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Measuring residents perceptions

of defensible space compared to

incidence of crime

The goals are to identify the specific physical characteristics that lead residents to perceivehypothetical neighborhoods as defensible or indefensible, measure residents perceptions of crimeand fear of crime based on personal experiences and observations of their actual neighborhoods,and determine whether perceptions were consistent with crime prevention scholars definitionsof defensible neighborhoods.

Defensible space is a by-product of human territoriality and social cooperation among residents

when it motivates and leads neighbors to assume responsibility for maintaining a safe anddesirable neighborhood.

Defensible space increases the likelihood that residents will see and report likely offenders,decreasing the opportunity for crime and fostering positive social interaction among residents.Thus, collective responsibility, and cooperative action among neighbors and with police, detersand reduces crime and improve neighborhood quality of life.Perceived ownership of social capital with the environment may be an effective focus for crimeprevention.

Deterioration of the physical condition of the environment gives the impression of less control bythe intended users and suggests a tolerance of disorder. Gardner (1995) suggested thatlandscaping should create the appearance of a well-maintained and guarded place to play aneffective role in crime prevention.

Perceptions of crime among Americans remain remarkably high despite scholarly evidence thatsuggests crime has been steadily decreasing since the 1990s. A recent Gallup Poll found that 50per cent of Americans believed crime had increased in their local areas, and 70 per cent believedthat crime had increased nationwide ( Saad, 2007 ). Despite the level of complexity anddifficulty in measuring the amount of crime in residential neighborhoods, research suggests threecommon methods: (1) using victimization data; (2) using crimes reported to the police and other

offi cial statistics; and (3) using more subjective data, such as residents self-reportedperceptions of crime ( Hipp, 2010 ).

Greenberg and Rohe (1984) found that perceptions of crime and fear are related to certaindemographic characteristics of neighborhood residents such as levels of education and income,age, race, sense of community and length of time in residence.Women, the elderly, racial minorities and the poor typically report higher levels of fear eitherbecause of physical vulnerability or because they are frequently exposed to criminal acts.


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When perceptions of crime and fear of crime are high, residents satisfaction with their

neighborhoods decreases ( Hipp, 2010 ). Engagement, investment and social cooperation withinthe neighborhood also decreases ( Skogan, 1990 ). Neighborhood crime or disorder increases thelikelihood of resident mobility out of the neighborhood, which may negatively change the racial /

ethnic as well Studies have acknowledged the importance of demographic characteristics onperceptions of crime and fear of crime.Income and race variables have not been consistent in predicting crime perceptions. Homeownership had a strong negative relationship to actual crime in neighborhoods, but not to fear ofcrime and length of time at residences, which were negatively related to actual crime, but notfear of crime in Sweitzer et al s study (1999

Methods

The present study measured residents perceptions of defensible space and perceptions of crimeand fear of crime. Participants read hypothetical neighborhood scenarios and completed a surveythat inquired about physical elements in the scenarios as well as participants previous crime

experiences, different dimensions of safety or worry about crime, and general demographiccharacteristics. The purpose was to determine (a) the physical characteristics in the hypotheticalscenarios that led the participants to perceive the neighborhoods as defensible or indefensibleand (b) the participants perceptions of crime and fear of crime, based on reflections of personalexperiences and observations of their actual neighborhoods.

Participants for the present study were located using a neighborhood database maintained by alocal government office. At least one neighborhood was randomly chosen per zip code. Fortyneighborhood associations were contacted. Of the 40 associations contacted, 10 responded.Three neighborhood associations agreed to participation.

Study design

Subjective data were generated utilizing hypothetical scenarios identifying neighborhoodenvironmental characteristics (variables of lighting, maintenance and signs of communityinvestment) and a self-report survey that probed participants perceptions of the fi ctitiousneighborhoods strengths and weaknesses in relation to a climate of safety as well asparticipants experiences with crime and their perceptions of crime and safety within their actualneighborhoods.

The instrument s first section utilized hypothetical neighborhood scenarios to measureparticipants perceptions of defensible space. The second section included survey questions tomeasure perceptions of crime and safety. For the purpose of this study, maintenance referred tothe maintenance of homes and yards.


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Once all participants had completed the neighborhood scenario section of the instrument, theyresponded to survey questions that inquired about day-to-day life in their own neighborhoodsand their perceptions of crime and safety.

Analiza

In general, the data revealed that 9 per cent of respondents held at least a high school degree,while the majority (91 per cent) held college degrees. The majority of the respondents werehomeowners (93 per cent) who were predominantly White (88 per cent), married (62 per cent)and female (64 per cent).The average age of respondents was 59 years, and the average length of time in their currentresidences was 20 years

To summarize, perceptions of defensible space were dependent on education, age and maritalstatus. The signifi cant interaction between maintenance, lighting and education suggested that

good maintenance and good lighting mattered most to those with some college education. Interms of age and marital status, younger people viewed neighborhoods as more defensible thanolder people, whereas married residents viewed neighborhoods as more defensible than theunmarried.

Discution

Crime prevention literature ( Jeffery, 1971 ; Newman, 1973 ) often focuses primarily on thephysical aspects of environments, such as lighting and targethardening measures, and onquantitative measures such as offi cial crime statistics, to understand criminal events. Defensiblespace research has been criticized for its overly deterministic view of crime prevention, whichlikely stems from the lack of empirical testing of social concepts (community building andcommunity policing). To propose a crime prevention model that ignores the significance of thephysical environment is not a viable solution.

ImplicationsModifications in residential environments can be implemented that are relatively straightforwardand cost-effective. For example, residents will report lower levels of fear of crime and greaterlevels of safety by increasing and improving street lighting and pathways used by pedestrians,landscaping effectively so as not to impede visibility, and promoting symbolic and actual formsof territoriality (signs of community investment and surveillancecues). Defensible spaceprinciples require minimal governmental interaction and greater self-reliance of citizens. In thisway, communities do not become vulnerable to government withdrawal of support or funding.

To enhance social crime prevention in neighborhoods, it is important to identify andacknowledge the perceptions of residents. These respondents consisted of primarily older,married, White homeowners with long tenure in their neighborhoods and who earned between $31 000 and $ 60 000 annually. This population may have strong community ties, and as a resultbe more compelled to actively participate in neighborhood associations. Neighborhood


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associations provide opportunities for criminal justice professionals to tap into residents

willingness to help keep communities safe.

Limitations

-This study focused on crime prevention strategies by exploring residents perceptions ofestablished neighborhood environmental factors as described in hypothetical scenariosthoseconnected to territorialism, surveillance and area design. Therefore, geographical juxtaposition isoutside the scope of this study and was not examined-Instead of using visual stimuli, the methodology was implemented with oral and writtendescriptive scenarios to describe neighborhoods and probe participants perceptions. This

methodology limited the opportunity to obtain a large sample size, and the data came frompeople who, at the time of data collection, were involved in neighborhood associations.

Final Comments

Results that suggested both physical environmental factors (design elements of residential areas)and social environmental factors (residents demographic characteristics, personal experiences

with crime and observations about personal and neighborhood safety) should be considered whenplanning for the development of new-build residential areas or evaluating existingneighborhoods with crime prevention in mind

Further, study results can be used as a baseline for further research on crime prevention effortsand help criminal justice practitioners, city managers and city planners to assist residents infeeling safer in their communities.

When residents perceptions are identified, it becomes much easier for police and othergovernment offi cials to be responsive to needs and address issues affecting communities. Suchresponsiveness, based on an understanding of perceptions about crime and defensible space, cancreate a sense of community and a partnership between police and citizens, and may increase thequality of life in neighborhoods. Perceptionis reality.

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