zone.

The isotopic data are preliminary, yet their implications fora possible climatic change are intriguing. These data imply that thefirst occupation of the site (Layers B2 and C5, located on theunconformity surface between Units 3 and 2), may have coincidedwith changes in degree and type of vegetation cover from thosethat prevailed prior to the first occupation. The isotopic valuesshifted several times throughout subsequent episodes of site use,but never reached the values measured at the unconformity/tran-sition surface.

GIS-based topographic reconstruction of the unconformity surface

The aim of this study was to reconstruct with GIS software thetopography of the unconformity surface between Units 3 and 2,which covers an area of ca. 13,000 m2. This well-defined strati-graphic marker was observed both on- and off-site, and representsthe first landscape known to be used by hominins inhabiting thesite, with two spatially distinct areas (some 70 m apart) repre-sented by Layers C5 and B2.

The relief constructed by the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) isvaluable in two main aspects. First, it helps to place the differentexcavation areas in their relative topographic contexts. Second, itprovides an independent evaluation of models of fluvial siteformation processes that affected the archaeological horizons(Malinsky-Buller, 2008).

The DEM reveals three topographic elements: an elevated areain the southwest (excavation Areas C and D), a shallow depressionin the eastern corner of the excavation (Area B) and a small gully inthe southeastern corner, sloping northeastward toward thedepression, which is the only evidence of drainage in the modeledlandscape (Fig. 5a). The surface of the depression is irregular andconsists of a series of minor hollows (Fig. 5b) from which the largefauna and lithics of Layer B2 were recovered. Across the excavationarea, the DEM model shows a slope (2.5&) from northwest towardsoutheast. The reconstructed topography is consistent with low-order drainages, such as rills, typically less than 30 cm wide and60 cm deep, and gullies (i.e., any fluvial hillside channel larger thanrills; see Fig. 6) (Huggett, 2003).

Pebble analysis of Unit 2 in Area C East

Area C East stands out in comparison to Areas B and C in thespatial clustering of unmodified pebbles and cobbles that areclosely associated with anthropogenic elements (Fig. 3). As a part ofa more comprehensive study of formation processes, the sedi-mentary column of Layer C3 was divided analytically into fourlevels (IeIV from top to bottom) that were analyzed individually(Malinsky-Buller, 2008).

Modified items constitute 90% of the total number of items>20mm. The respective frequencies within the smaller size fraction(<20mm) differ (40% and 60% for unmodified and modified, respec-tively; Table 3). The average weight of a small unmodified item is ca.1.5 g, while modified items <20mm (“chips”) weigh ca. 0.5 g each.

The characteristics of the unmodified items are patternedstratigraphically according to the arbitrary levels used for thisanalysis. Flint is the dominant rawmaterial in all the four levels, butits frequencies are notably lower in levels III and IV (Table 4). Thefrequencies of breakage differ among levels, with levels IeII con-taining relatively more broken artifacts compared to levels IIIeIV

Figure 5. Digital elevation model (DEM) according to natural neighbor interpolation. Elevation is given in m Above Sea Level (m ASL). Each black dot represents a reading on theunconformity surface. a). DEM of the unconformity surface in the excavation and its vicinity. b) DEM of Area B. Note the large depressions in this area.


(Table 5). The size distributions of the length, width and thicknessof unmodified items in levels I and II are similar to one another;items are smaller than those recorded in levels III and IV (Table 6).

The degree of sorting of the unmodified items in the variouslevels was determined from the kurtosis of the B-axis (Inbar, 1990),where higher kurtosis values imply better sorting and vice versa.

Figure 6. View of the stratigraphy of the Revadim sequence. Note the rills thatdeveloped at the contact between the red Hamra/Husmas (Unit 3) and the Gray-BrownPaleosol (Unit 2). The arrows point to concentrations of carbonate nodules.

The high kurtosis values of levels IeII (19.9e7.4, respectively)indicate better sorting in these levels. In contrast, the kurtosisvalues of levels III (�0.3) and IV (�1.0) reflect poorer sorting.

The lowest absolute and relative frequencies and lowest densityof unmodified clasts are encountered in level I. Level III shows thehighest frequency of large unmodified items (44.8% of unmodifieditems in all the levels) and is also the densest level. The samevariables in level II are intermediate between levels I and III. Thefrequency of unmodified items in level IV is lower in comparison tolevel III, yet this may be due to the smaller size of the excavatedarea.

At least two hypotheses for the concentration of large unmod-ified pebbles have been considered, one postulating that thepebbles were accumulated by hominins as a potential source of rawmaterial for knapping, and the other postulating that the unmod-ified pebbles were eco-facts (Malinsky-Buller, 2008). Comparisonsof dimensions, mass, state of preservation between the modifiedand unmodified items in each level, as well as a comparative lithicanalysis (discussed in details in Malinsky-Buller, 2008), do notsupport a hypothesis of caching/stocking of raw material forknapping. Consequently, we conclude that the unmodified itemsare mainly eco-facts. Their presence at the site is most parsimoni-ously interpreted as the result of fluvial transport into the locality,and their mixing with lithic artifacts.

The properties of the unmodified components were comparedto a conglomerate that served as a control for the magnitude of

Table 3Frequency and mass distribution of the modified and unmodified items in the levels of Area C East.

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Total

Large items (> 20 mm)

N % N % N % N % N %

Unmodified 50 8.7 140 6.7 290 11.1 167 14.5 647 10.0Modified 525 91.3 1951 93.3 2320 88.9 992 85.5 5788 90.0Total N 575 100 2091 100 2610 100 1159 100 6435 100

Small items (<20 mm)

Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % (g)* %

Unmodified 1096 19.4 4927 21.8 18,981 34.5 13,369 36.3 37,277 31.3Modified 4553 80.6 17,645 78.2 36,086 65.5 23,449 63.7 81,733 68.7Total 5649 100 22,572 100 55,067 100 36,818 100 119,010 100

N % N % N % N % N %

SUN 1114 42.2 2058 39.8 1286 43.4 288 48.6 4746 41.8Chips 1527 57.8 3108 60.2 1676 56.6 305 51.4 6616 58.2Total 2641 100 5166 100 2962 100 593 100 11362 100

Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % Weight (g)* % (g)* %

SUN 749 53.5 1679 52.3 1132 53.7 297 58.6 3875 53.5Chips 652 46.5 1529 47.7 977 46.3 210 41.4 3368 46.5Total 1401 100 3208 100 2109 100 507 100 7243 100


fluvial processes. It was sampled from a section in an old quarrylocated approximately three and a half kilometers southeast of thesite, near the modern Wadi Timna (New Israel Grid coordinates186420/631050; Minster and Ilani, 2004). The clasts in theconglomerate are larger than the unmodified items in levels I and IIand smaller than those in the lower levels. The rate of breakageresembles the lower levels in Area C East (level III and IV) anddiverges from the higher (levels I and II). The kurtosis value of thecontrol sample (2.7) is intermediate between the upper and thelower levels, i.e., the control sample is better sorted than the lowerlevels and less than the upper levels.

Calculation of the water discharge capable of depositing a givenconglomerate uses the Shields equation (Inbar, 1990 and referencestherein),which takes into account channel slope, size of the pebbles,and water depth. In calculating the water discharge needed for thetransport of the conglomerate, present-day data of the first twovariables were used. This yielded an estimated water dischargebetween 1 m3/sec and 2 m3/sec for the control sample. In recon-structing the discharge responsible for the unmodified componentsof levels IeIV, the slope was estimated to be similar to the modernday slope (2.8&), which is similar to the slope estimated for theunconformity surface based on theDEM (2.5&); the catchment areawas estimated according to present-day configuration. According tothis calculation, the estimated discharge responsible for the depo-sition of levels IeII was ca.1 m3/sec, whereas a discharge of ca. 2 m3/sec was calculated for levels IIIeIV.

We interpret the results of the above analyses as indications offluvial processes on two different scales. The deposition of theunmodified assemblages of the lower levels is similar to the controlconglomerate and is reconstructed as deposition in a channel bed

Table 4Frequencies of raw materials of unmodified items in Area C East.

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Controlsample

N % N % N % N % N %

Flint 39 78.0 114 81.4 161 55.5 116 69.5 138 92.6Limestone 4 8.0 4 2.9 28 9.7 36 21.6 3 2.0Quartz e e 4 2.9 7 2.4 7 4.2 6 4.0Unknown 7 14.0 18 12.9 94 32.4 8 4.8 2 1.4

Total 50 100 140 100 290 100 167 100 149 100

or as a channel bar. In contrast, the upper levels represent a naturallevee due to overbank flow along a flood plain. This interpretationis supported by the presence of the small gully as identified in DEM,and by the micromorphological analyses (see below).

The large modified artifacts of level IV are not abraded or rolledand are relatively complete. Their mass is distributed differentlycompared to the large unmodified component (Fig. 7). Therefore itis suggested that the first human occupation in Area C East post-dated a significant flooding event. This process seems to havere-occurred at least once (level III). In levels I and II the largemodified implements are size-sorted, as are the large unmodifiedclasts, and tend to be more broken and abraded compared to thelower levels. These patterns suggest that flooding processes (esti-mated to have been of smaller intensity than the earlier ones) post-dated the accumulation of both artifacts and natural clasts andhomogenized the distributions of their various characteristics(Malinsky-Buller, 2008).

Information from the small-fraction lithics allows us to recog-nize additional fluvial processes that operated on a smaller scaleand contributed to site formation. Lithic analysis indicates thatknapping was carried out on-site (Marder et al., 1999; Malinsky-Buller, 2008; Malinsky-Buller et al., n.d.). However, the frequen-cies of chips in each of the levels are lower than what would beexpected if knapping residues remained in situ after knapping(Fladmark, 1982; Delagnes et al., 2006). At the same time, thequantitative ratio between the large and small fractions differsbetween the modified and unmodified components. This rela-tionship between the large and small components implies that thesmall fraction of both components had undergone post-depositional hydraulic winnowing. The average weight of thesmall unmodified items (1.5 g) may represent the cutoff weightunder which artifacts were moved in and out of the locality by low-energy hydraulic action, e.g. sheet wash after a rain storm (Schick,

Table 5Frequencies of complete (Com.) and broken (Br.) artifacts by levels, Area C East.

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Control sample

Br. Com. Br. Com. Br. Com. Br. Com. Br. Com.

N 13 37 41 100 44 246 21 147 11 138% 26.0 74.0 29.1 70.9 15.2 84.8 12.6 87.4 7.4% 92.6%

Table 6Dimensions of unmodified items in the stratigraphic column of Area C East.*

Level I Level II Level III Level IV

Axis AMean 30.2 32.6 49.2 49.2Median 26.5 26.0 42.5 42.0Mode 23.0 23.0 23.0 23.0

Axis BMean 21.7 23 37.3 36.5Median 18.0 18.0 31.0 29.0Mode 22.0 17.0 17.0 24.0

Axis CMean 14 12.8 24.5 24.4Median 11.0 10.0 20.0 17.0Mode 7.0 7.0 15.0 13.0

Control sample

Axis A Axis B Axis C

Mean 39.3 29.7 19.1Median 34 26 15Mode 30 20 13

*see “Materials and methods” for the methodology and terminology ofmeasurements.


1986: fig. 4.3). Such small-scale processes likely occurred numeroustimes throughout the entire sequence.

Overall, the analyses of unmodified items and artifacts in area CEast clearly show that lithic items were deposited through fluvialactivity that included high-energy floods and low-energy sheetwash. The relative effects of these processes on anthropogenicremains can be differentiated throughout the sequence of Area CEast. For example, levels I and II differ considerably from levels IIIand IV in the frequencies of cores, debitage, and retouched items. Inaddition, there are notable differences between levels III and IV incore frequencies (Table 7). The differences in assemblage compo-sitions of the four analytical levels support the notion that theselevels represent a number of discrete occupation events.

Micromorphological and infrared analyses of sediments from Unit 2

Micromorphological examinations show that the quartz grainsize ranges from silt to coarse sand (20 to 900 mm). The silt isangular, indicating its loess-derived source, and the sand grains aresubangular to rounded. These grain characteristics are indicative ofthe larger grains being deposited through water action, while thefine sand and silt were deposited either by wind and/or water. Thequartz grains are bridged by a clayey groundmass, mostly in theform of clay coatings around the grains. The groundmass includesareas of micritic calcite either embedded within it (orthic nodules)or as veins and crusts. This supports Wieder and Gvirtzman's(1999) observations that the paleosol of Unit 2 is polygenetic. Thesource material of the paleosol is mostly fluvial but with somecontribution of loessial dust. The paleosol is bioturbated, identifiedmainly through the presence of clay coatings and disorthic oxidenodules (see below) e which explains why despite the fluvialdeposition of the parent material no bedding is visible. Yet, bio-turbation was not severe enough to disrupt the archaeologicalhorizons (except from horizon C2).

Macroscopic observations showed that Layers C2 and C3 includeabundant reddish-black nodules and crusts. In Area B they appearas coatings on bones, including the large elephant bones, and inArea C they occur as nodules.

Micromorphological observations and Fourier Transforminfrared (FTIR) analyses show that the nodules are composed ofmanganese and iron oxide minerals. While such nodules occur

throughout the fluvial depositional sequence of Unit 2 in Area CWest, small orthic nodules are abundant in the lower levels (C4 andC5) and larger disorthic nodules are abundant in the upper Layers(C2 and C3) (Fig. 8). Upon breakage and infrared analysis of theinternal part of the large oxide nodules from Layers C2eC3, it wasnoted that some of the nodules formed around bone fragments thatserved as nucleation centers. In some cases the bone mineraldahllite was identified, indicating that the bone fragment in thecenter was either too small or too weathered to be identified bymacroscopic observation. The micromorphological observationsfurther show that calcite infiltration into the paleosol occurred afterthe deposition of manganese oxides (Fig. 9). The lithics at LayersC2eC3 rest on calcitic pendants. This indicates that carbonate-richsolutions infiltrated from the overlying loess-derived Unit 1 (inagreement with the observations of Wieder and Gvirtzman, 1999).

Manganese and iron are soluble at low pH and/or reducingconditions. They will readily precipitate in oxidizing conditions andtheir deposition can be catalyzed through bacterial activity (Hem,1972, 1978). In natural systems manganese and iron are mobi-lized in environments of water inundation where organic matterdecomposition takes place. Once all organic matter had beenconsumed, and/or upon drying, oxidizing conditions develop andoxides precipitate (Arroyo et al., 2008).

Based on the above, the suggested sequence of post-depositional processes responsible for the formation of the oxidenodules is the following: pHwas lowered due to the release of acidsduring bacterial activity (see e.g., Shahack-Gross et al., 2004) whilewater inundation caused reducing conditions, thus manganese andiron were mobilized. Once bacterial degradation of organic matterslowed down, pH was elevated, probably coupled with developingoxidizing conditions, and oxides formed around nucleation centers(i.e., bone fragments). It is suggested that long-term inundationoccurred shortly after the deposition of the upper archaeologicallayers of Unit 2 (Layers C2 and C3). Hence these layers were richerin organic matter relative to the lower archaeological layers (LayersC5 and C4 as well as B2) in Unit 2. Oxide nodules in the lower layersare therefore smaller and fewer than those in the upper ones. Theoxide coatings around large bone fragments in the lower levelsindicate that some organic matter was still present within thesebones at the time of water inundation. Thereforewe cannot rule outthe possibility of small-scale inundation events prior to the depo-sition of the upper layers of Unit 2. Finally, carbonate-rich waterpercolated into Unit 2 sediments after the deposition of the oxides.

Faunal remains

The assemblage consists mainly of bone splinters identifiableonly to body size categories and unidentified splinters. The manyteeth found at the site are fragmented beyond recognition to thespecies level. Identified elments include bovids (Bos primigenius,Gazella gazella), cervids (Dama mesopotamica, Cervus elaphus, Cap-reolus cf. capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), equids, and carnivores(Felis silvestris). Of note are the remains of the straight-tuskedelephant (Palaeloxodon antiquus), which constitute the largestassemblage known from the southern Levant. This species is rep-resented by numerous elements (teeth, tusks, scapulae, pelvises,vertebrae, ribs and long bone shafts). The presence of young, oldand prime adults is inferred from dental data.

The straight-tusked elephant is known from a variety of envi-ronments, ranging from wooded to more open (Davies and Lister,2007). Aurochs, too, were flexible in their adaptations and exploi-ted open parkland, swamps and river valleys. Boars prefer densethickets, forest and riverine habitats, whereas deer are woodlanddwellers and gazelle live mainly in open parkland (Mendelssohnand Yom-Tov, 1999).

Figure 7. Cumulative weight distributions of large unmodified and large modified items from Levels I and II (top), and Levels III and IV (bottom).


Additionally, micromammals (e.g., Microtus guentheri, Spalaxehrenbergi), chelonias and ophidians were recovered. Theirpreferred habitats correspond to those of the larger animals.Microtus guentheri lives in meadows, watered plains andriverbanks. Spalax ehrenbergi is a subterranean rodent that lives inhabitats ranging from drier grassland to Mediterranean woodlands(Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov, 1999).

Discussion

The archaeological remains at the site of Revadim all belong tothe Late Acheulian cultural entity. Stratigraphic data suggest thatthe site consists of several episodes of occupation, each of whichcontains both lithic and faunal remains. The data compiled andanalyzed in this paper indicate how depositional environments and

Table 7Assemblage compositions in the four levels of Area C East.

Level I Level II Level III Level IV Total

N %* N %* N %* N %* N %

Debitage 366 17.9 1435 28.4 1519 38.0 575 44.3 3895 31.411.4 19.8 27.3 32.8 21.9

Core 41 2.0 150 3.0 309 7.7 201 15.5 701 5.71.3 2.1 5.5 11.5 3.9

Tools 72 3.5 293 5.8 431 10.8 189 14.6 985 8.02.2 4.0 7.7 10.8 5.5

Debris 1562 76.5 3177 62.8 1735 43.4 332 25.6 6808 55.048.7 43.8 31.1 18.9 38.3

Sub-total 2041 100.0 5055 100.0 3994 100.0 1297 100.0 12389 100.0Unmodified >2 cm. 50 1.6 140 1.9 290 5.2 167 9.5 647 3.6Unmodified <2 cm. 1114 34.8 2058 28.4 1286 23.1 288 16.4 4746 26.7

Total 3205 100 7253 100 5570 99.9 1752 99.9 17782 99.9

* Upper value in each cell is the % out of the sub-total of modified lithics in the level. The lower value in each cell is % out of the total lithic assemblage for the level.


site formation processes changed through time. The characteristicsof a relatively extensive marker horizon serve as our baseline forunderstanding geomorphic developments in the site's immediatevicinity during later phases of occupation. The reconstruction ofthese later phases of landscape formation is informed also byindependent sedimentological and chemical analyses.

These data allow us to reconstruct the following: The firsthominin occupation(s) at Revadim occurred on the unconformitysurface between Unit 3 (Hamra/Husmas) and Unit 2. Although theupper part of Unit 3 is truncated, the presence of Hamra/Husmasindicates soil formation on the upper slopes of stabilized sanddunes (Dan and Yaalon, 1966). The occurrence of calcified roots andthe relatively high d13C values accordingly indicate the presence ofgrasses and shrubs as well as trees. Such vegetation may indeedcontribute to dune stabilization (Tsoar, 2000) and subsequent soilformation. Combined, these phenomena indicate a relatively longphase of stable conditions with minimal sediment accumulation.

Because the erosion surface was more or less horizontal, it cutdifferentially across the pre-existing topography of the sand dune,variably exposing the sand and Hamra/Husmas. A possible scenario

Figure 8. Scanned thin sections showing the difference in oxide nodule appearanceand sizes between (A) Layer C2 and (B) Layer C4. The scale bar applies to both images.The thin brown “lines” noticeable in (B) indicate rill erosion.

for the formation of the depressions in Area B (as depicted by theDEM; Fig. 5b) relates them towater action upon the unconsolidatedsand, causing expansions of existing conduits (e.g., animal burrows,root channels, desiccation or unloading cracks) (Bryan and Jones,1997). The topography reconstructed by the DEM (Fig. 5a) isconsistent with low-order drainages such as gullies and rills, as wellas sheet flow. Heaving and surface runoff due to the intensity of rainevents can obliterate rills, especially when rainfall is highlyseasonal. In turn, the periodic destruction of rills allows newchannels to form and creates the conditions for stream migrationover a short period of time. The DEM resolution is probably not highenough to identify rills. One gully was identified in the south-eastern part of the excavated area (Fig. 5a).

Figure 9. Scanned thin section showing the order of post-depositional processes thatacted at the site. (F) is flint, (B) is bone, (O) is oxide stain, and (C) is calcite crust. Notethat the bone is covered by manganese oxide stain that in turn is covered by a calciticcrust, indicating that oxide deposition predated the penetration of carbonate-richsolutions into Unit 2 sediments.


We suggest that the first hominin occupations (Layers B2 andC5) in the area of Revadim took place on an undulating surface (thecontact surface between Unit 3 and Unit 2), with dynamic processesof rill and gully formation and destruction. The large depressions inArea B acted over time as traps in which faunal remains, lithicartifacts and natural clasts accumulated gravitationally after theirinitial deposition on the paleo-surface.

The majority of human activities in Revadim occurredthroughout the deposition of Unit 2. Specific archaeological Layerscan be discerned within the sediment column, indicating repeatedhuman occupations in the area. However, in the absence of markerbeds within Unit 2 sediments it is difficult to identify large-scalepaleo-surfaces. Cultural material remains allow more nuancedinsights about the landscapes on which hominins settled.

The depositional facies observed in areas B and C of the exca-vation likely reflect two water-related micro-habitats that existedin Revadim. The ancient South-North slope calculated by the DEMand the present-day comparable slope, as measured empirically,are highly similar to one another as are the inclinations observedfor Unit 2 sediments in the trenches. While the conglomeratesidentified in Area C East were not encountered in Area B, thistopographic reconstruction suggests that the different sediments inthe two areas belong to the same drainage system(s). Larger clastswere deposited higher upstream in fluvial contexts while finer-grained, suspended material was transported further down-stream, over a distance of at least 70 m, and deposited in the lowerpart (Area B). Some of these sediments were deposited in thedepressions during episodes of ponding. Carbon isotope analyseslikewise indicate that during the deposition of the upper part ofUnit 2 (i.e., Layers B1, C4-C1) the site witnessed wetter conditionscompared to the earlier occupations of Layers B2eC5.

Cultural material remains allow more nuanced insights aboutthe landscapes on which hominins settled. Lithic artifacts andfaunal remains of Layer B1 are rather sporadic. In contrast, thecorrelative stratigraphic sequence in Area C suggests that homininsrepeatedly occupied this relatively elevated area. The timelinereconstructed for Area C East indicates that such redundant occu-pations were associated with channel bed/bars (levels IV and III) orimmediate channel environment (e.g., natural levee or overbankaccumulation in levels II-I). The homogenized granulometric andpreservation characteristics of the clasts in levels II-I in Area C Eastare suggestive of longer periods of erosion and mixing on thesurface associated with the overbank contexts. During this periodsome of the depressions in Area B were being filled with faunalremains and Late Acheulian lithic materials that derived eitherfrom Unit B1 in situ occupations or were transported by water fromthe topographically higher Area C.

Micromorphological analyses accord with these lines ofevidence. The lack of bedding combined with the presence ofcoarse sand grains throughout Unit 2 indicate deposition by water.Possibly, aeolian input (during the dry season?), which becamemixed into the substrate, also played a part in soil formationprocesses. The authigenic deposition of manganese and iron oxidesis attributed to inundation of the locality. Based on the suggestedmechanism for the formation of oxides, the site appears to havebeen episodically inundated prior to the occupation of Layer C3b(levels IV-III), as well as after the latest occupations of Layer C3a(levels IeII) and Layer C2. The mixing of natural and archaeologicaldeposits at the top of Layer C3 through low-energy hydraulicactivity, as documented by the pebble analysis, is consistent witha scenario of inundation within Unit 2.

We would expect that the conditions of fluvial and episodicponding as reconstructed above attracted a diverse faunalcommunity to this particular locality. The animal remains known todate from Revadim represent diverse ecological niches, ranging

from drier grasslands to Mediterranean woodlands. Elephants area water-dependent species that must drink daily, but their foragingrange is 16e60 km from the water source (Kerley et al., 2008). Thustheir presence at the site is not inconsistent with the mostlyshallow and seasonal water bodies that we reconstruct above. Onthe other hand, to date there is no representation in Revadim ofspecies that are totally dependent on permanent water for theirexistence (e.g., hippos; Jablonski, 2004 and references therein).

Several landscape studies have shown that small-scale varia-tions in topography, plant ecology and hydraulic conditions can behighly significant in shaping hominin behaviors (e.g., Blumenschineand Peters, 1998; Potts et al., 1999). Following the results of thisstudy, we hypothesize that the micro-habitats identified here led todifferential land use patterns of Late Acheulian groups in Revadimacross space and over time. After initial occupation on both lowareas and hill slopes (Layers B2eC5), there appears to be a shifttoward systematic, repeated preference for channel and channelbank habitats on mild slopes (Layers C3-C2). Ongoing analyses ofcultural remains (i.e., lithics and fauna) investigate how LateAcheulian groups in Revadim responded behaviorally to theparticular characteristics of the micro-habitats. The insights gainedby such a study bring us a step closer to a fine-grained resolution ofthe archaeological record of this site.

There have been several attempts to link the stratigraphic andsedimentological phenomena of the Revadim sequence withorbitally-forced global climates (Gvirtzman et al., 1999; Wieder andGvirtzman, 1999). The detailed research that has been carried outsince the publication of these studies now enables us to reviewthese correlations. The currently available rough age estimates ofthe Revadim sequence, combined with the degree of climate vari-ability during the estimated time range for the site, preclude anymeaningful correlation to global climate patterns recognizedduring the Middle Pleistocene (Oppo et al., 1998; McManus et al.,1999; Almogi-Labin et al., 2004). We expect that ongoing datingefforts will provide better chronological control over the time spanof hominin use of the Revadim locality. Yet, we argue that formalcorrelations with the global record are less crucial for under-standing the immediate environmental and ecological challengesthat faced the Acheulian occupants of Revadim. These aspects of thehuman adaptation are better informed by the analysis of lower-scale environmental processes and reconstruction of the imme-diate landscape with which hominins interacted.

Conclusion

The stratigraphic and sedimentological records of Revadim, ascurrently known, represent environmental processes on twodistinct scales. The erosion surface, recognized over a large area(13,000 m2), reflects an extensive erosion phase in the site'svicinity, which affected the stabilized sand dunes, forming the basisof the local sequence. The transition zone that overlies this erosionsurface within the Revadim sequence reflects climatic shifts fromdrier to wetter conditions.

Environmental changes throughout Unit 2 seem to reflectlower-magnitude variations, which may have occurred on a morelocalized scale. After an initial shift toward lower values, d13C seemsto have stabilized (i.e., shifted to more C3, Mediterraneanvegetation). The landscape of rills and gullies would not have beenhighly stable, as it eroded and changed continuously in the Medi-terranean environment. The documented variations in channelenergy within Layer C3 likely reflect the response of local, low-order drainages to mild changes in rainfall, well within the rangeof variation of wetter Mediterranean climate.

The understanding of the “big picture” of evolutionary behav-ioral change is based on extrapolation from particular occupations.


The more detailed our information about any such occurrence, themore reliable is the overall picture that we can draw. A number ofLate Acheulian sites are known from the central and southerncoastal plain of Israel. Published reports (e.g., Ronen et al., 1972;Goren, 1979; Barzilai et al., 2006; Chazan and Horwitz, 2007)underline the high variability in the archaeological manifestationsas well as the environmental contexts of these sites. Against thisbackground, the paleo-landscape approach, described here forRevadim, goes beyond a narrow, site-specific reconstruction. Thisstudy illustrates how landscape approaches can be applied to assistin compiling a more coherent framework for cultural processes inthe Levant during the Middle Pleistocene.

Acknowledgments

We thank Naama Goren-Inbar for inviting us to participate inthe conference and this special issue of the Journal of HumanEvolution. The site of Revadim Quarry was excavated by OM incollaboration with Ianir Milevski and Hamoudi Khalaily. We aregrateful to Ronit Lupo for field photography, Michael Smelianskyand Leonid Zeiger for drawing themaps, and Ran Barkai and NataliaSlodenko for information about Area B of the excavation. We thankPinchas Fine and Leore Grosman for fruitful discussions while thispaper has been in the making. Noah Lichtinger prepared Figs. 1 and2 for digital publication. We are grateful to the anonymousreviewers for their critical and very helpful comments ona previous draft of this paper.

This research was supported by the Israel Antiquities Authority,Yad Hanadiv Foundation and the Irene-Levi Sala CARE Foundation.

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Archaeological horizons and fluvial processes at the Lower