In this case study:

AvArima valley

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this section: • NorthernRangewatershedarea:contributiontoTrinidad’sfreshwaterresources • Ecosystems:forests,freshwaterandbiodiversity

In1952WilliamBeebeundertookastudyontheArimaValley.Hisstudiesyieldedveryimportantinformationontheecologyandecosystemsinthearea,andarestillextensivelyusedinworkontheArimaValley.1ManyofthedescriptionsprovidedinthesectionsonLocationandTopography,Climate,Vegetation,

andFauna,aredrawnfromthisstudy.

TheArimaValleyliesparallelandmidwaybetweenapproximatelyfifteenvalleysthattransectthesouthernsideoftheNorthernRange.Allofthesevalleysareorientednorth-south.TheArimaValleyislocatednorthofthetownofArima,andextendsfromthefoothillsoftheNorthernRangetotheridgeoftheNorthernRangeforadistanceofabout8.45kmalongtheground.Morespecifically,theValleyislocatedbetween10o37’and10o43’Nlatitudeand61o16’and61o18’Wlongitude.TheValleyrisestoaheightofabout840m,withsteephillsidegradientsof1:3insomeareas.

Section 1

Location & Topography

Figure 1: Map of Arima Valley Source: Ordnance Survey (1930)!

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1WilliamBeebe,“IntroductiontotheEcologyoftheArimaValley”,Zoologica37(1952)

RainfallRainfallintheArimaValleyisinfluencedbytwodistinctseasons:thewetseason(fromJunetoDecember)andthedryseason(fromJanuarytoMay).ThepatternofthewetanddryseasonsisdeterminedbythemovementoftheInterTropicalConvergenceZone(ITCZ)–aglobalweathersystemthatinfluencestheclimateofmanyareas.Theaverageannualrainfallrangesbetween2000and2400mm.Approximately70%to80%ofallprecipitationoccursintherainyseason,withamajorcontributionofthisfromtheITCZ.2

OrographicrainfallgeneratedfromtheupwardmovementoftheNortheastTradeWindsoncontactwiththeNorthernRangealsocontributestorainfallintheValley,andismoresignificantinthedryseason.

TemperatureTemperaturevariesalongthevalley,usuallydecreasingfromthevalleybottomtothetopofthevalley.Thistemperaturechangeiscausedbyadiabaticcoolingduetothedifferencesinelevationoftheland.TemperatureintheValleyaveragesbetween18–30oCbutcanfallaslowas17

oCathigherelevationsintheValley.

Humidity and WindsHumidityintheArimaValleyalsovarieswithadirectrelationshiptotemperature.HumidityintheValleyisusuallyintheupper70sorlower80s.TheprevailingwindsaretheNortheastTrades,whichgenerallyblowinasouth-westdirection.Notethatwindsarenamedafterthedirectionfromwhichtheyblow.

Climate

Figure 2: Isohyetal Map of the Northern Region of Trinidad Source: Piarco Meterological Office(unpublished; pers comm.. 2004) in NRA (2005)

2EMA,“StateoftheEnvironmentReport”,1998.

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Figure 3: Geology of the Northern Range Source: Brown and Bally (1966) in NRA (2005)

TheformationoftheAndeanmountainchainoccurredinthemiddleoftheMioceneperiod.3ThetectonicforcesbuildingtheAndeanmountainchainwerealsoinfluencingthenorthernpartofTrinidad.Trinidadbecamehighlydisturbedbythecompressionalandtangentialtectonicmovements,leadingtotheformationofalltypesofstructuresincludingsimpleanticlinalmountainslikethoseoftheNorthernRange.4TwogeologicalrockformationsarefoundintheArimaValley:theMayaroformationandtheMaracasformation.Therocksthatmakeuptheseformationsarecomprisedofquartzites,hardmassivelimestones,marbles,schists,sandstones,sandsandclays.5ThehardmassivelimestonesareextensivelyminedintheArimaValley,andseveralothervalleysoftheNorthernRange.6

ThesoiltypevarieswithintheValleybecauseofdifferencesinparentmaterialsandsituationintheValley.TheDiegoMartinsoilseriesoverliesmuchofthesteeperareasoftheArimaValley.7Thesesoilsarecoarse,loamyandcarbonaticwithgoodinternaldrainage.Erosion is a potential problem with these soils, primarily because of the steep slopes on which they are situated.Thesoilsinthevalleybottomcomprisecolluvialandalluvialdepositsandarealsofreelydrained.Thesesoilstendtobequitefertileandaregoodforagriculture.

Geology & Soils

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3 A.G.A.Sutton,“ReportonthegeneralgeologyofTrinidadtoaccompanyGeologicalmap”,(Trinidad:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1955).4Ibid5HansG.Kugler,“TreatiseontheGeologyofTrinidadPart4:ThePaleocenetoHoloceneFormations”,H.M.BolliandM.Knappertsbusch,(Basel:TheMuseumof NaturalHistory).6 NRA,“ReportofanAssessmentoftheNorthernRange,TrinidadandTobago”,EnvironmentalManagementAuthority2005.7 Ibid

TheArimaValleyispartofthelargerWesternPeninsulaCaroniwatershed,butformsawatershedorcatchmentareaofitsown.TheArimaRiverflowsthroughtheArimaValley,anddrainsthemajorityofthewatercapturedintheArimaValleycatchmentsouthwardsintotheCaroniRiver.TheArimaRiveralsocontributestowaterrechargeintheNorthernRange.

Drainage Area & Water Resources

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The Northern Gravels is a major aquifer in the Northern Range, and consists of wedge-shaped alluvial deposits and gravel fans along the southern foot of the Northern Range. These extend from east Port of Spain to approximately three kilometres east and southward to the Caroni Plains. 8

OnitswaytotheCaroniRiver,theArimaRiverflowsoverandrechargestheArimaGravelsaquiferlocatedalongthesouthernfootoftheNorthernRange.TheArimaGravelsaquiferisapartofthelargerNorthernGravelsaquifer.

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Figure 4: Northern Range Major Water-catchment areas

Figure 5: Arima Valley

Source: NRA (2005)

8 EMA1998

TheArimaRiverandothersurfaceriversintheNorthernRangehavebeenidentifiedasmajorsourcesofwaterforhumanuse.9 Of the surface water exploited in Trinidad and Tobago by the Water and SewageAuthority (WASA), 80% originates within the Northern Range. 10HoweverthewaterqualityinmanyoftheriversintheNorthernRange–includingtheArimaRiver-isbeingdegraded.ThewaterqualityoftheArimaRiverhasdeclinedsincethe1970sduetotheimpactsofpollution.11

Currently,waterisnotextracteddirectlyfromtheArimaRiverbyWASAforpublicconsumption.However,the Arima River contributes to the water that flows into the Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant which is used for public consumption. 13

Some existing and potential sources of pollution to the Arima River:Domestic refuse - includes garbage and leachates from solid waste disposal sites Domestic sewage - includes seepage from cesspools and pit latrinesFarm wastes - waste water from animal farms, runoff of fertilisers and pesticidesIndustrial effluents including wash waters from quarries12

9 Ibid10 NRA200511 EMA199812 Ibid13 NRA200514 Beebe1952

Information for this section is drawn from William Beebe’s study in 1952. 14 AdetailedclassificationofthevegetationofArimaValleywasdonebyJ.S.Beardin1946andlaterbyWilliamBeebein1952.Sincethennosuchdetailedclassificationhasbeenundertakenandwestillrelyondataobtainedfromtheirstudies.ThishighlightsaneedfornewstudiesofthiskindparticularlybecausetheNorthernRangevegetation(mainly forests)harbourlargestoresofbiodiversity,andalsobecausetheseforestsplayakeyroleinwaterrechargeandfreshwaterprovision.The Asa Wright Nature Centre (AWNC) continues to play a key role in the conservation of existing forests in the Arima Valley:thiswillbediscussedlaterwhenwelookatconservationeffortsintheArimaValley.

ThevegetationinArimaValleychangesfromthebaseofthevalleytothetopofvalleyasaresultofchanging abiotic conditions like soil, temperature, rainfall and slope. AtthebaseofthevalleyonthefoothillsoftheNorthernRange,thevegetationtypeissecondaryseasonalevergreenforestcomprisingsomeprolificsurvivorsoftheoriginalseasonalevergreenforestlikecocoritepalms.Thisoriginalforestisthoughttohavebeenaclimaxcommunity.AlistoftreesfoundintheseasonalevergreenforestformationisprovidedinAppendixA.Higherupthevalleythevegetationtransitionstoadeciduoussea-sonalforest.Lowermontaneforestoccupiesmostofthevalleynorthwardofthedeciduousseasonalforest.AlistoftreesfoundinthelowermontaneforestsinprovidedinAppendixA.Onthehighestslopesandridgestruemontaneforestoccursinsmallareas.

Vegetation

Figure 6: Lower Montane Forest in Arima Valley

InformationforthissectionisdrawnfromWilliamBeebe’sstudyin1952. 15 TheforestsandfreshwaterecosystemsfoundintheArimaValleyprovidegeneralandspecializedhabitatsandavarietyoffoodsources,forthelargediversityoffaunathatitsupports.

FishfoundintheArimaRiverFrogsandtoads-16speciesoffrogsandtoadswererecordedbyBeebe.Lacertianspecies-15oftheknownlacertilianspecieswererecordedbyBeebe. IguanasandTegulizardsarecommonreptilespeciesfoundinArimaValley.Snakes-ofTrinidad’s38speciesofsnakes,27hadbeenfoundintheArimaValleybyBeebe.Birds-164speciesofbirdswereobservedbyBeebeand170speciesnotedbyGarrawayetal.16 TwocommonspeciesobservedatAWNCaremanakinsandwattledbellbirds.ThirteenspeciesofhummingbirdshavebeenrecordedatAWNC.AnoilbirdcolonylivesintheArimaValley.

Mammals- BeeberecordedalargediversityofmammalsintheArimaValley.Alistoftheseisprovidedin AppendixA.Noresearchorstudieshavebeenundertakentodetermineifthesespeciesarestill presentintheArimaValley.However,Garrawayetalnotesthatsomeofthesespeciescanbe observedatAWNCincludingocelots,brocketdeer,agouti,pacaorlappe,andnine-banded armadilloortattoo.

SomeoftheactivitiescurrentlyoccurringintheValleyhavethepotentialtoaltertheforestandfreshwaterecosystemsthereandasaresultmayalterordestroyhabitats.Forexample,theincreasedturbidityoftheArimaRiverasaresultofupstreamquarryingactivitiesreducesthequalityofthehabitatoffreshwaterorganisms.AlthoughAWNCprotectslargeareasoftheArimaValleythroughitsconservationefforts,somepartsoftheValleyarestillsubjecttosomehumanactivitiesandarepotentialthreatstothefaunaandfloraintheValley.WewilldiscussconservationeffortsintheArimaValleyingreaterdetailinthefollowingsections.

Fauna

The nocturnal oil bird is the only nocturnal, fruit-eating bird in the world. It is found in northern parts of South America and in Trinidad. The oil birds live in caves often in precarious steep cliffs. Several caves in the Northern Range have colonies including in Dunston Cave in Arima Valley and Cumaca Caves.Contributions have been made by the World Wildlife Fund for protection on the colony at AWNC.17

15 Beebe195216JasminGarraway,CarolJamesandHowardNelson,“EcotourismasaStrategyforSustainableDevelopment:TheExperienceoftheAsaWrightCentreTrinidadand

Tobago”,(UNDPTrinidadandTobago,1999).17 AWNC,“AsaWrightNatureCentre”http://www.asawright.org/

Topics covered in this section: : • Conflictinghumanusesandimpactsonecosystemservices • Land-useplanningasamanagementoption

Thissectionwillfocusonthevaryingtypesofland-usethatoccursintheArimaValley,andhowtheimpactsoftheselandusesoneachothercreatechallengesformanagement.Thisisonlyaglimpseintotheissuesthat

surroundland-usemanagement.

TherearefourmaincategoriesoflanduseactivitiesoccurringintheArimaValley:residenceorsettlement;quarrying;agriculture;andconservation/research/ecotourism/recreation.Inthefollowingsub-sections,eachofthesecategoriesoflanduseisdescribed.Howtheselanduseactivitiesinteractisexploredinthefinalsub-section.

Residence or SettlementResidentialsettlementoccursmostlyinthelowerpartsoftheArimaValley:fromthetownofArimauptothe2milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.TwootherpocketsofsettlementoccuratTempleVillageandVerdantValeatthe4milemarkand4.5milemarkrespectivelyalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.

ThemajorityoflandintheArimaValleyisstate-owned.Whenresidentialstructuresarebuiltonstatelandwithoutthepermissionofthegovernment,thehousingstructuresareillegalandtheresidentsaredescribedas“squatters”.In1998thegovernmentattemptedtoprotectsquattersonstatelandsthroughthepassingofTheStateLand(RegularisationofTenure)Bill.

Small-scalefarmingalsooccursalongsideresidences.Theseincludechickenfarms,aswellaschristophene(Sechium edule)andbananacultivation.The runoff from these farms, can introduce mainly nutrientsand faecal coliform into the groundwater and Arima River.Pitlatrinesarealsocommoninsomeoftheseresidences,andthesealsohavethepotentialtopollutethegroundwaterandArimaRiverwithfaecalcoliform.

Section 2

Land Use

Dr.MaryAlkins-KoooftheLifeSciencesDepartmentoftheUniversityoftheWestIndiesdevelopedcasestudiesforuseincoursesattheUniversity.AmongthesewasacasestudyontheArimaValley.

Section2drawsheavilyontheinformationfromthiscasestudyonArimaValley. 18

The State Land (Regularisation of Tenure) Bill, 1998 is an act of Parliament to protect squatters incertain areas from ejection from state land through acquisition of a leasehold title by squatters.The Arima Valley was not one of the areas originally designated for protection of squatters. However,an amendment to the act provides the opportunity for squatters living outside the designated areas to become regularised.

AgricultureAgricultureintheArimaValleyoccursinthelowervalleyadjacenttoresidentialsettlementsuptoVerdantValehigherupintheValley.Hillsideslash-and-burnagricultureispractisedinrelativelysmallplotsbysmallagricul-tural-squatters.Themajorproblemwiththistypeofagricultureisthatitweakenstheslopestabilitymakingithighlysusceptibletowindandwatererosion.Atthe6.5milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad,thereisanextensivechristophenefarm.

Thechristopheneiscultivatedonsteepslopes,andlookslikeasmoothgreensheetcoveringthehills.Thepreciseareaofthefarmisnotknown,butaerialphotossuggestthatthecultivatedareaisexpanding.19 Largequantitiesofmanureareusedforfertilisingandconditioningthesoil,erosioncontrolappearstobenon-existent,andtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoadisindangeroflandslipsincriticalareasaroundthechristophenefarm.Waterforirrigationisdrawnfromasmalladjacenttributarythroughacomplexnetworkofpipeswhichisvisiblefromtheroad.Anumberofproblemsmayarisefromthistypeofcultivation. • Erosionofthehillsideispossiblewithcultivationonsuchsteepslopes.Thelackofgroundcoverand rootnetworksthathelptobindthesoilmayhelptoincreasesoilerosion.Theproblemiscompounded iftheerodedmaterialgetsintotheArimaRiver,increasestheturbidityanddecreasestheoverallwater qualityoftheriver.Alternatively,thecoverofthechristopheneplantationmayactasaforestcanopy, andprotectthesoilfromtherainsplasherosion.Rainsplasherosioniscausedbytheimpactof rainwaterstrikingthesoilsurface,anddislodgingsoilparticles. • Misuseoroveruseoffertilizerscanintroducenutrientsandpollutantstothegroundwaterand subsequentlytotheArimaRiver. • Withsuchalargecultivationinthemiddleofwhatusedtobelowermontaneforest,theproblemof habitatfragmentationarises.ThiscanfurtherleadtolossofbiodiversityintheArimaValley,particularly formammals.Treecropcultivationofcocoawasextensiveinthepast,butmanyestatesarenowabandoned.Somecultivationofcitrusandanthuriumsstilloccurs

19Garrawayetal.1999

Figure 7: Christophene farm in Arima Valley

QuarryingTherearethreeactivequarriesintheVerdantValeareaextractinglimestone.InthesectiononGeologyandSoils,massivelimestonewasnotedasoneofthemineralscomprisingtherockformationsunderlyingtheArimaValley.ThislimestoneexistsinabandacrosstheNorthernRange:itsquarryingisnotlimitedtotheArimaValleybuttakesplaceinotherNorthernRangevalleys.Thelimestoneishighqualitybluelimestoneandisusedforroadandbuildingconstruction,andbluelimestoneproductslikepavingtiles.

Thequarryingprocessforlimestoneincludesblastingtoweakentherockstructureandtoseparatethemas-sivelimestonerockintoblocks;andexcavationofblocksfromtherockface.WashingisnotpartofthequarryproductionprocessintheArimaValleysoquarryeffluentsarenotamajorproblem.However,therehavebeenseveralproblemsthatmaybelinked.Theseinclude:NoiseandVibrations–TheAWNCisconcernedthatthenoiseassociatedwithblastingactivitiesatthequarrymaydisturbtheoilbirdcolonyandotherorganismslocatedintheforestssurroundingtheAWNC.Residentslowerinthevalleyhavecomplainedthatthevibrationsfromtheblastingactivitiesmaybecausingcracksintheirwalls.

Dust–DustfromthequarriesisparticularlyvisibleonthevegetationthatgrowsalongsidetheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.Nostudieshavebeendonetodeterminetheeffectsofthequarry-dustonplants,humanwell-being,oronthewaterqualityoftheArimaRiver.

Quarry-floorrunoff–Duringrainfalleventsrunofffromquarriesentersthesurfacewatersourcesintheareaandmaydecreasethewaterquality.

Figure 8: One of the quarries in Arima Valley

Figure 9: Dust from quarries on vegetation

Conservation, Research, Ecotourism, Recreation TheAWNCisresponsibleformajorconservationeffortsintheArimaValley.

In1995,thegovernmentleased250acresofforestreservetoAWNC,specificallyformanagementoftheforestecosystemofthelandssurroundingAWNC.Throughdonationsofland,thecurrentareamanagedbyAWNCis735acres.Bychannellingmostofitseffortstowardsconservationandmanagementofthisforestecosystem,theAWNChasbeensuccessfulatprotectinganumberofspeciesoffloraandfaunaintheArimaValley.

Conservation of the forest ecosystem also maintains the crucial services provided by forests which include freshwater recharge, water purification and soil stability.

AWNCalsomanagestheWilliamBeebeTropicalResearchStationatSimla,wherenumerousstudieswereconductedonthenaturalhistoryofTrinidad’sfloraandfauna.Scientificgroupsusethestationonaregularbasisforbiologicalandecologicalstudies.TheArimaRiverisalsoextensivelyusedforrecreation.Forexample,Manette’sRanch–atthe1.5milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad–isusedforpicnicsandotherrecreationalactivities.20

AWNC was first purchased by Joseph Holmas from the government in 1934, and resold to Dr. Newcome Wright and his wife Asa in 1946. The William Beebe Tropical Research Station – run by Dr. William

Beebe – was also located in the Arima Valley in close proximity to the Wright property. By the 1960s the Wrights were accommodating birdwatchers and naturalists who came to visit the

research station. In 1967, the property was sold and in that same year the Asa Wright Nature Centre was established as a non-profit trust. With closure of the research station in 1970,

the research facility was handed over to AWNC as a gift in 1974.AWNC’s overarching goal is natural resource conservation in the Arima Valley and other areasof Trinidad and Tobago. AWNC has maintained its ability to accommodate visitors to the valley,

and is currently recognised as one of the best ecotourist lodges in the world.One of its priority issues is conservation of the rare oilbird.

Figure 10: Ducks at Asa Wright Nature Centre

20MaryAlkins-Koo,“Environmental,EvaluationandImpactAssessment”,(Dept.ofLifeSciences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,2007).

Oneaspectofland-useplanninginvolvescoordinatingdifferentland-useactivitiestominimizeconflictsbetweentheseactivities,andtoreducetheimpactstheseactivitiesmayhaveoneachother.Aland-usemanage-mentplanactsasaguide.Thereareanumberoffactorswhichaland-useplanmustincorporate.Theseinclude:

Landcharacteristics– theseincludesoiltype,drainagearea,topography,areaofland, geologyandvegetation.

Potentialimpactsof– theseincludeboththepositiveandnegativeimpactsoftheactivitiesonthelandarea.activitiesonarea Positiveimpactsmayincludeeconomicreturnsfromanactivity.Negativeimpacts mayincludethedegradationoflandbytheactivity.

Potentialimpactsof– Activitiescanhaveapositive,negativeorneutralimpactoneachother.activitiesoneachother Forexample,wherecommercialactivityissituatedneartoresidences, thecommercialactivitymayprovideemploymentfornearbyresidents,andthe residentialareainturnmayprovidelabourforthecommercialarea:that’sapositive impact.Iffactoriesaresituatedneartoresidences,pollutionfromthefactorymay causepeopleinnearbyresidencestobecomeill:that’sanegativeimpact.

Itisnotpossible,inthiscasestudy,todiscussallofthefactorsthatareconsideredinaland-usemanagementplan.Instead,wewilllookatoneofthefactorsusedtocreateamanagementplan:potential impacts of activities on each other.Usingtheinformationfromtheabovesections,wewillcreateanactivity-conflictmatrix.Thismatrixwillhelpustoidentifytheimpactsofvariousactivitiesoneachother.Itcanalsohelptoprioritizetheimpactsofactivities,andthinkaboutthetradeoffsofreducingorstoppingcertainactivitiesinfavourofothers.

Land-Use Planning in The Arima Valley as a Management Option

A tradeoff is a situation that involves losing one aspect of something in order to gain another aspect.For example, the government may use a parcel of land – previously used for recreation activities -

to build houses. The tradeoff in this case is recreation for housing.

Using the matrix • Theverticalcolumnofactivitiesimpactsonthehorizontalrowofactivities,andimpactsarenot interchangeable.Forexample,theimpactofquarryingonagricultureisnotthesameastheimpactof agricultureonquarrying. • Theimpactscanbedescribedashigh,mediumorlow,andpositiveornegative. • Thereasonfortheimpactshouldbedescribed. • Itispossibleformultipleimpactsofoneactivityonanother,andtheseshouldbeincludedinthematrix. • Afterthematrixiscompletetheimpactsshouldbeprioritizedtodeterminewhichismostimportantto dealwithwith.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtothinkofwaystoreduceimpactsaccordingtopriority.

Table 1: Some ecosystem services provided by the Arima Valley 21

Discussion Questions

21 NRA2005.

Source: NRA (2005)

• Howdoanytheactivities–conservation,recreation,agriculture,residentialsettlement- affecttheservicesprovidedbytheArimaValley?(See Table 1) • DoanyoftheecosystemservicesprovidedbytheArimaValleyhavesubstitutesoralternatives? • Issustainablequarryingpossible? • Howisnoiseconsideredapollutantunderthesecircumstancesandwhatregulationsexisttoprevent excessiveimpactsofnoise?

Suggested Learning Activities(See Generic Learning Activities) • SWOTAnalysisandStrategicMatrix • LeopoldMatrix • FiveWhys

Suggested Fieldwork(See Sampling Methodologies) • SlopeAngleandGradient • Waterqualitytesting–totalsuspendedsolids;turbidity; phosphates;nitrates;faecalcoliform;dissolvedoxygen • Streamdepth,velocityandstreamflow

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2003-2007.CaseStudy–ArimaValley.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSciences,Univer-sityoftheWestIndies,St.Augustine,TrinidadandTobago.

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2005.EcologicalAssessmentandHumanImpacts.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSci-ences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,St.Augustine,TrinidadandTobago.

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2007.EnvironmentalEvaluation&ImpactAssessment.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSciences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,St.Augus-tine,TrinidadandTobago.

Anderson,EdricJ.M.1989.RealEstateDevelopment in the Northern Range A developer’s Viewpoint.TheMinistryofEnvironmentandNationalService,TrinidadandTobago.

AsaWrightNatureCentre(AWNC).(undated)Asa Wright Nature Centre.http://www.asawright.org/(AccessedMarch16,2009)

Beebe,William.1952.IntroductiontotheEcologyoftheArimaValley.Zoologica37:157-183.

EMA.1998.Trinidad and Tobago State of theEnvironment Report 1998.EnvironmentalManagementAuthorityofTrinidadandTobago.

Garraway,Jasmin,CarolJamesandHowardNelson.1999.Ecotourism as a Strategy for Sustainable Development: The Experience of the Asa Wright Centre Trinidad and Tobago.UNDP,TrinidadandTobago.

GoogleEarth.2009.

Kugler,HansG.2001.Treatise on the Geologyof Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to Holocen Formations.EditedbyH.M.BolliandM.Knappertsbusch.Basel:TheMuseumofNaturalHistory.

NorthernRangeAssessment(NRA).2005.Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern Range.StateoftheEnvironmentReport2004.EnvironmentalManagementAuthorityofTrinidadandTobago.184pp.

NorthstoneLtd.QuarryingProcessandQuarryProducts.http://www.northstone-ni.co.uk/about-us/education/quarrying-process-and-quarry-products/ (AccessedMarch27,2009).

Sutton,A.G.A.1955.Report on the general geology of Trinidad to accompany Geological map.Trinidad:GovernmentPrintingOffice.

Ritter,Michael.E.2006.The Physical Environ-ment: an Introduction to Physical Geography.http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/title_page.html(AccessedMarch27,2009)

TheCropperFoundation(TCF).2009.Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts: A Reference for Teachers and Students.PortofSpain,Trinidad.

TrinidadandTobago.TownandCountryPlanningDivision.1982.The National Physical Development Plan Trinidad and Tobago. Volume 1 Survey and Analysis.MinistryofFinanceandPlanning.

Bibliography

APPENDIX A: Flora and Fauna in Arima Valley

Table 1: List of Trees Found in the Seasonal Forest

Table 2: List of Trees Found in the Lower Montane Forest

Source: Beebe (1952)

Source: Beebe (1952)

Table 3: List of Animals Found in the Arima Valley

Source: Beebe (1952); Garraway et al (1999)

Note that these were undertaken by William Beebe in 1952 - it is possible that somespecies no longer exist in the Valley while new ones may have been introduced.

APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in this case study

AWNC Asa Wright Nature Centre

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

NRA Northern Range Assessment

WASA The Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

WRA Water Resources Agency

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Adiabatic cooling Whenaparcelofairrisesitexpandsasaresultofreducedatmosphericpressure. Asitexpandsitcoolsatarateof0.65oCdecreaseintemperatureforevery100mrise inelevation.

Alluvial deposits Sedimentdepositedbyflowingwater,asinariverbed,floodplain,ordelta.

Anticlinal Ridgesformedbyaconvexcurve,turnorfoldoftheexistingstrata.mountains

Aquifer Anundergroundbedorlayerofearth,gravel,orporousstonethatyieldswater.

Catchment area Theareadrainedbyariverorbodyofwater.

Climax community Whenthevegetationofanareaovertimehasreachedasteadystateandiscomposed ofspeciesbestadaptedtotheconditionsofthearea.

Colluvial deposits Aloosedepositofrockdebrisaccumulatedthroughtheactionofgravityatthebase ofaclifforslope

Community Anassemblageofspeciesoccurringthesamespaceand/ortime,andisoftenlinked(ecological) bybioticinteractionssuchascompetitionorpredation.

Deciduous Thisforestistypicalofenvironmentsthatarewarmandreceivehighoverallrainfall,Seasonal Forest suchasinthetropics.Theseforestsareconsidereddeciduousbecausethetreesdrop theirleavesduringinthedryseason.

Ecosystem services Thesearethebenefitspeopleobtainfromecosystems.Theyincludeprovisioning servicessuchasfoodandwater;culturalservicessuchasspiritual,recreational,and culturalbenefits;andregulatingandsupportingservicessuchasfloodanddisease control;nutrientcyclingthatmaintaintheconditionsforlifeonEarth.Theconcept of“ecosystemgoodsandservices”issynonymouswithecosystemservices.

Environmental Therateofdecreaseoftemperaturewithelevationintheatmosphere.lapse rate Thisrateisusuallytakenas0.65oCdecreaseintemperatureforevery100mrisein elevation.

Gravel fan Adepositofmaterials(mainlygravel)fromariveratthebaseofavalley. Thegraveldepositspreadsoutfromthebaseofthevalleyinafan-likeshape.

Lacertian OforrelatedtothesuborderLacertilia,whichisagroupofreptileswithoverlapping scales.Thissuborderincludeslizardsbutnotsnakes.

Miocene 23.03to5.33millionyearsago

Montane Forest Forestthatgrowsonmountainsandaboveanaltitudeof1,006metres.

Precipitation Anyformofwater,suchasrain,snow,sleet,orhail,whichfallstotheearth’ssurface.

Quartzites Hardmetamorphicrockwhichwasoriginallysandstone.Sandstoneisconverted intoquartzitethroughheatingandpressureusuallyrelatedtotectoniccompression betweenbelts.

Orographic Rainfallresultingfromtheverticalmovementofmoistairthatisenforcedbyarainfall mountainbarrierintheairstream.

Rock formation Aformationconsistsofanumberofrockstratathathavesimilarlithologyor properties.

Soil series Afamilyofsoilshavingsimilarprofiles,anddevelopingfromsimilaroriginal materialsundertheinfluenceofsimilarclimateandvegetation.

Strata Thelayersorbedsfoundinsedimentaryrock.Alsoreferstothedifferentheight(stratum sing.) groupingsoftreesinaforest.

Tectonic forces Forceswhichcausedeformationorstructuralchangesoftheearth’scrust. Theseforcesmayoriginatefromigneousactivityorfrommovementoftheplatesthat comprisetheearth’scrust.

Watershed Anareaoflandthatcatchesprecipitationanddrainsorseepsintoamarsh,river, stream,lakeorgroundwater.