ASSESSMENT OF AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEXOF PLANTS GROWING ALONGSIDE MARKANDA TO

PAONTA SAHIB NATIONAL HIGHWAY (NH-7)IN HIMACHAL PRADESH

Thesis

by

JYOTSANA PANDIT(F-2014-18-M)

submitted to

Dr. YASHWANT SINGH PARMAR UNIVERSITY OFHORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY

SOLAN (NAUNI) HP - 173 230 INDIAin

Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

of

MASTER OF SCIENCEENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCECOLLEGE OF FORESTRY

2016

Dr. Anil Sood Department of Environmental SciencePrincipal Scientist College of Forestry

Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University ofHorticulture and Forestry (Nauni) Solan(HP) - 173 230, India

CERTIFICATE-I

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Assessment of air pollution tolerance

index of plants growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

in Himachal Pradesh” submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

degree of Master of Science in the discipline of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE of

Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, (Nauni) Solan (HP) -

173230 is a bonafide research work carried out by Ms Jyotsana Pandit daughter of Shri

Rajinder Dutt Sharma under my supervision and that no part of this thesis has been submitted

for any other degree or diploma.

The assistance and help received during the course of investigations has been fully

acknowledged.

Place : Nauni, SolanDated:

(Dr Anil Sood)Chairman

Advisory Committee

CERTIFICATE-II

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Assessment of air pollution tolerance

index of plants growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

in Himachal Pradesh” submitted by Ms Jyotsana Pandit (F-2014-18-M) daughter of

Shri Rajinder Dutt Sharma to the Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and

Forestry, (Nauni) Solan (HP) – 173230 India in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Science in the discipline of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE has been

approved by the Advisory Committee after an oral examination of the student in

collaboration with the External Examiner.

Dr Anil SoodChairman

Advisory Committee

External Examiner

Dean’s Nominee

Members, Advisory Committee

Prof. S K Bhardwaj(Head)

Dr S S Sharma(Professor)

Professor and HeadDepartment of Environmental Science

Dr Y S Parmar, UHF, Nauni-173 230, Solan (HP)

____________________Dean

College of Forestry

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With limitless humility, I would like to thank God, the Almighty, who imparted me with good health,courage and strength to go through this crucial juncture.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my esteemed teacher and Chairman Dr. Anil Sood PrincipalScientist, Department of Environmental Science. This piece of investigation owes its completion to hisinvaluable and tireless guidance, constant enforcement, constructive criticism, expert methodologicalapproach, deep scientific vision and indefatigable supervision. The unending zeal and positive attitudeinherent to his personality was a learning experience for me and it would definitely help me during ‘toughertimes’ in my career.

No expression of thanks will be justified without recognition of intelligence & professional dexterity ofProf. S.K Bhardwaj, Head ,Department of Environmental Science for showing his keen interest in work andfor providing better environment to complete this manuscript and providing all necessary facilities.

I emphatically extend my heartiest thanks to honourable members of my advisory committee-Dr. S.KBhardwaj and Dr. S.S. Sharma for their expert guidance and suggestions during the course of study. I alsoextend my sincere thanks to teaching Faculty of Dept of Environmental Science for their constant support andencouragement

I cordially acknowledge the assistance extended by Ms Balbir Kaur (Personal Assistant to Head), Dr.J K Sharma (Farm manager), Amrit lal (Lab Assistant) of Department of Environmental Science for timelyand sincere help during the sample analysis in the laboratory.

Every effort is motivated by an ambition and all ambitions have inspirations behind. I owe this prideplace to papa Sh. R.D Sharma and Mummy Smt. Pushpa Sharma, Mama ji Sh. Sanjay Sharma, Mausa jiSh. Satpal Sharma, Mausi ji Smt. Suman Sharma, my brothers Rajat Pandit, Avasyu Sharma for theiroceans of love and moral support bestowed upon me which steered the life of this cipher to the present shape.

I would also like to thank my friends Miss Priyanka ,Miss Haseena, Miss Komal, Miss Garima, MissShreya, Miss Purnima, Mr. Kartikey, Mr. Yashpal for their encouragement and support. To them I say “wemeet to part, but more importantly we part to meet

I extend my sincere thanks to all my seniors Miss Anchal , Miss Tanvi, Miss Aakriti, Miss Pratima,Miss Priyanka, Miss Aditya , Miss kashish, Mr. Hukum, Mr. Abhay for helping me through out, my lovablejuniors Ishita, Rosy, Ratika, Deachen, Diksha, Anit, Nitika, Shubra, Monika.

Facilities and co-operation provided by staff members of Department of Environmental Science andLibrary staff is thankfully acknowledged.

I sincerely express my gratitude to Associate Director, RRS Dhaulakuan for providing memeteorological data.

Last but not least, I am thankful to direct and indirect help received from various other sources but notmentioned because of slip of tongue, mind and pen.

Place: Nauni, Solan (Jyotsana Pandit)Date:

CONTENTS

Chapter Title Pages

1. INTRODUCTION 1-3

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4-24

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 25-31

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32-50

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 51-53

6. LITERATURE CITED 54-63

ABSTRACT 64

APPENDICES i-ii

BRIEF BIO-DATA

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1 Morphological characters of selected plant species 27

2(a) Gradation of plant species based on Air Pollution Tolerance Index(APTI) as well as biological parameters and socio-economic importance

30

2(b) Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species 31

3(a) Seasonal dust load accumulation (mg m-2) on the leaves of the selectedplant species growing at different horizontal distances alongside theMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

34

3(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on dust loadaccumulation (mg m-2) of the selected plant species

35

4(a) Seasonal variation in ascorbic acid content (mg g-1) of selected plantspecies growing at different horizontal distances alongside theMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway

36

4(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on ascorbic acid content(mg g-1) of the selected plant species

37

5(a) Seasonal variation in leaf chlorophyll content (mg g-1) of selected plantspecies growing at different horizontal distances alongside theMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

38

5(b) Conjoint effect of species, seasons and distance on leaf chlorophyllcontent (mg g-1) of the selected plant species.

39

6(a) Seasonal variation in leaf extract pH of selected plant species growingat different horizontal distances alongside Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway (NH- 7)

41

6(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and horizontal distance on leaf extractpH of the selected plant species

41

7(a) Seasonal variation in relative water content (%) of selected plant speciesgrowing at different horizontal distances alongside the Markanda toPaonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

42

7(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on relative water content(%) of the selected plant species

44

8(a) Seasonal variation in APTI of selected plant species growing at differenthorizontal distances alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7)

46

8(b) Conjoint effect of species, seasons and distance on APTI of theselected plant species.

46

Table Title Page

9(a) Evaluation of plant species on the basis of APTI value and somebiological and socio- economic characteristics

47

9(b) Anticipated performance index (API) of selected plant species 47

10 Correlation between dust accumulation and biochemical parameters ofselected plant species growing at different horizontal distancesalongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

48

11 Correlation between leaf dust and biochemical parameters ofdifferent plant species growing at different horizontal distancesalongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

49

12 Correlation between leaf biochemical parameters and APTI of selectedplant species growing at different horizontal distances alongsideMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

50

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title BetweenPage(s)

1 Distribution of minimum, maximum temperature and rainfallduring sampling seasons (2015-2016).

26-27

2 Map showing Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)in Himachal Pradesh

26-27

3 Seasonal dust accumulation pattern of selected plant speciesgrowing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway(NH-7)

33-34

4 Variation in dust accumulation pattern of selected plant species atdifferent horizontal distances from the Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway (NH-7)

33-34

5 Seasonal variation in ascorbic acid content of selected plantspecies growing alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7)

35-36

6 Variation in ascorbic acid content of selected plant species atdifferent horizontal distances from the Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway (NH-7)

35-36

7 Seasonal variation in leaf chlorophyll content of selected plantspecies growing alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7)

37-38

8 Variation in leaf chlorophyll content of selected plant species atdifferent horizontal distances from the Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway (NH-7)

37-38

9 Seasonal variation in leaf extract pH of selected plant speciesgrowing alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7)

39-40

10 Seasonal variation in relative water content of selected plantspecies growing alongside the Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway (NH-7).

39-40

11 Seasonal variation in tolerance level of selected plant speciesgrowing alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7)

45-46

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Title BetweenPage(s)

1 Ficus roxburghii 28-29

2 Mallotus philippensis 28-29

3 Shorea robusta 30-31

4 Woodfordia fruticosa 30-31

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APTI : Air pollution tolerance index

API : Anticipated performance index

CD : critical difference

CV : Coefficient of variance

df : Degree of freedom

et al. : And others

g : Gram

m : Meters

NS : Non significant

mg : Milligram

% : Per cent

No. : Number

SD : Standard deviation

Fig. : Figure

RBD : Randomized block design

ROS : Reactive oxygen species

RWC : Relative water content

NH : National Highway

Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Air is the most important resource for sustenance of life and all organisms need clean

air for their healthy growth and development. But today this air has become highly polluted

due to industrialization and urbanisation. A major contributor to the air pollution problem is

the transport sector which contributes through the vehicular emission. Air pollution is defined

as introduction of foreign particles into the atmosphere in the form of chemicals, particulate

matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to human or other living

organisms, or damage the environment.

All combustion releases gases and particulate matter into the air which includes SOx,

NOx, CO and soot particles as well as smaller quantities of toxic metals, organic molecules

and radioactive isotopes (Bhattacharya et al., 2013; Agbaire, 2009). Uncontrolled use of

fossil fuels in industries and transport sector further led to the increase in concentrations of

gaseous pollutants (Kulkarni and Ingawale, 2014). Overexploitation of open spaces, ever

increasing number of automobiles and demographic pressure has further aggravated the

problem (Sharma and Roy, 1999).

Air pollutants are responsible for reduction of biological and physiological response

of various plants and crops grown in polluted areas (Chauhan and Joshi, 2008). Plants are an

integral basis for all ecosystems and also most likely to be affected by air borne pollution

which are identified as the organisms with most potential to receive impacts from ambient air

pollution. Since plants are stationary and continuously exposed to chemical pollutants from

the surrounding atmosphere, air pollution injury to plants is proportional to the intensity of

the pollution. The effects are most often apparent on the leaves which are usually the most

abundant and most obvious primary receptors of large number of air pollutants. Vegetation

has become increasingly important not only for social reasons but mostly for affecting local

and regional air quality (Lohe et al., 2015). Plant leaves has been regarded as biofilters as

they absorb large quantities of particles from the environment (CPCB, 2007).

Plants provide enormous leaf area for impingement, absorption and accumulation

of air pollutants to reduce the air pollution level in the environment (Escobedo et al.,

2

2008). Plants remove gaseous air pollutants by leaf stomata and particles by interception

(Kapoor, 2014). Plants act as the scavengers for air pollution as they are the initial

acceptors of air pollution (Mahecha et al., 2013). Plants also act as air pollution sinks but

the better performance comes from the pollution tolerant species (Miria and Khan,

2013).

Roadside plant leaves are in direct contact with air pollutants, and may act as

stressors for pollutants, hence need to be examined for their biomonitoring potential

(Sharma et al., 2007). Biomonitoring of plants is an important tool to evaluate the impact

of air pollution (Rai, 2011a; Rai, 2011b). Plants that are constantly exposed to

environment pollutants absorb, accumulate and integrate these pollutants into their

system and depending on their sensitivity level, they show visible changes including

alteration in the biochemical processes or accumulation of certain metabolites (Agbaire

and Esiefarienrhe, 2009). The ability of each plant species to absorb and adsorb

pollutants by their foliar surface varies greatly and depends on several biochemical,

physiological and morphological characteristics (Seyyednejad et al., 2011).

The seasons of the years by impacting atmospheric deposition, interception and

the variation in weather parameters influence dust accumulation and biochemical

concentration in plant leaves. After the release of pollutants into the atmosphere only

plants can be helpful in adsorbing and metabolizing them from the atmosphere.

Therefore, plants serve important role in reducing air pollution and also helps in

improving the quality of air by taking up gases and particles (Horaginamani and

Ravichandran, 2010).

The resistance and susceptibility of plants can be determined by evaluating the

physiological and biochemical parameters (Enete and Ogbonna, 2012). Categorizing

plants as being sensitive or tolerant by determining levels of these parameters in plants

may be ineffective since plants show different responses to different pollutants. It is on

this premises that the air pollution tolerance index (APTI) based on the ascorbic acid

content, chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH and relative water content have been used

for identifying the tolerance levels of plant species (Singh and Rao, 1983).The usefulness

of evaluating air pollution tolerance index (APTI) for the determination of tolerance as

well as sensitiveness of plant species has been well established (Liu and Ding, 2008).

3

Air pollution tolerance index determines plant’s ability to fight against air

pollution. This index is effective in evaluating the effect of pollutants not only on

biochemical parameters, but in order to combat air pollution using green belt

development (Ogunkunle et al., 2015). Some socio-economic and biological

characteristics (such as plant height, canopy structure, plant size, texture, hardness and

economic value) are considered to develop the anticipated performance index (API)

(Govindaraju et al., 2012). API is an improvement over APTI which has been used as an

indicator to assess the capability of predominant species in the clean up of atmospheric

pollutants

Air pollution tolerance level of each plant is different and plants do not show a

uniform behavior (Madan and Chauhan, 2015). The plants having higher index value are

tolerant to air pollution and can be used as a filter of sink to mitigate pollution, while

plants having low index value show less tolerance and can be used to indicate levels of

air pollution. The screening of effective plants for particulate sink is very essential for air

pollution abatement along national highways (Esfahani et al., 2013). The APTI is used

by landscapers to select plant species tolerant to air pollution (Yan- Ju and Hui, 2008).

As the study area Markanda to Paonta stretch of National Highway 7 is facing a

severe problem of air pollution due to large vehicular density and expansion of highway

as well as increased demographic pressure. Air pollution has, therefore, now, become a

major threat to the survival of plants growing in this stretch and need urgent attention.

The present studies can help to screen out the tolerant plants. This can further help in the

formation of green belt in the study area, so as to reduce the impact of air pollution.

Hence, the present studies entitled “Assessment of air pollution tolerance index of plants

growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7) in Himachal

Pradesh” were planned with the following objectives:

i) To study the seasonal dust accumulation pattern and variation in physiological

and biochemical parameters of the selected plant species.

ii) To work out Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and Anticipated Performance

Index (API) of selected plant species of Markanda to Paonta Sahib National

highway in Himachal Pradesh.

Chapter-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The information available on the literature pertaining to the present studies entitled,

“Assessment of air pollution tolerance index of plants growing alongside Markanda to

Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7) in Himachal Pradesh” have been reviewed in

this chapter under the following subheads:

2.1 Leaf dust accumulation

2.2 Relationship of plant characteristics with air pollution

2.2.1 Physical characteristics

2.2.2 Biochemical characteristics

2.3 Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI)

2.4 Anticipated Performance Index (API)

Vegetation is an effective indicator of the overall impact of air pollution (Rai et al.,

2009). Agbaire and Esiefarienrhe (2009) reported that depending on their sensitivity level,

plants show visible changes which would include alteration in the biochemical processes or

accumulation of certain metabolites. Vegetation provides a natural means of cleaning the

atmosphere with large leaf area for impingement, absorption and accumulation of air

pollutants level in the environment (Das and Prasad, 2010).

The road side plants play significant role in assimilation and accumulation of

pollutants and act as efficient interceptors of airborne pollutants (Rai and Mishra, 2013).

Leaves are susceptible and highly exposed part of a plant and thus makes an important

contribution in the improvement of air quality. Foliar surface of plants is continuously

exposed to the surrounding atmosphere and is, therefore, the main receptor of dust (Rai and

Panda, 2014b).

2.1 LEAF DUST ACCUMULATION

Accumulation of dust particles depends on internodal distance, petiole length, leaf

area, orientation, margin, folding and arrangement, hair density, hair type and length

(Varshney, 1985; Varshney and Mitra,1993; Yan and Hui, 2008; Escobedo et al., 2008).

5

Accumulation and deposition of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter depends upon the

vegetation type (Bunzl et al., 1989). Most of the effects of the dust particles on plants include

the potential to block and damage the stomata such that photosynthesis and respiration are

affected. Other effects are shading which may lead to a reduction in photosynthetic capacity

(Iqbal and Shafig, 2001). Vegetation makes contribution in reducing dust concentration in the

environment by acting as a sink for air pollutants. Generally exposed areas of a plant

especially leaves act as constant absorbers for particulate matters (Samal and Santra, 2002).

Particulate pollutants can cause many lethal effects on plants like stomatal clogging, reduced

photosynthetic activity, leaf fall and death of tissues (Shrivastava and Joshi, 2002).

Due to surface characteristics of twigs, bark and foliage of the plants particulate

matters are captured by them and remain there for extended time period. Leaf orientation and

the sessile or semi sessile nature of leaves play important role in dust deposition as they

determine the surface available for dust deposition. Air movement easily disturbs leaves

having thin lamina, smooth surfaces, and long petioles. Consequently such leaves can hold

lesser amounts of dust while thick leaves having rough surfaces or hairs on the surface and

short petioles can hold large amount of dust and hence, are better collectors of dust. The

selective response of leaves toward dust may be used for monitoring air dust pollution (Prusty

et al., 2005). Air quality along national highways can be improved by planting trees (Freer-

smith et al., 2005).

Prajapati and Tripathi (2008a) assessed dust deposition on leaves of some selected

plants growing alongside Varanasi city road having high traffic density to observe the

variation in dust deposition on leaves with respect to species and seasons and observed

seasonal variation in leaf pigments i.e total chlorophyll and ascorbic acid in the plant species..

The plant species selected for the study were Ficus religiosa, Ficus benghalensis, Mangifera

indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Psidium guajava, and Dendrocalamus strictus. They found that less

PM accumulated during the rainy season compared with winter and summer, which they

attributed to the washing effect of precipitation

Thakar and Mishra (2010) quantified dust collection potential of 40 plant species

growing around Vedanta Aluminium Limited at Jharsuguda, Orissa. The dust collection

potential varied from a maximum of 0.01 mg/cm2 in Calotropis gigantean, Lantana camara

and Bogainvillea spectabilis to a minimum of 0.002 mg/cm2 in Pithocolobium dulce. The

study concluded that the deposition of atmospheric dust in plant leaves varies with structure,

6

geometry, height, canopy of the tree, smaller plants with short petioles and rough surface

accumulate more dust than larger plants with long petioles and smoother leaf surface.

Morphology and internal structure of leaves is altered by heavy load of dust pollutants

(Gostin, 2009; Sukumaran, 2012). Dust pollution also causes leaf chlorosis due to its effect

on chlorophyll biosynthesis (Seyyednejad et al., 2011).

Joshi and Bora (2011) examined the dust interception efficiency of 8 plant species by

using four biochemical parameters namely relative water content, leaf pH, ascorbic content

and total chlorophyll. The trend of dust deposition among the species was Psidium gujava >

Ficus benghalensis >Bougainvillea glabra > Ficus religiosa = Cassia fistula > Eucalyptus

sps. > Saraca indica, due to different dust interception capacity of leaves. Highest dust

accumulation in Psidium gujava, 0.79 gm/m2 may be due to waxy coating, slightly folded

margins, rough surface and small petioles that reduce movement of leaves in wind, while in

case of Ficus bengalensis and Bougainvillea glabra rate of dust accumulation was found to

be 0.72 and 0.71 gm/m2 . It may be due to shiny, waxy coating and rough surface with short

petiole, respectively. Dust accumulation in Ficus religiosa and Cassia fistula, 0.69 gm/m2

may be due to long petiole that helps the leaves to flutter during the wind. Lower dust

accumulation in Saraca indica and Eucalyptus spp. i.e. 0.54 and 0.56 gm/m2 may be due to

the long petiole and vertical position of their leaves which prevent dust retention.

Chukwu (2012) studied the impact of cement dust on Chromolaena odorata and

Manihot esculenta around a cement factory in Nigeria and reported that the weather

conditions and location of plants from the source of dust emission influenced the distribution

of the dust. Plants experienced more damages during the dry than wet season. Younis et al.

(2013a) evaluated dust accumulation capacity of Ficus carica from eight different sites in and

around Multan. Ficus carica owing to its long petioles and broadly ovate leaves had shown

the maximum dust accumulation capacity along roadsides. In addition, degree of pubescence

and large surface area allow the species to capture more dust particles which is an important

manifestation of particulate pollution. Thus Ficus carica is one of the important contributors

for cleaning up dust pollution from the environment. They suggested that plantation of Ficus

carica in dusty areas can control particulate pollution which may cause hazardous

consequences for human health.

Younis et al. (2013b) evaluated dust accumulation capacity of fruiting plants from

eight different sites in and around Multan. The impact of dust accumulation/deposition was

7

observed via various foliage (leaf area, fresh and dry weights, stomatal clogging) and

biochemical attributes (chlorophyll contents, carotenoids & ascorbic acid) from leaves of

these species. The maximum dust accumulation occurred in the plants growing at road sides

while, the minimum dust was found on plants growing at Bahauddin Zakariya University.

The studies revealed that dust accumulation has caused a significant effect on almost all

foliage and biochemical attributes of all the plant species. Foliage attributes of all the plant

species showed species specific responses because in some plants a positive correlation was

observed between foliage attributes and dust load but in other plants it was negative.

Different plants have different dust capturing capacities. The dust fall depends on

local and regional climatic as well as microclimatic conditions (Joshi et al., 2014). Leghari et

al. (2014) studied effects of dust on pigmentation and growth of Vitis vinifera. They observed

significant reduction in plant length, cover number of leaves and total chlorophyll content in

this plant. They also found that the roadside dust pollution is an operative ecological factor

causing deterioration in the quality of our environment. They suggested that highly dust

tolerant local plant species such as Pinus halepensis and Eucalyptus tereticornis should be

planted around the roadside. Rahul and Jain (2014) concluded that smaller plants with short

petioles and rough leaf surfaces accumulate more dust than larger plants with long petioles

and smoother leaf surfaces. They further reported that dust particles affect foliar biochemical

characteristics and bring about certain morphological symptoms and reduce leaf pigments.

Rai and Panda (2014b) studied the dust deposition efficiency of selected common

roadside plant species of Aizawl, Mizoram and the response of dust deposition on the

biochemical aspect of leaves such as pH, relative water content and total chlorophyll content.

The plant species selected for the study were Ficus bengalensis, Psidium guajava,

Bougainvillea spectabilis, Mangifera indica, Lantana camara and Artocarpus heterophyllus.

The trend of dust deposition among the different species was Ficus bengalensis> Psidium

guajava> Bougainvillea spectabilis>Mangifera indica> Lantana camara >Artocarpus

heterophyllus. The results of the study revealed that total chlorophyll and relative water

content decreased whereas pH of leaf extract increased with the increasing dust load. They

concluded that dust depositions induce changes in the biochemical parameters by increasing

and decreasing their level in the plant leaves. The extent of such changes depends on plant

tolerance towards dust and on the chemical nature of the dust. All these changes exert stress

on plant physiology and can serve as an indicator of dust pollution.

8

Gholami et al. (2016) determined dust deposition on leaf surfaces of six plant species

namely Conocarpus, Myrtus, Prosopis, Eucalyptus, Ziziphus, and Lebbek growing in

Ahvaz, Iran. The highest and the lowest dust deposition rates were observed in Myrtus

(maximum 80.3 g.m-2 in polluted site) and Lebbek (minimum 10.7 gm-2 in blank site). The

study concluded that morphological characteristics such as shape, size and orientation of leaf

on the main axis, surface nature, the presence or absence of wax deposition alone or in

combination play a significant role in the interception of dust load .

2.2 RELATIONSHIP OF PLANT CHARACTERISTICS WITH AIR POLLUTION

2.2.1 Physical characteristics

Shetye and Chaphekar (1980) surveyed the dust fall on common roadside trees in

Mumbai (India) and reported that the shape of leaves of Mango (Mangifera indica), Ashoka

(Polyalthea longifolia), Pongamia (Derris indica) and Umbrella (Thespepsia populnea) trees

captured higher amounts of dust as compared to other neighbouring plants. Single row of

trees planted with or without shrubs can reduce particulate matters by 25 percent

(Anonymous, 1981). Sodnik et al. (1987) reported reduction in size of leaf blades in five tree

species in the vicinity of heavy dust and SO2 pollution. Gummani et al. (1981) showed the

deleterious effect of dust on morphology of leaves as expressed by the reduction in size,

damaged leaf margin, necrosis and change of colour. Filtering capacity of greenbelts

increases with more leaf area, and is reported higher for trees than bushes or grassland

(Givoni, 1991).

Plants have a large surface area and their leaves function as an efficient pollutant

trapping device (Ingold, 1971). Sodnik et al. (1987) observed reduction in the size of leaf

blade of five tree species growing near heavy dust and SO2 polluted area. Leaf orientation,

age, roughness and wettability of the leaf surface influences dust interception and retention

(Neinhuis and Barthlott, 1998; Beckett et al., 2000). The strength and constancy of wind, the

porosity of the vegetation with respect to air movement also affect dust retention (Raupach et

al., 2001).

Generally exposed areas of a plant especially leaves act as constant absorbers for

particulate matters (Samal and Santra, 2002). Smaller plants with short petioles and rough

leaf surfaces accumulate more dust than larger plants with long petioles and smoother leaf

surfaces (Prusty et al., 2005). Many trees like Neem (Azadirachta indica), Silk cotton

9

(Bombax ceiba), Indian laburnum (Cassia mimosaefolia), Indian liliac (Lagerstroemia

indica), Temple tree (Plumeria rubra) Java plum (Syzygium cumini) and several other trees

have been found more suitable in urban environment.

Atmospheric SO2 adversely affects various morphological and physiological

characteristics of plants. High soil moisture and high relative humidity aggravated SO2 injury

in plants. Pollutants can also cause leaf injury, stomatal damage, premature senescence,

decrease photosynthetic activity, disturb membrane permeability and reduce growth and yield

in sensitive plant species (Tiwari et al., 2006). Sher and Hussain (2006) studied adverse

effects of urban air pollution on leaf architecture of plants. Stevovic et al. (2010) worked on

Tansy plant and they reported that leaves from polluted site were significantly thinner than

those from an unpolluted area.

Thick leaves showed lower deposition for all particle sizes, apart from 0.2 to 2.5 mm

particles (Saebo et al., 2012). Plants exposed to pollution showed lower leaf area, petiole

length, chlorophylls, carotenoids and soluble carbohydrate contents as compared to plants

growing in control site (Seyyednejad et al., 2013). Plants have a large surface area per unit

volume, increasing the probability of deposition of air pollutants (Roupsard et al., 2013).

Different types of leaves tend to have differences in several aspects of their surfaces.

Some types of leaves have greater surface rigidity or roughness which may affect their

stickiness or particle solubility. Stickier leaves are better for collecting particles because more

particles would stick to their surface. Therefore, certain plant leaves may be more useful for

efficient dust capturing than other plants (Kumar et al., 2013). Deposition of particulate

matter on vegetation will be affected by the particle size distribution and the dimension and

density of foliage elements in the dispersion path. Large leaved species may provide effective

particulate matter barriers close to the source of particulate matter (e.g roads ) but less

effective barriers against finer particulate matter that travel greater distances (Rahul and Jain,

2014).

Rai and Panda (2014b) reported that foliar surface of plants is continuously exposed

to the surrounding atmosphere and is, therefore, the main receptor of dust and this physical

trait can be used to determine the level of dust in the surroundings as well as the ability of

individual plant species to intercept and mitigate it. They also said that plants with waxy

coating, rough surface with folded margin accumulate more dust than plants with smooth, flat

surface without folded margin. Kaler et al. (2016) reported that dust accumulation capability

10

of plants depends on their range of characteristics which include outside geometry,

phyllotaxy and leaf attributes (cuticle and pubescence of leaves), tallness and canopy of

plants.

2.2.2 Biochemical characteristics

Plants that are constantly exposed to environment pollutants absorb, accumulate and

integrate these pollutants into their system and depending on their sensitivity level, they show

visible changes including alteration in the biochemical processes, accumulation of certain

metabolites (Agbaire and Esiefarienrhe, 2009). Variation in the biochemical parameters in

leaves is used as an indicator of air pollution for early diagnosis of stress or as a marker for

physiological damage prior to the onset of visible injury symptoms (Tripathi et al., 2009).

2.2.2.1 Ascorbic acid content

Ascorbic acid is a strong reducer and plays important role in photosynthetic carbon

fixation with the reducing power directly proportional to its concentration (Thakar and

Mishra, 2010). However it’s reducing activity is pH dependent, being more at higher pH

levels because high pH may increase the efficiency of conversion of hexose sugar to ascorbic

acid and is related to the tolerance to pollution ( Liu and Ding, 2008; Chouhan et al., 2012).

Plants being stationary and continuously exposed to chemical pollutants from surrounding

atmosphere, injury to plants are proportional to the intensity of the air pollution (Raina and

Bala, 2011).

Chandawat et al. (2011) reported pollution load dependent increase in ascorbic acid

content of all the plant species and it may be due to the increased rate of production of

reactive oxygen species during photo oxidation process of SO2 where sulphites are generated

from SO2 absorbed. SO2 exposure would increase the free radical scavenger such as ascorbic

acid to protect plants from damage by oxidative stress.

Randhi and Reddy (2012) reported that lower ascorbic acid contents in the plant

species support the sensitive nature towards the pollutants particularly the automobile

exhausts. Ascorbic acid activates many physiological and defence mechanism in the plants

(Yannawar and Bhosle, 2013).

Rai et al. (2013) reported that ascorbic acid is a stress reducing factor and is present in

tolerant plant species generally in higher levels. Ascorbic acid is vital in cell wall synthesis,

11

defence and cell division. It plays important role in photosynthetic carbon fixation

(Nwadinigwe, 2014). So it has been given top priority and used as a multiplication factor in

the formula used to calculate APTI (Swami and Chauhan, 2015). Increased level of ascorbic

acid content enhances pollution tolerance which is a response of defence mechanism of plant

(Pandey et al., 2015b). Plant species maintaining high ascorbic acid content under polluted

conditions are considered to be tolerant to air pollution stress (Swami and Chauhan, 2015).

Subramani and Devanandan (2015) reported that higher amount of ascorbic acid in

the leaves shows the tolerant capacity of plants towards pollution. Boost in the level of

ascorbic acid content may be due to the resistance mechanism of plant to cope with stress

condition ( Garg and Kapoor, 1972; Joshi et al., 2016)

2.2.2.2 Total chlorophyll content

Chlorophyll is known as an important stress metabolites and higher chlorophyll

content in plants might favor tolerance to pollutants (Joshi et al., 1993). Chlorophyll content

decreases due to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the chloroplast under water

stress (ROSs are very small reactive molecules that can cause damage to cell structures

during environmental stress). Higher ascorbic acid content of leaves might be an effective

strategy to protect thylakoid membranes from oxidative damage under such water stress

conditions (Tambussi et al., 2000). Chlorophyll content of plants signifies its photosynthetic

activity as well as the growth and development of biomass (Katiyar and Dubey, 2001).

Degradation of photosynthetic pigment has been widely used as an indication of air pollution

(Ninavenave et al., 2001).

Singh et al. (2002) reported that dust accumulation on leaf surfaces may also reduce

the synthesis of chlorophyll due to shading effect. One of the most common impacts of air

pollution is the gradual disappearance of chlorophyll and concomitant yellowing of leaves,

which may be associated with a consequent decrease in the capacity for photosynthesis (Joshi

and Swami, 2007). Singh and Verma (2007) reported that plants maintaining their

chlorophyll even under polluted environment are said to be tolerant ones. Tripathi and

Gautam (2007) reported that air pollutants make their entrance into the tissues through the

stomata and cause partial denaturation of the chloroplast and decreases pigment contents in

the cells of polluted leaves.

12

Chlorophyll content varies with the tolerance as well as sensitivity of the plant species

i.e. higher the sensitive nature of the plant species, lower the chlorophyll content (Mir et al.,

2008). Joshi and Swami (2009) concluded that the most important photoreceptor in

photosynthesis is chlorophyll and its measurement is a significant tool to calculate the effects

of air pollutants on plants as it plays a crucial role in plant metabolism; any reduction in

chlorophyll content directly affects the plant growth. Agbaire and Esiefarienrhe (2009)

reported that certain pollutants increase the chlorophyll content whereas others decrease it.

Several studies have suggested that high level of automobile pollution decreased the

chlorophyll content in higher plants near road side (Tripathi and Gautam, 2007; Mir et al.,

2008; Jyothi and Jaya, 2010). A relationship between traffic density and photosynthetic

activity, stomatal conductance, total chlorophyll content and leaf senescence has been

reported (Honour et al., 2009).

Chandawat et al. (2011) revealed that chlorophyll content in all the plants varies with

the pollution status of the area i.e. higher the pollution level in the form of vehicular exhausts

lower the chlorophyll content. They further reported that chlorophyll content also varies with

the tolerance as well as sensitivity of the plant species i.e. higher the sensitive nature of the

plant species lower the chlorophyll content. Variation in chlorophyll content among the tree

species in the study area may be owing to species tolerant nature, age, genetic makeup and

other environmental circumstances in addition to pollution effect (Kumar and Nandini, 2013).

Chlorophyll pigments exist in highly organized state, and under stress they may

undergo several photochemical reactions such as oxidation, reduction and reversible

bleaching. Hence, any alteration in chlorophyll concentration may change the morphological,

physiological and biochemical behaviour of the plant (Bora and Joshi, 2014). Iqbal et al.

(2015) reported that the higher traffic exposures decreased the chlorophyll content in leaves

due to automobile stress.

2.2.2.3 Leaf extract pH

pH is a biochemical parameter that serves as a sensitivity indicator of air pollution and

plants with a pH of around 7 are more pollution-tolerant. The change in leaf extract pH might

influence the stomatal sensitivity due to air pollution (Chouhan et al., 2012). It has been

reported that in the presence of an acidic pollutant which may be due to the presence of SO2

13

and NOx in the ambient air, the leaf pH is lowered and the decline is greater in sensitive than

that in tolerant plants (Singh and Verma, 2007; Rai and Panda, 2014a).

According to Escobedo et al. (2008) the photosynthetic efficiency is strongly

dependent on the pH of leaf and at low pH the photosynthesis in plant species was reduced in

plants. Kumar and Nandini (2013) reported that plants with lower pH are more susceptible

while those with pH around 7 are tolerant.

pH plays an important role in signifying the condition of plants with respect to the

study area (Subramani and Devaanandan, 2015). Low pH decreases the efficiency of hexose

sugar conversion to ascorbic acid and the reducing activity of ascorbic acid is more at higher

pH than at lower pH. Thus high pH can provide tolerance to plants against pollutants

(Agarwal, (1988) ; Joshi et al., 2016). Leaf pH is reduced in the presence of acidic pollutants

and the reducing rate is more in sensitive plants compared to that in tolerant plants (Tiwari

and Tiwari, 2006; Gholami et al., 2016).

2.2.2.4 Relative water content

The relative water content is associated with protoplasmic permeability in cells,

causes loss of water and dissolved nutrients resulting in early senescence of leaves (Agrawal

and Tiwari, 1997). Reduction in relative water content of plant species is due to impact of

pollutants on transpiration rate in leaves (Swami et al., 2004). Categorization of plants as

sensitive or tolerant was determined by the level of biochemical parameters in plants and thus

plants show different susceptibility to different pollutants. Sensitive species are an early

indicator of pollution and the tolerant species help in reducing the overall pollution load

(Nrusimha et al., 2005).

If leaf transpiration rate is reduced due to air pollution, plants lose ability to pull water

and minerals from roots for biosynthesis. Therefore, maintenance of relative water content by

the plant may decide the relative tolerance of plants towards air pollution (Verma, 2003; Rai

et al., 2013). Tree species with higher water content under polluted condition may be tolerant

to pollutants (Kumar et al., 2013).

High water content in plants ensures the maintenance of the physiological balance

under stresses such as air pollution, and the relative water content is usually associated with

the protoplasmic permeability of cells , which is involved in the loss of water and dissolved

14

nutrients in plants, resulting in senescence of leaves (Tsega and Deviprasad 2014 ;

Ogunkunle et al., 2015)

Karmakar et al., (2016) reported that increasing and decreasing levels of various plant

parameters at selected sites can be considered as an adaptation of the plant to the

environmental condition to protect plants against air pollution stress.

2.3 AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEX (APTI)

The response of plants to pollutants at physiological and biochemical level can be

understood by analyzing the factors that determine sensitivity and tolerance (Lakshmi et al.,

2009, Singh and Rao (1983)). Plant’s response to air pollution can be determined by

calculating an index known as air pollution tolerance index (APTI). It is a species dependent

plant attribute which expresses the inherent ability of plant to encounter stress arising from

pollution. APTI is calculated by using four biochemical parameters ascorbic acid,

chlorophyll, leaf extract pH and relative water content in leaf samples.The APTI

determination provides a reliable method for screening large number of plants with respect to

their susceptibility to air pollutants. Plants with higher APTI value are more accomplished to

combat against air pollution and can be used to mitigate pollution, while those with low index

value show less tolerance and can be used to signify levels of air pollution.

Joshi and Bora (2011) evaluated air pollution tolerance index (APTI) of selected plant

species viz., Cassia fistula, Azadirachta indica, Bougainvillea glabra, Psidium guajava,

Eucalyptus spp, Ficus benghalensis, Saraca indica and Ficus religiosa, growing alongside

national highway number 58 in Haridwar by using four biochemical parameters relative water

content, leaf pH, ascorbic content and total chlorophyll. The study revealed that maximum

dust interception was done by Psidium guajava and Ficus religiosa has highest air pollution

tolerance index. They concluded that combining variety of these parameters give more

reliable results than those of individual parameter. The study indicated that ambient air

pollution has negative impact on physiological characteristics of plants

Saadabi (2011) reported that the micro morphology of ornamental plants is effected

by auto exhaust pollution. The micro morphological traits concerned are the numbers of

stomata/unit area, numbers of epidermal cells/unit area, length and width of stomata, stomata

calculated area. He found that in polluted sites, leaves became smaller with reduced length

and width and stomatal index per leaves area.

15

Chandawat et al. (2011) computed APTI for various plant species growing at the

seven cross-roads of Ahmedabad city. Four physiological and biochemical parameters such

as leaf relative water content , ascorbic acid content , total leaf chlorophyll and leaf extract

pH were used to compute the APTI values. The result showed order of tolerance as Ficus

benghalensis exhibited the highest value at all the sites followed by Ficus religiosa> Ficus

glomerata followed by Azadiracta indica > Polyalthia longifolia. Ficus benghalensis, with

highest air pollution tolerance index was found to show tolerant response to automobile

pollutants where as Ficus religiosa> Ficus glomerata can be considered to show intermediate

response and lastly Azadiracta indica > Polyalthia longifolia can be considered to show

sensitive response.

Chouhan et al. (2012) studied air pollution tolerance Index (APTI value) of six plant

species i.e Azadirachta indica ,Calotropis gigantea, Dalbergia sissoo, Euginia jambolana,

Mangifera indica and Nerium indicum growing in Pithampur Industrial area sector 1, 2 and

3. They observed highest APTI in Calotropis gigantea (19.3842) and lowest in A. indica

(7.8796). They suggested that plantation of Calotropis gigantea, Dalbergia sissoo, Euginia

jambolana, Mangifera indica is useful for biomonitoring, development of green belts as well

as to reduce industrial air pollution in Pithampur Industrial area.

Kumar and Nandini (2013) evaluated resistivity and susceptibility level of tree species

to air pollution within avenue’s of Urban Bangalore on the basis of Air Pollution Tolerance

Index (APTI) value. They reported that the tree species with higher APTI values like

Polyalthia longifolia, Albizia saman, Azadiracta indica, Pongamia pinnata, Swietenia

mahogany, Michelia champaca, Millingtonia hortensis and Tamarindus indica were tolerant

to air pollutants and can be used as effective indicators and pollution scavengers. Further they

suggested that the tree species having higher APTI value can be given priority for plantation

program in newly urbanized areas and avenue’s of Urban Bangalore in order to reduce the

stress of motorists at traffic junctions, effect of air pollution and make the environment clean

for healthy life.

Seyyednejad et al. (2013) investigated the impact of ambient air pollution on some

biological factors in Prosopis juliflora plants using two sites control and polluted (around one

of the oil fields in south west of Iran). They studied various morphological and biochemical

characteristics of the plants in both the sites and compared with each other and found that the

16

plants exposed to pollution showed lower leaf area, petiole length, chlorophylls, carotenoids

and soluble carbohydrate contents as compared to plants growing in control site. Proline

levels in polluted leaves significantly increased (p < 0.01), suggesting the activation of

protective mechanism in these plants under air pollution stress and also the observed

responses are regarded as adaptive and compensative to the adverse effects of air pollution.

Magtoto et al. (2013) investigated the effects of vehicular emissions on the morpho-

anatomy (leaf length, internode length, trichome length, trichome density, thickness of the

epidermis,) of the aerial vegetative parts of Tithonia deiversifolia, a plant usually observed

along roadsides of Baguio City in Philippines. They took plant samples from areas selected

based on the intensity of vehicular emissions characterized by the volume of traffic. The

studies revealed that internode length was shorter and adaxial leaf epidermis was found

thinner in populations exposed to high vehicular emissions. This study presented the use of

number of vascular bundles as parameter in describing the effect of vehicular emissions to

plants. The number of vascular bundles was greater among plants exposed to high vehicular

emissions in order to facilitate more efficient transport mechanism as certain pollutants, such

as lead may block the transport of water.

Rai and Mishra (2013) studied effect of air pollution on roadside plant Pongamia

pinnata (L.) with special reference to epidermal characteristics of leaves. They noted that as

compared to the leaves from control, the length and width of guard and epidermal cells

reduced considerably in leaves of polluted sites. These changes in epidermal traits could be as

indicator of environmental stress and can be recommended in high traffic density area for the

early detection of urban air pollution.

Singare and Talpade (2013) studied the seasonal impact of air pollution on different

plant species grown around the Bhavan’s College Campus. Plants of four different species

were selected for the study namely Pollyalthia longifolia, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Delonix

regia and Tamarindus indica from the immediate vicinity of campus Andheri of Mumbai

which are exposed to road side automobile pollution stress. They found that there exist strong

positive correlation between total chlorophyll content and APTI values in experimental and

control samples of Tamarindus indica collected during summer, rainy and winter seasons

while strong negative correlation exist for samples of Polyalthia longifolia collected during

the said seasons.

17

Tanee and Albert (2013) analyzed air pollution tolerance indices of 10 plants growing

around the vicinity of Umuebulu Gas flare Station in Oyigbo Local Government Area of

Rivers State, Nigeria . Results showed order of tolerance as Psidium guajava (0.10%) >

Puerenia phaseoloides (0.36%) > Mallotus oppositifolus (3.23%) > Musa paradisiaca

(6.80%) > Telfairia occidentalis (7.01%) > Cymbopogon citratus (9.18%) > Talinum

triangulare (9.36%) > Vernonia amygdalina (12.34%) > Manihot esculenta (14.61%) >

Ocimum gratissimum (36.53%), showing Psidium guajava as the most tolerant species while

Ocimum gratissimum as the most sensitive species to air pollution stress. Result showed that

plants growing in polluted site had higher APTI values than those in the control site. The

relative leaf water content of all the plants in polluted site was higher than those in the control

site, indicating that plants at polluted site retain more water than those at unpolluted site.

Nwadinigwe (2014) evaluated the APTI of some plants around an industrial complex

in Nigeria. The plants selected for study were Mangifera indica, Delonix regia, Bougainvillea

spectabilis, Ixora coccinea, Anacardium occidentale and Duranta erecta. Results of the study

indicated that Delonix regia gave significantly (p<0.05) highest APTI (5.308 ± 0.090),

followed by Bougainvillea spectabilis (4.904 ± 0.001) and Duranta erecta (4.577 ± 0.166)

and Anacardium occidentale had the lowest APTI (3.470 ± 0.001). Delonix regia was

comparatively the most tolerant to air pollution. He suggested that plants with high APTI

values should be grown near pollution - prone areas to absorb and thus, screen off certain

harmful gaseous pollutants which contribute to green house effect, global warming and

climate change.

Sharma (2014) evaluated air pollution tolerance index of trees growing at various sites

in and around Solan city of Himachal Pradesh. Plants of three different species namely Ficus

palmata , Populus deltoides , Pistacia integerrima were selected for the study. The trend of

APTI for the common species growing in the city was Ficus palmata > Populus deltoides >

Pistacia integerrima. The APTI values also varied significantly with the seasons of the year.

The highest APTI value of 11.86 was recorded in rainy season followed by winter (11.71)

season whereas, lowest of 10.95 was found in summer season.

Bora and Joshi (2014) evaluated the variation between biochemical characteristics and

air pollution tolerance index (APTI) of 6 different plant species. They found that APTI was

significantly correlated with total chlorophyll, ascorbic acid, leaf pH for all species and are

the most significant and determining factors on which the tolerance depends. The order of

18

tolerance index of plant species was as Saraca indica (13.71) > Azadirachta indica (12.98) >

Shorea robusta (12.64) > Eucalyptus sp. (12.61) > Ficus religiosa (12.61) > Tectona grandis

(13.33).

Ekpemerechi et al. (2014) carried out morphological studies of the leaves of ten

species in the family Euphorbiaceae collected from three different locations with different

pollution levels in Southwestern Nigeria in order to establish the effect of air pollution on

these species. They found that most species showed significant reductions (p<0.05) in the leaf

area and petiole length across the three locations and this reduction is from rural to sub-urban

to urban areas. Among all the species that showed reductions in leaf area, Alchornea

cordifolia showed the highest response while Euphorbia hyssopifolia, Eucalyptus hirta and

Croton lobatus do not show clear reductions. Similar significant reductions were recorded for

petiole length with the highest impact recorded in Manihot esculenta while species like

Euphorbia hyssopifolia, Eucalyptus hirta, Croton lobatus and Flueggea virosa had no

significant effect. The results of the study revealed that plants generally respond to air

pollution with reduction in foliar morphology and the response is species specific.

Jain and Kutty (2014) investigated the APTI of three dominant species namely Cassia

siamea, Dalbergia sissoo and Delonix regia growing along road sides of Harda in two

different sites i.e. Polytechnic college area is taken as polluted site and Railway colony area

as controlled site . The results showed that ascorbic acid content of Cassia siamea growing

along polluted site was higher than controlled site, but relative water content, total

chlorophyll has slightly declined in polluted whereas a notable reduction in above parameters

observed in Dalbergia siamea and Delonix regia growing in polluted site. The APTI of

Cassia siamea of polluted site was found to be higher than controlled site, whereas APTI of

Dalbergia sissoo and Delonix regia along polluted site are lower than controlled site. In the

present study Cassia siamea was found to be tolerant towards air pollution and Dalbergia

sissoo and Delonix regia were found to be sensitive towards air pollution.

Irerhievwie et al. (2014) analyzed APTI for seven plant species growing along the

Oleh metropolis in Isoko South Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. Four

biochemical parameters such ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll, leaf extract pH and relative

water content were used to compute the APTI. The fifth biochemical parameter- soluble

sugar- was used to further establish the extent of pollution within the vicinity. They recorded

that the order of tolerance as Ceiba pentandra (1.27)% > Irvingia gabonenesis (1.44)% >

19

Dendrocalamus calostachyus (2.77)% > Hevea brasiliensis (12.78)% > Vernonia amygdalina

(21.73)% > Citrus sinensis L. (27.27)% > Chrysophyllum albidum (29.38)%. Results also

revealed a significant loss of soluble sugar in all tested species at the polluted sites as

compared to the control site.

Rai et al. (2014) evaluated five common plant species grown along the roadside of

Aizawl by calculating the air pollution tolerance index (APTI) which is based on their

significant biochemical parameters such as total chlorophyll, ascorbic acid, pH of leaf extract

and relative water content. They found maximum tolerance to air pollution in Artocarpus

heterophyllus with highest APTI value (9.3) and minimum tolerance to air pollution in

Lagerstroemia speciosa with lowest APTI value (6.6). Lagerstroemia speciosa was termed as

sensitive plant and to be treated as bio indicator of pollution.

Chen et al. (2015) investigated relationship between seven leaf traits and the

accumulation of three different sizes of PM (PM11, PM2.5 and PM0.2) on leaves. They found

that the retention abilities of plant leaves with respect to the three sizes of PM differed

significantly at different sites and species. The study revealed that the average PM retention

capabilities of plant leaves and specific leaf area (SLA) were significantly greater in a

seriously polluted area, whereas the average values of total chlorophyll, carotenoid, pH and

relative water content (RWC) were greater at the control site. The correlation studies revealed

that SLA positively correlated with the size of PM, but total chlorophyll, RWC negatively

correlated with the size of PM, whereas the pH did not correlate significantly with the PM

fractions.

Lohe et al. (2015) studied APTI for various plant species growing at two sites Nagal

village at Sahastradhara Road and the Clock Tower of Dehradun city, India. They reported

that Eucalyptus globus exhibited the highest degree of tolerance at all the sites followed by

Ficus religiosa >Mangifera indica > Polyalthia longifolia > Phyllanthus emblica > Citrus

limon > Lantana camara.

Madan and Chauhan (2015) evaluated variation in biochemical parameters and the air

pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of six plant species, viz., Ficus religiosa, Azadirachta

indica, Mangifera indica, Polyalthia longifolia, Psidium guajava and Syzygium cumini from

four different sites of Haridwar city. High value of APTI was recorded in Mangifera indica

(12.36±0.14) and the lowest APTI was recorded in Polyalthia longifolia (7.94±0.62). They

20

identified Mangifera indica and Ficus religiosa as the most tolerant species. The Anticipated

Performance Index (API) of these plant species was also calculated by considering the APTI

values together with socio economic and biological parameters. According to API Ficus

religiosa was found under very good category and Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica and

Syzygium cumini were categorized as good performer and Polyalthia longifolia aand

Psidium guajava as very poor performer. They concluded that APTI and API determination

provides a reliable method for the selection of appropriate species which can be used as

bioindicators and mitigators of pollutants.

Pandey et al. (2015b) computed the APTI for 29 plant species commonly found in

urban area of Varanasi. The study revealed that highest value was recorded for Ficus

benghalensis (26.01). It was followed by Cassia fistula (24.52), Ficus religiosa (23.35),

Polyalthia longifolia (22.88), Drypetes roxburghii (22.88) and Zizyphus jujuba(22.11) while

lowest APTI was recorded for Madhuca indica (11.01).

Dhankar et al. (2015) studied the variation of biochemical characteristics and APTI of

15 selected tree species growing at industrial site of Rohtak City, Haryana, and North India in

order to evaluate the susceptibility level of plants to air pollutants. Results of air pollution

tolerance index concluded that Ficus virens (7.557) and Eucalyptus obliqua (6.405) at

industrial site were highly tolerant trees species Ficus benghalensis (5.569) at industrial site

were regarded as the intermediately tolerant tree species while Ficus benjamina (4.976) and

Syzygium cumini (4.873) at industrial site are moderately tolerant tree species. They reported

that Ficus virens, Eucalyptus obliqua, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus

benjamina and Syzygium cumini tree species are very important in landscaping of Rohtak city

whereas Ficus virens, Eucalyptus obliqua, are the most tolerant tree species with high air

pollution tolerance index values (APTI) which can be used as scavengers for identification

and impact of combating in air pollution in Rohtak city industrial area.

Swami and Chauhan (2015) carried out studies to determine level of air pollution by

auto exhaust of few tree species namely Mangifera indica, Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta

and Eucalyptus citridora around Haridwar, Uttaranchal. The results of the investigation

revealed that highest value of air pollution tolerance index (APTI) was recorded for Shorea

robusta (11.27) and lowest (7.19) value of APTI was recorded for Eucalyptus citridora. Thus

they concluded that Shorea robusta is more suitable species to work as pollution sink and can

be planted in areas which are facing vehicular pollution.

21

Akilan and Nandhakumar (2016) studied APTI values of the four selected species viz,

Neerium oleander, Tamarindus indicus, Azadirachta indica a nd Pongamia pinnata. Three

different study areas were selected for investigation namely Arcot (automobiles),Ranipet

(Industries) and College farm (less automobile transport and industries) located in Vellore

district, Tamil Nadu. Among the four selected species Neerium oleander recorded higher

APTI values from the industrial and transportation that revealed more tolerance than other

selected plants. The results revealed that Arcot was more polluted compared to Ranipet and

the college farm recorded least polluted due to less exposure to industries, transport and

urbanization.

Gholami et al. (2016) investigated APTI of six plant species, namely, Conocarpus,

Myrtus, Prosopis, Eucalyptus, Ziziphus, and Lebbek in polluted and in Ahvaz region, Iran.

The order of tolerance reported 4.97 for Prosopis, > 5.25 for Ziziphus > 6.24 Lebbek >

6.59 Conocarpus, > 6.77 Eucalyptu>7.80 Myrtus in blank site and 4.57 for Prosopis, 4.82

for Ziziphus, 5.79 for Lebbek, 5.84 for Eucalyptus, 6.30 for Conocarpus and 7.21 for Myrtus

in the polluted area at the end of study. The APTI showed that Myrtus is resistant to plant

pollution, whereas Prosopis is sensitive to plant pollution. In addition, the results of

assessment of the above mentioned index showed that plants with higher APTI can be used as

reducers of pollution and plants with lower APTI can be used to measure air pollution.

Pradhan et al. (2016) evaluated the air pollutant tolerance level of some tree species

present along the NH-6 between Ainthapali to Remed of Sambalpur township using Air

Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) approach. Three different species viz. Tectona grandis,

Polyalthia longifolia and Ficus religiosa were studied at three sites such as Ainthapali (Site-

1), Bareipalli (Site-2) and Remed (Site-3). They found that Tectona grandis is highly tolerant

to air pollution with average APTI values ranging from 7.13 to 10.33. The order of tolerance

reported was Tectona grandis >Polyalthia longifolia > Ficus religiosa. They reported that

the changes in the leaf colour and morphology of Polyalthia longifolia can be used as an

indicator of increase in pollutant load in the air of the studied region.

Patidar et al. (2016) examined impact of vehicular pollution on the plants growing

along the A.B road of Indore city (MP). The present study was done by selecting five heavily

polluted sites of the Agra-Bombay highway (NH-3). Thevetia neriifolia, Magnifera indica,

Psidium guajava plants growing along the A.B road were selected. Chlorophyll and Proline

content of leaves of the selected plants from the selected sites were analyzed. They found that

22

at most of the sites chlorophyll content was decreased in the leaves of the studied plants as

compared with the plants of reference site while proline content was increased when

compared with the reference site. Results of the present study revealed that chlorophyll

contents in all the plants varied with the pollution status of the site i.e. higher the Pollution

level in the form of vehicular exhausts lower the chlorophyll content. It was concluded that

these parameters are highly significant in understanding the plant-environment interactions

and are used for developing of bio-indicator groups.

Joshi et al. (2016) evaluated the susceptibility of plants growing in the industrial area

of Tarapur, Maharashtra and APTI for 30 plants species .The result showed the order of

tolerant species as Putranjiva roxburghii >Mangifera indica >Ficus racemosa >Ficus hispida

>Morinda citrifolia and the order of sensitive species as Nyctanthes arbor-tristis >Bauhinia

purpurea> Peltophorum pterocarpum>Psidium guajava> Morinda pubescens. They found

that most of the plant species selected for the study showed higher APTI in winter as

compared to summer season.

2.4 ANTICIPATED PERFORMANCE INDEX (API)

The anticipated performance index is an improvement over APTI as it uses biological

and socio-economic characteristics of plants namely plant height, canopy structure, plant size

texture, hardness and economic value of plant along with biochemical parameters to evaluate

the overall performance of the plant species.

Prajapati and Tripathi (2008a) evaluated air pollution tolerance index of many plant

species by analyzing important biochemical parameters. The anticipated performance index

of these plant species was also calculated by considering their APTI values together with

other socio-economic and biological parameters. Based on these two indices, the most

suitable plant species for green belt development in urban areas were identified and

recommended for long term air pollution management.

Mondal et al. (2011) evaluated air pollution tolerance index of ten plant species

collected from an urban area by analyzing important biochemical parameters. The order of

tolerance of plants were Psidium guajava (31.75%) >Swietenia mahoganii(28.08%) >

Mangifera indica (27.97%) >Polyanthia longifolia (25.58%) >Ficus benghalensis (25.02%).

The anticipated performance index of these plant species was also calculated by considering

their APTI values together with other socio-economic and biological parameters. According

23

to API most tolerant plant species for green belt development were Ficus benghalensis (87%)

followed by Mangifera indica (87%), Swietenia mahoganii (87%) , Saraca indica (81%).

Thambavani and Maheswari (2012) examined the air pollution tolerance index and

anticipated performance index of fifteen plant species growing in Virudhunagar, Tamil

Nadu. Air pollution tolerance index values for different plant species was calculated using

different biochemical parameters. The anticipated performance index of these plant species

was also calculated by considering their APTI values together with other socioeconomic and

biological parameters. According to API most tolerant plant species for green belt

development in Virudhunagar area were identified. Mangifera indica and Ficus religiosa

with highest scoring (69 %) were assessed as good for heavy traffic areas or planting along

road sides.

Tsega and Deviprasad (2014) assessed anticipated performance index of five roadside

plant species by considering their APTI values together with biological parameters (plant

height, canopy structure, plant size texture, hardness). The plant species selected for study

were Enterolobium saman, Muntingia calabura, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Spathodea

campanulata and Polyalthia longifolia. They concluded that among the plant species studied

at different sites Polyalthia longifolia was found to be a better tolerant species with APTI

value of 12.21 as compared to other species and Peltophorum pterocarpum appears to be less

tolerant to air pollutants with an APTI value of 8.16.

Ogunkunle et al. (2015) evaluated the potential of some tree species commonly

growing on the campus of the University of Ilorin, north-central Nigeria, for green belt

development by combining air pollution tolerance index and anticipated performance index.

The plant species selected for study were Terminalia catappa, Vitellaria paradoxa, Acacia

nilotica and Prosopis africana. The API indicated that Vitellaria paradoxa (API = 4) is a

good performer in green belt development, while Terminalia catappa, Acacia nilotica and

Prosopis africana (API = 3) are moderate performers. The study revealed that the APTI alone

is not adequate for determining the suitability of tree species for green belt development,

although it can be employed to identify sensitive plants for biomonitoring. They suggested

that integration of both the plant tolerance and performance indices for selection of tree

species is very useful for the development of a green belt.

24

Pandey et al. (2015a) evaluated APTI and API of 29 plant species commonly found in

urban area of Varanasi, India. The study revealed that Ficus benghalensis L. and Ficus

religiosa would be excellent performers.Similarly Polyalthia longifolia, Ficus glomerata

(Roxb.), Anthocephalus indicus and Mangifera indica were estimated to be very good

performers. In the similar manner Cassia fistula L., Drypetes roxburghii, Terminali aarjuna,

Psidium guajava L., Millingtonia hortensis and Dalbergia sissoo were estimated to be good

performers with respect to anticipated performance index.

Esfahani et al. (2015) evaluated the anticipated performance index of various plant

species in green belt of Isfahan, Iran. Tolerant plant species to air pollution were identified

based on the API values. Study showed that air pollution tolerance index in identifying

resistant species to air pollution is more appropriate than anticipated performance index in

semiarid areas like Isafahan. It has been noted that API is beneficial too, when it is calibrated

for arid and semiarid areas.

It is evident from the literature scanned on the present topic that the single criterion of

the biochemical parameters played a distinctive role in determining the response of plant

species to air pollution but may not be ideal for evaluation of plant responses to a variety of

pollutants for green belt purposes. However, using the combination of the biochemical

parameters (APTI), biological and socioeconomic characteristics has proved feasible for

recommending plant species for ecological purposes. Plants with high APTI values are

recommended to be planted along the road sides for sequestration of some toxicants from

vehicular pollution while plants with high values of API would help in establishing green

belt.

25

Chapter-3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present studies entitled “Assessment of air pollution tolerance index of plants

growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7) in Himachal

Pradesh” were conducted in the Department of Environmental Science, College of Forestry,

Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni Solan H.P. during 2015–

2016. To undertake the present investigations material and methodology adopted has been

described below:

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1.1 Location

The study area extending from Markanda to Paonta Sahib is geographically located in

Sirmaur district which lies among the outer Himalayan ranges between 77o 01’12” and 77o

49’40” East longitude and 30o 22’30” North latitude. It is the southern-most district of

Himachal Pradesh, bound by Solan district towards West and Shimla district towards North.

The district has inter-state boundary in the South with the State of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh

and in the East with Uttarakhand.

It occupies an area of approximately 2825 square kilometers and is in elevation range

of 1520 meters to 1552 meters. According to 2011 census the Sirmour district is having total

population of 5,30,164 persons. The total distance of National Highway between Markanda

to Paonta Sahib where studies were undertaken is 40 kms. This National Highway is

subjected to continuous traffic load due to expansion of highway and increasing demographic

pressure.

3.1.2 Climate and weather conditions

The climate of the district is subtropical with hot summer, mild and dry winter. The

highest day temperature ranges between 22°C to 45° C. The winter season commences from

November to February. Summer season extends from March to June followed by the

monsoon period from July to September. Maximum precipitation in the form of rain

occurs during July to September. Average annual rainfall in the district is about 1405

26

mm, out of which 90% occurs during monsoon season. Mean maximum and minimum

temperature range between 30°C to -2°C, respectively.

In order to study the correlation of weather parameters of different seasons and its

relationship with dust accumulation and pollution on the leaves of selected plant species the

weather data was procured from Meteorological Observatory RRS Dhaulakuan, Sirmour, HP.

During the study period (2015-2016) in the selected stretch of National Highway (Markanda

to Paonta Sahib) no rainfall was experienced during the months of October-November (post

monsoon season). Whereas, a rainfall of 18.7 mm was recorded during April-May (pre

monsoon season). Maximum temperature varied from 28.95 to 37.45 oC and minimum

temperature varied from 8.8 to 18.5 oC. Relative Humidity varied from 53.4 to 67.34% (Fig.

1).

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

In order to conduct the present studies a preliminary survey of the National Highway-

7 (Kala Amb to Haridwar road) was done during the year 2015-16. Based on the survey a

stretch of Markanda to Paonta Sahib was selected. In the selected stretch of the Highway,

vegetation distribution was studied by using quadrat method The commonly occurring plant

species namely Ficus roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Woodfordia fruticosa and Shorea

robusta were selected for the study. To meet the objective of the study the 40 km stretch of

the National highway from Markanda to Paonta Sahib was divided into four equal parts of

ten kilometres each. In order to study the impact of vehicular activities on the plants, plants

were selected from 0-10 m and 10-20 m horizontal distances from both sides of the road.

Accordingly following sixteen treatment combinations were considered for the study.

Plant Species Selected: 4

Horizontal Distances: 2 (0-10 km & 10-20 km)

Seasons: 2 (Post monsoon and Pre monsoon)

Treatment combinations : 4 x 2 x 2

Replications: 4 (R1: 0-10 km, R2: 10-20 km, R3: 20-30, R4: 30-40 km)

The experiment was laid down with Randomizrd Block Design (Factorial) having 16

treatment combinations which were replicated four times. Under each replication four

samples of each species were collected randomly from both sides of the road. The plants

growing in each location at isoecological sites having approximately same size, spread and

age were selected to maintain uniformity. The morphological characters of the selected tree

25

25

27

species were studied in detail and are given in Table 1. The leaves of the plants Ficus

roxburghii and Shorea robusta were coriaceous with pubescence. Whereas the leaves of the

Mallotus philippensis and Woodfordia fruticosa were smooth without pubescence.

Table 1: Morphological characters of selected plant species

Plant species Common nameFamily Habit Leaf shape Leaf Texture Pubesence

Ficus roxburghii Trimmal Moraceae Tree Cordate- ovate Coriaceous Present

Mallotus philippensis Kamala

Dye Tree

Euphorbiaceae Tree Ovate-lanceolate Smooth Absent

Shorea robusta Sal Dipterocarpaceae Tree Ovate-oblong Coriaceous Present

Woodfordia fruticosa Dhai Lythraceae Shrub Ovate Smooth Absent

The sample collection and analysis of selected plant species was done during two

seasons i.e. post-monsoon (October-November, 2015) and pre-monsoon (April and May,

2016) respectively. The leaves of the selected plant species were analysed for various

physiological and biochemical parameters like ascorbic acid content, total chlorophyll

content, leaf extract pH and relative water content. Based on these physiological and

biochemical parameters Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of selected plant species was

estimated. By combining the resultant APTI values with relevant biological and socio-

economic characters the Anticipated Performance Index (API) was calculated for different

plant species. Seasonal dust accumulation pattern of each species was also recorded. The data

recorded were analysed by using RBD (Factorial).

3.3 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES

In order to study various parameters for calculating the APTI and estimating leaf dust

load, leaf samples from the selected plant species were collected as per the following

standard procedure. The leaf samples were brought to the laboratory in ice box and washed

with ordinary water and then with 0.1N HCL followed by washing with distilled water. The

analysis of physiological and biochemical parameters of the leaf samples was carried out as

per the procedure given below:

3.3.1 Leaf dust accumulation

Recently matured leaves of the selected tree species were taken for the present

studies. The upper surface of the leaves was cleaned with fine brush and identification mark

was put on them. These leaves were kept for 24 hours for dust accumulation and were

collected in the pre weighed butter paper bags with the help of fine brush. After taking the

28

data for dust accumulation, the leaves were cut from petiole, kept in ice box and brought to

the laboratory for further analysis. The amount of dust accumulated on leaves was weighed

on top pan electronic balance and calculated by using the equation:

W =W2 – W1

A

Where

W = Dust content (mg m-2

)

W1= Initial weight of butter paper bag

W2 = Final weight of butter paper bag with dust

A = Total area of the leaf (m2)

3.3.2 Leaf area

Ten leaves from each plant were collected at random and leaf area was measured with

Leaf area meter (Model-LI-COR-3100). The average leaf area was expressed as m2.

3.3.3 Biochemical analysis

Recently matured leaves from trees were collected in the morning hours at diameter

at breast height (DBH) of almost same height and samples were collected from plants

growing in isoecological conditions. Fresh leaves were brought to the laboratory in ice box

and were analyzed for ascorbic acid content, total chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH and

relative water content.

3.3.3.1 Ascorbic acid content

The ascorbic acid content was estimated by using A. O. A. C. (1980) method. Fresh

leaves (10 g) were homogenized in metaphosphoric acid solution. Volume was made to 100

ml. This solution was titrated against indophenols dye. Appearance of rose pink colour was

the end point. The amount of ascorbic acid in milligrams per hundred grams was calculated

by using formula:

Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) =Dye factor × Titre reading × Volume made × 100

Weight of leaves taken × Volume taken for estimation

3.3.3.2 Chlorophyll content

The leaf chlorophyll content was estimated as per the method of Hiscox and

Israeistam (1979). The fresh leaves were chopped to fine pieces under subdued light, 100 mg

of chopped leaf samples were placed in vials containing 7 ml of dimethyl sulphoxide. The

vials were incubated at 65°C for half an hour, extract was then transferred to graduated test

28

28

29

tube and the final volume was made to 10 ml with dimethyl sulphoxide. The O.D.

values of the above extract were recorded on Spectrophotometer (Model-Spectronic-20) at

645 and 663 nm wavelength against dimethyl sulphoxide blank. The total chlorophyll content

was calculated by using following formula:

Total chlorophyll (mg g-1

) =20.2 A645 + 8.02A663 x V

a × 1000 × w

Where

V = volume of the extract made

W = weight of sample (mg)

a = length of light path in cell (usually 1cm)

A645 is Absorbance at 645nm

A663 is Absorbance at 663nm

3.3.3.3 Leaf extract pH

Recently matured leaves (5 g) were homogenized in 10 ml deionised water and

supernatant obtained after centrifugation was collected for determination of pH by using pH

meter (Model- ESICO 1013) with buffer solution of pH 4 and 9.

3.3.3.4 Relative water content

The relative water content was estimated by using the method of Turner (1981). Fresh

leaf weight was obtained by weighing the fresh leaves. The leaves were then immersed in

water overnight, blotted dry and then weighed to get turgid weight. The leaves were then

dried overnight in an oven at 70°C and reweighed to obtain the dry weight. Leaf relative

water content was calculated by using following formula:

Where

RWC = Relative water content (%)

FW = Fresh weight of leaf sample (g)

DW = Dry weight of leaf sample (g)

TW = Turgid weight of leaf sample (g)

3.3.3.5 Air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

By using the above parameters the air pollution tolerance index was computed by the

method suggested by Singh and Rao (1983) using the equation:

RWC =(FW - DW)

× 10 0(TW - DW)

30

Where

A = Ascorbic acid (mg g-1) of leaf sample

T = Total chlorophyll (mg g-1) of leaf sample

P = Leaf extract pH of leaf sample

R = Relative water content (%) of leaf sample

3.3.3.6 Anticipated performance index (API)

By combining the resultant APTI values with some relevant biological and

socioeconomic characters (plant height, canopy structure, plant size texture, hardness and

economic value) the API was calculated for different plant species. Based on these

characters, different grades (+ or -) are allotted to plants. Different plants are scored

according to their grades as per the procedure outlined by Mondal et al., 2011 and presented

in Tables 2(a) and 2(b).

Table 2(a). Gradation of plant species based on Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI)as well as biological parameters and socio-economic importance

Grading character Pattern of assessment Grade allotted(a) Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) 8.0-8.5 +

8.6-9.0 ++9.1-9.5 +++9.6-10 ++++10.1-10.5 +++++

(b) Plant habit Small -Medium +Large ++

(c) Canopy structure Sparse/irregular/globular -Spreadingcrown/open/semi-dense

+

Spreading dense ++(d) Type of plant Deciduous -

Evergreen +(e) Laminar characteristics Small _(i) Size Medium +

Large ++(ii) Texture Smooth -

Coriaceous +(f) Hardiness Delineate -

Hardy +(g) Economic value Less than three uses -

Three or four uses +Five or more uses ++

Note: *maximum score that can be attained : 16

APTI =[A (T +P)] + R

10

30

30

31

Table 2 (b). Anticipated Performance Index (API) of plant species

3.4 CORRELATION STUDIES

In order to study the relationship of leaf dust accumulation with physiological and

biochemical parameters (ascorbic acid content, chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH and

relative water content) of the leaves of selected plant species, Karl Pearson’s Correlation

Coefficient was calculated using SPSS version 21. The significance of the correlation was

tested at 1% and 5% level of significance.

Grade Score (%) Assessment category0 Up to 30 Not recommended1 31–40 Very poor2 41–50 Poor3 51–60 Moderate4 61–70 Good5 71–80 Very good6 81–90 Excellent7 91-100 Best

Chapter-4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained from the present investigations entitled, “Assessment of air

pollution tolerance index of plants growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib

National Highway (NH-7) in Himachal Pradesh” have been described in this chapter

under the following headings.

4.1 Leaf dust accumulation

4.2 Leaf physiological and biochemical parameters

4.2.1 Ascorbic acid content

4.2.2 Total chlorophyll content

4.2.3 Leaf extract pH

4.2.4 Relative water content

4.3 Air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

4.4 Anticipated performance index (API)

4.5 Relationship of leaf dust accumulation with biochemical parameters.

4.5.1 Relationship of leaf dust accumulation with biochemical parameters

species wise

4.6 Relationship of leaf biochemical parameters and APTI of selected plant species

4.1 LEAF DUST ACCUMULATION

The dust accumulation of the selected plant species varied significantly with species,

horizontal distances and seasons of the year (Table 3a). The maximum dust was accumulated

in Ficus roxburghii (38.30 mg m-2) which was significantly different from all other values.

whereas, minimum dust was noticed in Woodfordia fruticosa (16.70 mg m-2) which is at par

with Mallotus philippensis (16.70). The order of selected plant species according to dust

accumulation was Ficus roxburghii (38.30 mg m-2) > Shorea robusta (26.94 mg m-2),>

Mallotus philippensis (22.31 mg m-2) > Woodfordia fruticosa (16.70 mg m-2). The highest

dust accumulation on the leaves of Ficus roxburghii may be attributed to its coriaceous leaf

texture which might have accumulated more dust on leaves and prevented dust fall from leaf

surface. These results are in line with the findings of Madan and Chauhan (2015) who have

reported that plants having leaves of broad and coriaceous accumulate more dust from air.

33

Lowest amount of dust observed on Woodfordia fruticosa may be attributed to its smaller

leaf size and smooth surface due to which dust settled on the leaf surface may slip down due

to gravitational force or even by wind. The present findings are also in congruence with that

of Thakar and Mishra (2010) and Joshi and Bora (2011) who reported that dust deposition

capacity of plants depends on their surface geometry and leaf external characteristics. The

similar results were reported by Gholami et al. (2016) who concluded that morphological

characters play a significant role in the interception of dust load.

The leaf dust accumulation of the selected plant species growing alongside Markanda

to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7) also varied with horizontal distances from the

Highway. The highest dust load of 49.35 mg m-2 was noticed on leaves of plant species

growing at the distance of 0-10 m from the National Highway and lowest dust load of 2.77

mg m-2 was noticed in leaves of plant species growing at the distance of 10-20 m from the

National Highway (Table 3a). This may be ascribed to dense traffic movement nearby the

roadside as compared to the distance away from the road. These results are in corroboration

with the findings of Rahul and Jain (2014) who reported that high dust deposition on leaf

surface at road side with heavy vehicular traffic may be due to spray of unburnt oil residue of

diesel or petrol on the leaf surface. These results are also in conformity with the findings of

Younis et al. (2013b) who reported that dust accumulation is more in plants growing at

roadsides due to high dust intensity which results by the vehicles activity and capturing dust

with a gentle wind.

The leaf dust accumulation of the selected plant species growing alongside National

Highway also varied with seasons which ranged from 21.42- 30.70 mg m-2 (Fig. 3).

Accumulation of dust on the leaves of selected plant species was found highest during pre

monsoon season (30.70 mg m-2) as compared to post monsoon months where it was only

21.42 mg m-2. The higher leaf dust accumulation in the pre monsoon season may be

attributed due to higher temperature conditions in the study area as compared to post

monsoon months (Fig 1). Further this may be attributed to the road making activities in the

study area in pre monsoon season. These results are in line with findings of Joshi et al.

(2014) who reported that high values of dust are seen in some months largely due to

construction or road making activities at the sites.

Interaction between species and distance resulted in a significant variation on the dust

accumulation pattern of selected species alongside the National Highway as exemplified in

34

the (Fig. 4). Highest leaf dust accumulation was recorded in Ficus roxburghii (71.06 mg m-2)

at a horizontal distance of 0-10 m from the National Highway and it was significantly higher

than all other values. Whereas, lowest dust accumulation was noticed in Woodfordia

fruticosa (1.28 mg m-2) at a distance of 10-20 m from the Highway which is at par with

Mallotus philippensis (1.71 mg m-2), Shorea robusta (2.56 mg m-2), Ficus roxburghii (5.54

mg m-2) at same horizontal distance from the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway.

Table 3(a). Seasonal dust load accumulation (mg m-2) on the leaves of the selectedplant species growing at different horizontal distances alongside theMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

Plant speciesHorizontal distance Season

0-10 m 10-20 m Mean Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 71.06 5.54 38.30 43.03 33.57Mallotus philippensis 42.90 1.71 22.31 27.26 17.35Shorea robusta 51.33 2.56 26.94 32.09 21.80Woodfordia fruticosa 32.11 1.28 16.70 20.44 12.95

Mean (distance) 49.35 2.77 Mean (season) 30.70 21.42

Pre monsoon 58.33 3.08 30.70

Post monsoon 40.37 2.46 21.42

CD(0.05)

Species 5.29Distance 3.74Season 3.74Species x Distance 7.48Species x Season NSDistance x Season 5.29

The two way interaction of distance and season interaction was noticed to influence

the dust load accumulation of the selected plant species significantly. Highest dust

accumulation of 58.33 mg m-2 was recorded during pre monsoon season at a horizontal

distance of 0-10m from the National Highway (Table 3a). Whereas, the lowest of 2.46 mg

m-2 was observed during post monsoon season at a horizontal distance of 10-20m from the

National Highway. The data presented in Table 3(a) indicated that species and season

interaction was found to have non significant influence on leaf dust accumulation of selected

plant species.

35

Table 3(b). Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on dust load accumulation(mg m-2) of the selected plant species

Plant speciesSeason

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10 m 10-20m 0-10 m 10-20m

Ficus roxburghii 80.66 5.39 61.45 5.69Mallotus philippensis 52.40 2.13 33.41 1.30Shorea robusta 60.78 3.39 41.87 1.72Woodfordia fruticosa 39.46 1.42 24.76 1.14

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season NS

The three way interaction between species, distance and season of the selected

species was observed statistically non significant with respect to dust accumulation (Table

3b).

4.2 LEAF PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

4.2.1 Ascorbic acid content

Ascorbic acid is a natural antioxidant that increases the resistance of plants against air

pollutants. Ascorbic acid is vital in cell wall synthesis, defence and cell division (Rai et al.,

2013). The selected plant species of the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway varied

significantly in their ascorbic acid content that ranged from 1.16 mg g-1 to 2.26 mg g-1 (Table

4a and Fig. 5). Among the four species selected maximum ascorbic acid content was

recorded in Shorea robusta (2.26 mg g-1). It was significantly higher than all other values.

Minimum ascorbic acid content was recorded in Mallotus philippensis (1.16 mg g-1) which

is at par with Ficus roxburghii (1.18 mg g-1) and Woodfordia fruticosa (1.21 mg g-1). The

order of ascorbic acid in the leaves of selected species was Shorea robusta (2.26 mg g-1) >

Woodfordia fruticosa (1.21 mg g-1) > Ficus roxburghii (1.18 mg g-1) > Mallotus philippensis

(1.16 mg g-1). Higher ascorbic acid content in the leaves of Shorea robusta may probably be

due to genetic variation as well as due to its higher adaptive capacity to tolerate stresses of

the environment including air pollution. These results are in line with the findings of Rai et

al. (2013) who have reported that ascorbic acid is a stress reducing factor and is present in

tolerant plant species generally in higher levels. The present findings are in corroboration

with those of Pandey et al. (2015b) who reported that increased level of ascorbic acid content

enhances pollution tolerance which is a response of defence mechanism of plant.

A significant variation in the leaf ascorbic content of selected plant species growing

at different horizontal distances from the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway was

36

observed (Table 4a). Highest amount of ascorbic acid of 1.69 mg g-1was recorded at a

horizontal distance of 0-10m from the National Highway whereas, lowest amount (1.21 mg

g-1) was recorded in plants growing at a horizontal distance of 10-20m from the National

highway. This may be ascribed to tendency of plant species to synthesize this molecule to

overcome stress under highly polluted sites. These results are in line with findings of

Subramani and Devaanandan (2015) who have pointed out that ascorbic acid influences the

resistance of plants to adverse environmental conditions.

The leaf ascorbic content of the selected plant species growing at Markanda to Paonta

Sahib National Highway also varied with seasons which ranged from 1.34-1.56 mg g-1.

Highest amount of ascorbic acid content (1.56 mg g-1) was registered during post monsoon

season and lowest amount of ascorbic acid content (1.34 mg g-1) was noticed during pre

monsoon season. Both the values were significantly different from each other. Higher

amount of ascorbic acid during post monsoon may be due to more production of antioxidants(ascorbic acid) under stress conditions. The results are in line with the findings of Prajapatiand Tripathi (2007) and Joshi et al. (2016) who reported that plants under stress improve intheir ascorbic acid content to fight adverse conditions. These results are similar to those of

Bhattacharya et al., (2013) who reported that ascorbic acid was higher in winter as the

pollution load increases in this season due to meteorological conditions.

Table 4(a). Seasonal variation in ascorbic acid content (mg g-1) of selected plant speciesgrowing at different horizontal distances alongside the Markanda to PaontaSahib National Highway

Plant SpeciesHorizontal distance Season

0-10 m 10-20 m Mean PreMonsoon

PostMonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 1.39 0.97 1.18 1.02 1.34Mallotus philippensis 1.36 0.96 1.16 1.04 1.27Shorea robusta 2.67 1.84 2.26 2.17 2.34Woodfordia fruticosa 1.36 1.07 1.21 1.13 1.30Mean (distance) 1.69 1.21 Mean (season) 1.34 1.56Pre monsoon 1.57 1.11 1.34Post monsoon 1.82 1.31 1.56

CD(0.05)

Species 0.12Distance 0.09Season 0.09Species x Distance 0.17Species x Season NSDistance x Season NS

37

Similarly, the species x distance interaction irrespective of season exerted a

significant influence on the ascorbic acid content of the leaves of the selected plant species

(Fig 6). Maximum ascorbic acid content (2.67 mg g-1) was registered in the leaves of Shorea

robusta at a horizontal distance of 0-10m from the National Highway. This may be attributed

to the defence mechanism of Shorea robusta. This was statistically different from all other

values. These results are in line with findings of Pandey et al. (2015b) who reported that

increased level of ascorbic acid content enhances pollution tolerance which is a response of

defence mechanism of the respective plant. The minimum ascorbic acid content of 0.96 mg

g-1 was recorded in the leaves of Mallotus philippensis at the distance of 10-20 m and this

was statistically at par with ascorbic acid content of Ficus roxburghii (0.97 mg g-1).

The two way interaction between species and season was observed to have no

significant influence on ascorbic acid content of the selected plant species. Similarly

interaction between distance and season was also found to be non significant with respect to

ascorbic acid content of selected plant species.

Table 4(b). Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on ascorbic acid content (mgg-1) of the selected plant species

Plant speciesSeason

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10 m 10-20 m 0-10 m 10-20 m

Ficus roxburghii 1.17 0.88 1.61 1.06

Mallotus philippensis 1.28 0.81 1.43 1.10Shorea robusta 2.57 1.77 2.78 1.90Woodfordia fruticosa 1.28 0.97 1.44 1.17

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season = NS

Three way interaction between species, distance and season resulted in non

significant influence on ascorbic acid content of the selected plant species alongside

Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (Table 4b).

4.2.2 Total chlorophyll content

Chlorophyll content of plants signifies its photosynthetic activity as well as the

growth and development of biomass. The selected plant species growing alongside Markanda

to Paonta Sahib National Highway were found to exhibit significant variation in their leaf

chlorophyll content. The leaf chlorophyll content of the selected plant species varied from

38

1.17 mg g-1 to 1.64 mg g-1(Table 5a). Among the four plant species, Shorea robusta was

noticed to have maximum chlorophyll content of 1.64 mg g-1 in their leaves and it was

significantly different from all other values. This was followed by Mallotus philippensis,

Woodfordia fruticosa, Ficus roxburghii with respective values of 1.46, 1.24, 1.17 mg g-1.

The variation in the chlorophyll content of the leaves of selected plant species may be

attributed to the genetic variations of the plant species. Further, the variations in leaf

chlorophyll content of plant species may vary with the pollution status of the area as well as

the tolerance and sensitivity of the plant species. These results are in line with the findings of

Mir et al. (2008) and Chandawat et al. (2011) who reported that leaf chlorophyll content

varied with tolerance as well as the sensitivity of the plant species to the pollution load of the

road. The results are also supported by findings of Begum and Harikrishna (2010) who

reported that chlorophyll content varies from species to species and also with the pollution

level as well as with other biotic and abiotic conditions. Variation in chlorophyll content

among the tree species in the study area may be owing to species tolerant nature, age genetic

make up and other environmental circumstances in addition to pollution effect as also

reported by Kumar and Nandini (2013).

Table 5(a). Seasonal variation in leaf chlorophyll content (mg g-1) of selected plantspecies growing at different horizontal distances alongside the Markanda toPaonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

Plant speciesHorizontal distance Season

0 -10 m 10-20 m Mean Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 0.82 1.51 1.17 0.92 1.41Mallotus philippensis 1.33 1.59 1.46 1.25 1.66Shorea robusta 1.45 1.82 1.64 1.50 1.77Woodfordia fruticosa 1 .21 1.27 1.24 1.06 1.41Mean(distance) 1.20 1.54 Mean (season) 1.18 1.56Pre monsoon 1.02 1.34 1.18Post monsoon 1.38 1.75 1.56CD(0.05)

Species 0.17Distance 0.12Season 0.12Species x Distance 0.24Species x Season NSDistance x Season NS

39

The species x distance exerted a significant influence on the leaf chlorophyll content

(Fig 8). Among the selected plant species Shorea robusta was found to register highest leaf

chlorophyll content (1.82 mg g-1) at a distance of 10-20 m and it was at par with Mallotus

philippensis (1.59 mg g-1) growing at the same distance. The lowest chlorophyll content of

0.82 mg g-1 was recorded in the leaves of Ficus roxburghii at a distance of 0-10 m. The

species and season interaction was found non significant indicating thereby no influence on

the chlorophyll content of the selected plant species. The two way interaction between

distance and season was also found to be statistically non significant.

Table 5(b). Conjoint effect of species, seasons and distance on leaf chlorophyll content(mg g-1) of the selected plant species

Plant speciesSeason

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10 m 10-20 m 0-10 m 10-20 m

Ficus roxburghii 0.61 1.22 1.04 1.79

Mallotus philippensis 1.12 1.38 1.53 1.80

Shorea robusta 1.32 1.67 1.59 1.96

Woodfordia fruticosa 1.03 1.09 1.38 1.45

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season = NS

The data presented in Table 5(b) indicated that three way interaction between species,

distance and season was statistically non significant with respect to chlorophyll content of

selected plant species.

4.2.3 Leaf extract pH

pH is a biochemical parameter that serves as a sensitivity indicator of air pollution.

pH of the leaf extract signifies the tolerant capacity of the leaf species. Higher level of pH in

leaf extract indicates that the plants are tolerant under polluted conditions. The plant species

growing along the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway exhibited statistically

significant variation in the leaf extract pH. The range of the leaf extract pH among selected

plant species was from 5.41 to 6.43 (Table 6a). Maximum leaf extract pH of 6.43 was

recorded in Ficus roxburghii whereas, minimum leaf extract pH was noticed in Woodfordia

fruticosa (5.41). The order of the leaf extract pH in plant species was Ficus roxburghii (6.43)

> Shorea robusta (5.85) > Mallotus philippensis (5.59) > Woodfordia fruticosa (5.41). All

40

these values were significantly different from each other. The present results are in

congruence with Tiwari and Tiwari (2006) and Gholami et al. (2016) who reported that leaf

pH is reduced in the presence of acidic pollutant and the reducing rate is more in sensitive

plants compared to that in tolerant plants.

The leaf extract pH of selected plant species growing at different horizontal distances

from the National Highway ranged from 5.52-6.12. The trend of leaf extract pH is similar to

chlorophyll content with respect to different horizontal distances of plant species from the

National Highway. pH increased with increase in horizontal distance which was recorded

highest of 6.12 at the distance of 10-20 m from the road. Whereas, lowest leaf extract pH of

5.52 was recorded at a distance of 0-10 m from the roadside. Both these values were

significantly different from each other. The lowest value of pH in case of plants growing

near the National Highway may be attributed to high level of vehicular pollution at this site.

These results are in line with findings of Ramakrishnaiah and Somashekhar (2003) and

Subramani and Devaanandan (2015) who reported that pH followed an exponential decrease

with increase in traffic pollution and drifted towards acidic range.

Seasons were found to influence the leaf extract pH of the selected plant species in

the present study (Table 6a). Irrespective of species and horizontal distances highest pH was

recorded during pre monsoon season (6.03). Whereas, lowest pH of 5.61 was noticed during

post monsoon season. These values are significantly different from each other. The higher

leaf extract pH during pre monsoon season may be due to more dust accumulation in the pre

monsoon season. These results are in conformity with findings of Katiyar and Dubey (2001)

who reported that more dust accumulation can cause dust particle dissolution in cell sap and

increase the pH.

The two way interactions between species x distance, species x season were reported

statistically non significant with respect to leaf extract pH of selected plant species growing

alongside National Highway.

Three way interaction between species, distance and season was found to be

statistically non significant (Table 6b).

41

Table 6(a) Seasonal variation in leaf extract pH of selected plant species growing atdifferent horizontal distances alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH- 7)

Plant speciesHorizontal distance Season

0-10 m 10-20 m Mean Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 6.24 6.62 6.43 6.68 6.18

Mallotus philippensis 5.19 5.99 5.59 5.83 5.36

Shorea robusta 5.47 6.23 5.85 6.01 5.69Woodfordia fruticosa 5.17 5.65 5.41 5.60 5.21Mean(distance) 5.52 6.12 Mean (season) 6.03 5.61Pre monsoon 5.77 6.30 6.03Post monsoon 5.27 5.95 5.61CD(0.05)

Species 0.19Distance 0.13Season 0.13Species x Distance NSSpecies x Season NSDistance x Season NS

Table 6(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and horizontal distance on leaf extract pHof the selected plant species

Plant speciesSeasons

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10 m 10-20 m 0-10 m 10-20 m

Ficus roxburghii 6.49 6.88 6.00 6.36Mallotus philippensis 5.51 6.14 4.87 5.84Shorea robusta 5.69 6.33 5.24 6.13Woodfordia fruticosa 5.37 5.84 4.97 5.46

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season = NS

4.2.4 Relative water content

Relative water content of a leaf is the water present in it relative to its full turgidity. It

is a direct measure of deficit in leaves. It is evident from the data presented in Table 7(a) that

the relative water content of the selected plant species growing alongside Markanda to

Paonta Sahib National Highway varies significantly at different horizontal distances from the

Highway. Irrespective of season and distance a significant variation in the relative water

content among the selected plant species was exhibited with maximum in Ficus roxburghii

(86.65%) which was at par with Shorea robusta (86.51%) but significantly different from

42

other species and minimum relative water content was recorded in Mallotus philippensis

(81.13%) which was at par with Woodfordia fruticosa (81.26%). The order of the plant

species based on the leaf relative water content was Ficus roxburghii (86.65%) > Shorea

robusta (86.51%) > Woodfordia fruticosa (81.26%) > Mallotus philippensis (81.13%). The

variation in the relative water content among the plant species may be due to the difference in

their genetic makeup. These results are similar to those of Nwadinigwe (2014) who reported

that relative water content is due to the difference among plant species. The maximum

relative water content of Ficus roxburghii may be attributed to its tolerant nature towards

pollution. These results are in conformity with findings of Verma (2003) and Gholami et al.

(2016) who reported that transpiration rates are frequently high under polluted conditions

therefore, maintenance of relative water content by the plant may determine its relative

tolerance to pollution.

Table 7(a) Seasonal variation in relative water content (%) of selected plant speciesgrowing at different horizontal distances alongside the Markanda toPaonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

Plant speciesHorizontal Distance Season

0-10 m 10-20 m Mean Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 88.40 84.89 86.65 82.65 90.64Mallotus phillipensis 82.93 79.32 81.13 78.79 83.46Shorea robusta 88.22 84.79 86.51 83.09 89.92Woodfordia fruticosa 83.63 78.90 81.26 79.33 83.19Mean (distance) 85.80 81.97 Mean (season) 80.97 86.80Pre monsoon 83.16 78.77 80.97Post monsoon 88.43 85.18 86.80

CD(0.05)

Species 0.64Distance 0.45Season 0.45Species x Distance NSSpecies x Season 0.90Distance x season 0.6

Relative water content of the selected plant species was found to exhibit a significant

variation while increasing the distance from National Highway. Highest relative water

content was recorded at a distance of 0-10 m from the Highway (85.80%) whereas

significantly lower (81.97%) at a horizontal distance of 10-20 m from the Highway. The

higher relative water content in the plant species growing at the distance of 0-10 m may be

43

attributed to more dust accumulation on the leaves of the plants. The present results are in

congruence with the findings of Rai and Panda (2014a) who reported that high dust

deposition on leaves might have clogged stomatal opening, severely affecting the

transpiration rate. Similar results have also been reported by Tanee et al. (2014) who pointed

out that plants at polluted site absorbed more water, this could be a physiological mechanism

of the plants to withstand the effect of pollution in its environment.

The relative water content of the selected plant species growing alongside Markanda

to Paonta Sahib National Highway varied with seasons which ranged from 80.97% to

86.80%. The leaves of the selected plant species exhibited significantly highest relative water

content (86.80%) during post monsoon season and lowest (80.97%) during pre monsoon

season.The higher relative water content during post monsoon season may be attributed to

better soil moisture conditions and less evaporation during post monsoon. Moreover high

relative humidity in the atmosphere during post monsoon season might have increased

relative water content due to less transpiration. The present findings are in conformity with

those of Das and Prasad (2010) who have reported high relative water content during rainy

season, low in winter and least in summer season. The lower relative water content during

pre monsoon season may be attributed to more dust accumulation. These results are in line

with findings of Rai and Panda (2014b) who reported that dust may absorb water through

non cutinized plant surface such as leaves, stems and branches, contributing to decreased

relative water content.

The two way interaction between species and season exhibited a significant variation

in the relative water content of the selected plant species (Fig 10). Maximum value was

recorded in Ficus roxburghii (90.64%) during post monsoon season (Table 7a). Minimum

relative water content was recorded in Mallotus philippensi (78.79%) during pre monsoon

season. The highest value of relative water content in Ficus roxburghii may be due to its

genetic make up which has further been enhanced during post monsoon season due to less

evaporation and better soil moisture conditions immediately after rainy season.

The two way interaction between distance and season exhibited significant variation

in the relative water content of plant species. The higher relative water content of 88.43 %

was recorded at a distance of 0-10 m during post monsoon season. Whereas, the lowest

relative water content of 78.77% was noticed at a distance of 10-20 m during pre monsoon

44

season. These values were statistically different from each other. The two way interaction

between species x season was observed statistically non significant.

Table 7(b) Conjoint effect of species, season and distance on relative water content(%) of the selected plant species

Plant speciesSeasons

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10 m 10-20 m 0-10 m 10-20 m

Ficus roxburghii 84.14 81.17 92.67 88.61

Mallotus philippensis 81.30 76.27 84.56 82.37

Shorea robusta 85.02 81.16 91.41 88.43

Woodfordia fruticosa 82.17 76.50 85.09 81.30

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season = NS

Three way interaction between species, distance and season was statistically non

significant with respect to relative water content of selected plant species (Table 7 b).

4.3 AIR POLLUTION TOLERANCE INDEX (APTI)

Plants response to air pollution can be determined by calculating an index known as

Air pollution tolerance index. It is an index used to evaluate the susceptibility or resistance of

plants for air pollutants and in order to adapt against air pollution. The selected plant species

growing at different horizontal distances alongside the National Highway were found to have

significant variations in the air pollution tolerance index (Table 8 a). The APTI of selected

plant species varied from 8.91 to 10.28 (Table 8a). The results are in line with findings of

Tiwari and Tiwari (2006) who pointed out that plant species vary considerably with their

susceptibility to air pollutants. Among all the plant species the maximum air pollution

tolerance index was recorded in Shorea robusta (10.28). It was significantly different from

all other values. Minimum air pollution tolerance index was recorded in Mallotus

philippensis (8.91) and this was statistically at par with Woodfordia fruticosa (8.92). The

higher APTI of Shorea robusta may be attributed to its higher tendency to synthesize

ascorbic acid during pollution stress conditions (Kuddus et al., 2011). These results are in

congruence with the findings of Lohe et al. (2015) who have pointed that APTI is a species

dependent plant attribute which expresses the inherent ability of plants to encounter stress

arising from pollution. Similar results were also reported by Gholami et al. (2016).

According to them tolerance to air pollution alter from species to species depending on plants

45

capacity to endure the effect of pollutants. Swami and Chauhan (2015) also revealed higher

APTI in Shorea robusta (11.27) and reported that Shorea robusta is the more suitable

species to work as pollution sink and can be planted in areas which are facing pollution.

The air pollution tolerance index of the selected plant species varied with different

horizontal distances from the National Highway. The highest APTI of 9.70 was recorded

adjacent to National Highway at a distance of 0-10 m. Whereas, lowest APTI of 9.11 was

recorded at a distance of 10-20 m from the Highway. The highest APTI of the plants growing

at the horizontal distance of 0-10 m from the Highway may be attributed to capacity of plants

to adapt to stress conditions created by vehicular pollution. The lower APTI of the plants

growing at the distance of 10-20 m may be attributed to its less pollution level. These results

are in corroboration with the findings of Jyothi and Jaya (2010) who have pointed that higher

APTI values are associated with higher tolerance of plant species to air pollutants. Tolerance

of plant towards air pollutants is specific to a site and depends on the type and level of

pollution (Noor et al. 2015).

Seasonal variations of the APTI of selected plants alongside Markanda to Paonta

Sahib National Highway were found to be significant (Table 8a). The data indicated that all

the selected plant species exhibited relatively higher APTI values (9.76) in post monsoon

season as compared to pre monsoon months (9.05). These values were statistically different

from each other. The higher APTI values during post monsoon season may be attributed to

the adaptive capacity of plant species to combat stress in this season. Further, such stress

conditions have been noticed to enhance ascorbic acid content in the selected plant species

during the said season.

The data presented in Table 8(a) indicated that two way interaction between species

and distance was non significant with respect to APTI of the selected plant species. The

species x season interaction influenced APTI of selected plant species (Fig 11). Highest

APTI value of 10.65 was recorded in Shorea robusta during post monsoon season and it was

significantly higher than other values. Whereas, lowest APTI was observed in Mallotus

philippensis (8.60) during pre monsoon months which was statistically at par with

Woodfordia fruticosa (8.67).

46

Table 8(a) Seasonal variation in APTI of selected plant species growing at horizontaldistances alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway(NH-7)

Plant speciesHorizontal distance Season

0-10 m 10-20 m Mean Premonsoon

Postmonsoon

Ficus roxburghii 9.80 9.23 9.51 9.02 10.00Mallotus philippensis 9.16 8.65 8.91 8.60 9.21Shorea robusta 10.63 9.93 10.28 9.92 10.65Woodfordia fruticosa 9.21 8.62 8.92 8.67 9.16Mean (distance) 9.70 9.11 Mean (season) 9.05 9.76Pre monsoon 9.39 8.72 9.05Post monsoon 10.01 9.50 9.76

CD(0.05)

Species 0.10Distance 0.07Season 0.07Species x Distance NSSpecies x Season 0.14Distance x Season 0.10

Similarly distance x season interaction was also noticed to influence the tolerance

level of the plant species growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway.

Significantly highest APTI of 10.01 was recorded at a distance of 0-10m during post

monsoon season whereas lowest APTI of 8.72 was recorded at a distance of 10-20m during

pre monsoon months (Table 8a).

The interaction between species, distances and seasons exhibited significant

influence on air pollution tolerance index of plants. The highest APTI of 10.96 was recorded

in Shorea robusta at a distance of 0-10m during post monsoon season (Table 8b). The lowest

APTI of 8.22 was recorded in Mallotus philippensis at a distance of 10-20m during pre

monsoon season. The higher value of APTI in Shorea robusta may be due to highest capacity

to adapt to pollution stress by synthesizing more ascorbic acid at a distance of 0-10m during

post monsoon season.

Table 8(b) Conjoint effect of species, seasons and distance on APTI of the selectedplant species

Plant speciesSeason

Pre monsoon Post monsoon0-10m 10-20m 0-10m 10-20m

Ficus roxburghii 9.24 8.80 10.35 9.65Mallotus philippensis 8.98 8.22 9.34 9.08Shorea robusta 10.30 9.53 10.96 10.34Woodfordia fruticosa 9.04 8.31 9.39 8.94

CD(0.05) Species x Distance x Season = 0.19

47

4.4 ANTICIPATED PERFORMANCE INDEX (API)

API is used as an indicator to assess the capability of predominant species in the clean

up of atmospheric pollutants. The assessment of the API with respect to the selected plant

species growing around the National Highway-7 was found to fall in the assessment category

of not recommended to the best one (Table 9b). Among the selected plants, Shorea robusta

with highest API grade (7) was in best category of plants followed by Ficus roxburghii with

API grade 4 which was in good category. Whereas, Mallotus philippensis was found in

moderate category with API grade 3 and Woodfordia fruticosa was found in not

recommended category with API grade 0. The highest value of API of Shorea robusta may

be due to its high APTI. Further, the better laminar characteristics like leaf size, texture,

canopy structure along with the high economic value might have enhanced its API value

towards the best category. Whereas, the small leaf size, smooth surface of leaf and

comparatively less economic importance have perhaps decreased the API value of

Woodfordia fruticosa making it to fall in not recommended category. These findings are in

accordance with Prajapati and Tripathi (2008b) who have also reported more value of API

for the species with higher APTI having better plant and leaf characteristics.

Table 9(a) Evaluation of plant species on the basis of APTI value and some biologicaland socio- economic characteristics

Table 9(b) Anticipated performance index (API) of selected plant species

Sr. No. Plant speciesTotal grade

Allotted% Score

APIGrade

Assessment category

1 Ficus roxburghii 10 62 4 Good

2 Mallotus philipppensis 9 56 3 Moderate

3 Shorea robusta 14 94 7 Best

4 Woodfordia fruticosa 4 25 0 Not recommended

Plant species

Assessment parameters Laminar structure Grade alloted

AP

TI

PL

AN

T H

AB

IT

CA

NO

PY

STR

UC

TU

RE

TR

EE

TY

PE

SIZ

E

TE

XT

UR

E

HA

RD

INE

SS

EC

ON

OM

ICIM

PO

RT

AN

CE

TO

TA

L P

LU

S

%SC

OR

ING

AP

I G

RA

DE

Ficus roxburghii +++ - + + ++ + + + 10 62 4

Mallotus philippensis ++ ++ + - + - + ++ 9 56 3

Shorea robusta +++++ ++ ++ - ++ + + ++ 15 94 7

Woodfordia fruticosa ++ - - - + - + - 4 25 0

48

4.5 RELATIONSHIP OF DUST LOAD WITH BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

In order to study the effect of dust on various physiological and biochemical

parameters of the selected plant species correlation analysis was used to establish

relationships between the amount of dust and biochemical parameter levels in plants.

Significant positive correlation r= 0.65 was observed between dust accumulation and relative

water content of plant species growing at the horizontal distance of 10-20 m from the

highway during pre monsoon season, followed by r= 0.72 in plants growing at the distance of

0-10 m during post monsoon season (Table 10). This may be attributed to tolerant nature of

plant species. These results are in line with findings of Chouhan et al. (2012) who reported

that plants with high relative water content under polluted conditions may be tolerant to

pollutants. The correlation between dust accumulation and pH was also found significant and

positive at the distance of 0-10 m during pre monsoon season with value of r= 0.67 followed

by plants at the distance of 10-20 m during pre monsoon season with the value of r= 0.74

and r= 0.67 plants growing at the distance of 0-10 m during post monsoon season. This may

be due to dissolution of dust particles in cell sap resulting in alkaline condition. These results

are in line with findings of Katiyar and Dubey (2001) who reported that dust accumulation is

more in summer and winter which can cause dust particle dissolution in cell sap and

increasing the pH.

Table 10. Correlation between dust accumulation and biochemical parameters ofselected plant species growing at different horizontal distances alongside theMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

BiochemicalParameters

Dust accumulationPre monsoon Post monsoon

0-10m 10-20m 0-10m 10-20mAscorbic acid 0.03 0.06 0.10 -0.15Chlorophyll -0.41 0.36 -0.42 -0.08pH 0.67** 0.74** 0.67** 0.34Relative water content 0.46 0.65** 0.72** 0.48

**significant at 0.01 level* significant at 0.05 level

4.5.1 Relationship of leaf dust accumulation with biochemical parameters species wise

The data presented in Table 11 indicated that the significant positive correlation r=

0.50 was observed between leaf dust and ascorbic acid in Ficus roxburghii followed by r=

0.55 Mallotus philippensis and Shorea robusta (r= 0.86). The correlation between leaf dust

49

and chlorophyll was found significant and negative r= -0.69 in Ficus roxburghii followed by

r= 0.66 in Shorea robusta. The present results are in line with findings of Agbaire and

Esiefarienrhe (2009) who have reported that certain pollutants decrease chlorophyll and

others increase it. The correlation between leaf dust and leaf pH was also found significant

and negative r= -0.56 in Mallotus philippensis, followed by r= -0.73 in Shorea robusta. The

correlation between leaf dust and relative water content was found significant and positive

(r= 0.51) in Woodfordia fruticosa.

Table 11. Correlation between leaf dust and biochemical parameters of differentplant species growing at different horizontal distances alongsideMarkanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

Plant species Ascorbic acid Chlorophyll Leaf pH Relativewater content

Ficus roxburghii 0.50* -0.69** -0.43 -0.26Mallotus philippensis 0.55* -0.45 -0.56* 0.42Shorea robusta 0.86** -0.66** -0.73** -0.27Woodfordia fruticosa 0.50 -0.24 -0.38 0.51*

**significant at 0.01 level* significant at 0.05 level

Similarly the correlation between leaf dust and ascorbic acid content was found

significant and positive r= 0.86 in Shorea robusta followed by Mallotus philippensis

r=0.55, Ficus roxburghii r=0.50. The results are in line with Prajapati and Tripathi (2008b)

who reported increase in ascorbic acid content with increase of dust deposition.

4.6 RELATIONSHIP OF LEAF BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND APTI OFSELECTED PLANT SPECIES.

A perusal of data presented in Table 12 indicated that the significant positive

correlation r= 0.95 was observed between APTI and ascorbic acid at the distance of 0-10 m

during pre monsoon season, followed by r=0.88 in plants at a distance of 10-20 m during pre

monsoon season. Similarly significant positive correlation was found between APTI and

ascorbic acid both at a plant distance of 0-10 m (r-0.86) and at a plant distance of 10-20 m

during post monsoon season, (r= 0.80) in plants at a distance of 10-20 m during post

monsoon season. These results are in line with findings of Garg and Kapoor (1972) and

Joshi et al. (2016) who reported that increase in level of ascorbic acid content may be due to

the resistance mechanism of plant to cope with stress conditions. The correlation between

50

APTI and chlorophyll was also found to be significant and positive (r=0.54) at the distance of

10-20 m during the post monsoon season (Table 12).

Table 12. Correlation between leaf biochemical parameters and APTI of selected plantspecies growing at different horizontal distances alongside Markanda toPaonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7)

Biochemicalparameters

Air pollution tolerance indexPre monsoon Post monsoon

0-10m 10-20m 0-10m 10-20mAscorbic acid 0.95** 0.88** 0.86** 0.80**

Chlorophyll 0.42 0.44 -0.06 0.54*

pH 0.13 0.42 0.53* 0.60*

Relative water content 0.77** 0.85** 0.88** 0.88**

**significant at 0.01 level* significant at 0.05 level

The correlation between APTI and pH was also found significant and positive ( r=

0.53) at the distance of 0-10 m during post monsoon season followed by r= 0.60 at the

distance of 10-20 m during the post monsoon season. The results are in congruence with the

findings of Joshi et al. (2016) who reported that higher pH can provide tolerance to plants

against pollution by increasing conversion of hexose sugar to ascorbic acid. Significant

positive correlation (r= 0.77) was observed between APTI and relative water content at the

distance of 0-10 m, followed by (r= 0.85) at the distance of 10-20 m during post monsoon

season. Similarly a significant positive correlation was also found between APTI and relative

water content both at a plant distance of 0-10 m and 10-20 m (r= 0.88). These results are in

line with findings of Joshi et al. (1993) and Ogunkunle (2015) who reported that higher

chlorophyll content might favour tolerance to pollutants.

Chapter-5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In order to conduct the present studies, a preliminary survey of the National Highway

7 was conducted during the year 2015-16. Based on the survey a stretch of Markanda to

Paonta Sahib was selected. In the selected stretch of the National Highway distribution of

different plant species was studied and most commonly occuring plant species namely Ficus

roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Shorea robusta and Woodfordia fruticosa were selected

for the study. To meet the objective of the study the 40 km stretch of National highway from

Markanda to Paonta Sahib was divided into four equal parts of ten kilometres each. In order

to study the impact of vehicular activities on the plants, plants were selected from 0-10 m and

10-20 m horizontal distances from both sides of the road. The plants growing at iso

ecological sites having approximately same size, spread and age were selected for the studies

to maintain uniformity. The morphological characters of the selected plant species were

studied in detail and are given in Table 1.The morphological characteristics of plants such as

leaf surface characteristics, leaf area were also recorded. The Air Pollution Tolerance Index

was calculated based on various biochemical parameters namely ascorbic acid content, total

chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH and relative water content. The anticipated performance

index of the plant species was calculated by using their APTI values and considering their

biological and socio-economic parameters.

LEAF DUST ACCUMULATION

The leaf dust accumulation of the selected plant species ranged from 16.70 to 38.30

mg m-2 and was in order of F. roxburghii (38.30) > S. robusta (26.94) > M. philippensis

(22.31) > W. fruticosa (16.70). The leaf dust accumulation decreased with increasing

distance from the national highway with its content ranging from 2.77 mg m-2 to 49.35 mg

m-2. Seasons of the year influenced the leaf dust accumulation on plant species with the

highest leaf dust accumulation (30.70) in pre monsoon season and the lowest (21.42) in postmonsoon season.

BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

The ascorbic acid content in the leaves of the selected plant species ranged from

1.16–2.26 mg g-1 and the order was S. robusta (2.26 mg g-1) >W. fruticosa (1.21 mg g-1) > F.

52

roxburghii (1.18 mg g-1) > M. philippensis (1.16 mg g-1). It decreased with increasing

distance from the edge of the national highway and ranged from 1.21 to 1.69 mg g-1. The

ascorbic acid content was highest (1.56 mg g-1) during post monsoon season and lowest (1.34

mg g-1) during pre monsoon season.

The chlorophyll content in the leaves of the selected plant species ranged from 1.17–

1.64 mg g-1 and the order was S. robusta ( 1.64 mg g-1) > M. philippensis ( 1.46 mg g-1) > W.

fruticosa ( 1.24 mg g-1) > F. roxburghii (1.17 mg g-1). It increased with increasing distance

from the edge of the national highway and ranged from 1.20 to 1.54 mg g-1. The chlorophyll

content was the highest (1.56 mg g-1) during the post monsoon season and lowest (1.18 mg g-

1) during the pre monsoon season.

The leaf extract pH of selected plant species ranged from 5.41 to 6.43 and the order

was F. roxburghii (6.43)> S. robusta (5.85) > M. philippensis (5.59) > W. fruticosa (5.41). It

increased with increasing distance from the edge of the national highway and ranged from

5.52 to 6.12. The leaf extract pH was highest (6.03) during pre monsoon season and lowest

(5.61) during post monsoon season.

The relative water content of the selected plant species ranged from 81.13% to

86.65% and the order was F. roxburghii (86.65%)> S. robusta (86.51%) > W. fruticosa

(81.26%) > M. philippensis (81.13%). It decreased with increasing distance from the edge of

the national highway and ranged from 81.97% to 85.80%. The relative water content was

highest (86.80%) during post monsoon season and lowest (80.97) during pre monsoon

season.

Air pollution tolerance index (APTI)

The air pollution tolerance index of selected plant species varied from 8.91 to 10.28

and species wise order was S. robusta (10.28) > F. roxburghii (9.51) > W. fruticosa (8.92) >

M. philippensis (8.91). Distance wise species APTI was (9.70) at 0-10 m > (9.11) at 10-20

m. Season wise APTI was in the order of post monsoon season (9.76) > pre monsoon season

(9.05).

Anticipated performance index (API)

The anticipated performance index of the selected plant species ranged from not

recommended category to the best category. Among the selected plant species the order of

API was S. robusta > F. roxburghii > M. philippensis > W. fruticosa.

53

CONCLUSION

The study indicated that the plant growing alongside the Markanda to Paonta Sahib

National Highway (NH-7) varied in their response to vehicular and dust pollution. Both the

dust and vehicular emissions influenced the physiological and biochemical characteristics of

plant species. The commonly growing plant species alongside the National Highway varied

in their air pollution tolerance index and anticipated performance index. Among the selected

plant species Shorea robusta emerged as the tolerant species with the best anticipated

performance index. Thus, this plant species can be suggested for plantations alongside the

Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway to withstand the impact of pollution in that

area.

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i

APPENDIX-I

Analysis of variance table for Leaf dust accumulation (mg g-2)

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 4036.80 1345.60 24.41Season 1 1379.90 1379.90 25.03Distances 1 34711.65 34711.65 629.67Species × Season 3 18.66 6.22 0.11Species × Distance 3 2561.86 853.95 15.49Distance × Seasons 1 1202.25 1202.25 21.81Species × Distance ×Seasons 3 13.95 4.65 0.08Error 45 2480.70 55.13

APPENDIX-II

Analysis of variance table for Ascorbic acid content (mg g-1)

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 13.81 4.60 161.79Season 1 0.78 0.78 27.47Distances 1 3.79 3.79 133.32Species × Season 3 0.05 0.02 0.61Species × Distance 3 0.69 0.23 8.06Distance × Seasons 1 0.01 0.01 0.23Species × Distance × Seasons 3 0.08 0.03 0.98Error 45 1.28 0.03

APPENDIX-III

Analysis of variance table for Chlorophyll content (mg g-1)

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 2.18 0.73 13.15Season 1 2.36 2.36 42.60Distances 1 1.87 1.87 33.80Species × Season 3 0.10 0.04 0.63Species × Distance 3 0.81 0.27 4.85Distance × Seasons 1 0.01 0.01 0.13Species × Distance × Seasons 3 0.01 0.00 0.08Error 45 2.49 0.06

ii

APPENDIX-IV

Analysis of variance table for Leaf extract pH

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 9.54 3.18 46.64Season 1 2.85 2.85 41.75Distances 1 5.85 5.85 85.82Species × Season 3 0.08 0.03 0.38Species × Distance 3 0.51 0.17 2.48Distance × Seasons 1 0.09 0.09 1.26Species × Distance × Seasons 3 0.10 0.03 0.47Error 45 3.07 0.07

APPENDIX-V

Analysis of variance table for Relative water content (mg g-1)

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 463.96 154.65 192.71Season 1 545.33 545.33 679.51Distances 1 233.44 233.44 290.88Species × Season 3 43.46 14.49 18.05Species × Distance 3 4.52 1.51 1.88Distance × Seasons 1 5.17 5.17 6.44Species × Distance × Seasons 3 8.45 2.82 3.51Error 45 36.11 0.80

APPENDIX-VI

Analysis of variance table for APTI

Source of variation df Sum of square Mean squares F- CalculatedSpecies 3 20.29 6.76 375.66Season 1 7.88 7.88 437.87Distances 1 5.61 5.61 311.38Species × Season 3 0.53 0.18 9.82Species × Distance 3 0.07 0.02 1.29Distance × Seasons 1 0.10 0.10 5.76Species × Distance × Seasons 3 0.30 0.10 5.54Error 45 0.81 0.02

64

Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and ForestryNauni-173 230, Solan (H.P.)

Department of Environmental Science

Title of Thesis : “Assessment of air pollution tolerance index of plantsgrowing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib NationalHighway (NH-7) in Himachal Pradesh”

Name of the Student : Jyotsana PanditAdmission Number : F-2014-18-MMajor Discipline : Environmental ScienceMinor Discipline : i) Plant Physiology

ii) Soil ScienceDate of submission : 19.08.2016

No. of Pages in Thesis : 64+ii

Major Advisor : Dr. Anil Sood

ABSTRACT

The present investigations entitled “Assessment of air pollution tolerance index of plants growingalongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway(NH-7) in Himachal Pradesh” were conducted during2015-2016 in the Department of Environmental Science, Dr. Y.S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,Nauni, Himachal Pradesh. These studies were aimed at understanding the seasonal variation in biochemicalparameters and determining the indices of Air Pollution Tolerance and Anticipated Performance along with dustaccumulation capacity of plants growing alongside Markanda to Paonta Sahib National Highway (NH-7). In theselected stretch of the Highway vegetation distribution was studied by quadrat method. The commonly occurringfour plants species namely, Ficus roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Shorea robusta and Woodfordia fruticosa wereselected for the study. In order to study the impact of vehicular activities on the plants, the horizontal distances of 0-10 m and 10-20 m were selected and two seasons viz. post-monsoon (October-November) and pre-monsoon (Apriland May) were considered. In total, there were 16 treatment combinations which were replicated four times underRBD (Factorial). The dust accumulation of the selected plant species ranged from 1.28 -71.06 mg m-2. Order ofselected plant species according to dust accumulation was F. roxburghii (38.30mg m-2) > S. robusta (26.94 mg m-2)> M. philippensis (22.31 mg m-2) > W. fruticosa (16.70mg m-2). Dust accumulation was higher in pre monsoon(30.70 mg g-2) and lower in post monsoon season (21.42 mg g-2). Plants growing at a distance of 0-10 m from theHighway accumulated higher dust as compared to those at a distance of 10-20 m. The ascorbic acid content ofselected plant species varied from 0.96- 2.67 mg g-1. The chlorophyll content in the leaves of selected plant speciesranged from 0.82-1.82 mg g-1. The leaf extract pH of plants varied from 5.17-6.68. The relative water content of theselected plant species ranged from 78.77-90.64%. The APTI was calculated on the basis of four biochemicalparameters like ascorbic acid content, total chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH and relative water content. Bycombining resultant APTI with some relevant biological and socio economic characters Anticipated PerformanceIndex (API) was calculated for the selected plant species. The order of tolerance of selected plant species was S.robusta (10.28) > F. roxburghii (9.51) > W. fruticosa (8.92) > M. philippensis (8.91). The highest APTI wasobserved in the post monsoon season (9.76) followed by pre monsoon season (9.05). The selected plant speciesgrowing at a horizontal distance of 0-10 m from National Highway were observed to have higher values (9.70) ascompared to those at a distance of 10-20 m (9.11). The relatively higher APTI value of S. robusta as compared toother species indicated its tolerance to pollution along the Highway. The assessment of the API with respect to theselected plant species was observed to fall in the range of not recommended category to the best one. S. robusta withhigher APTI and API has been identified as suitable plant for plantation along the Markanda to Paonta SahibNational Highway to filter the air pollution and reduce its impact on human health.

Signature of Student Signature of Major AdvisorJyotsana Pandit Dr. Anil Sood

Countersigned

Professor and HeadDepartment of Environmental Science

Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and ForestryNauni-173 230, Solan (H.P.)

BRIEF BIO-DATA

Name : Jyotsana Pandit

Father’s Name : Sh Rajinder dutt Sharma

Mother’s Name : Smt. Pushpa Sharma

Date of Birth : 22 February 1993

Permanent Address : PWD Colony, Nahan, Distt Sirmour (HP) -

173001

Educational qualifications:

Certificate/degree

Month &Year

School/College

Board/University

Marks(%)

Division

Matriculation

10+2

B. Sc. (Forestry)

March, 2008

March, 2010

June, 2014

CCSS, Nahan

CCSS, Nahan

Dr. YSP UHFNauni

ICSE

ISC

Dr.YSPUHFNauni

82.00%

81.20%

79.30%

First

First

First

Scholarship/ Stipend/ Fellowship, any : ScholarshipOther financial assistance received duringthe study period

(Jyotsana Pandit)