Assignment on Linear Programming Chart

NICMAR

ASSIGNMENT

ON

LINEAR PROGRAMMING CHART

PRESENTED BY :

PATEL JAYENDRA - 231133

PATEL SHILPAN - 231134

SHEKHAR JHA - 231077

VISHRUT KALMANDE - 231082

TAPAS GANGULY - 231114

ASSIGNMENT

CONTENTS

I. LINEAR SCHEDUALING METHOD

1. HISTORY

2. INTRODUCTION

3. HOW LSM IS DIFFERENT

4. FEATURES

5. LIMITATIONS

6. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

7. DIFFERENCE OF LSM AND NETWORK ANALYSIS

8. NON-LINEAR AND DESCRETE CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

9. BIBLOGRAPHY

LINEAR PROGRAMMIMING CHART Page 2

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LINEAR PROGRAMMING CHART

HISTORY

The LPC method of scheduling is well suited to projects that are composed of

activities of a linear and repetitive nature. The objective of this study is to set down the basic

principles that can be used in the development of a computerized LPC scheduling system that

overcomes the problems associated with existing systems and creates solutions to problems

encountered in the implementation of repetitive-unit construction. The challenges associated

with LPC scheduling include developing an algorithm that handles project acceleration

efficiently and accurately, recognizing time and space dependencies, calculating LPC

quantities, dealing with resource and milestone constraints, incorporating the occasional

nonlinear and discrete activities, defining a radically new concept of criticalness, including

the effect of the learning curve, developing an optimal strategy to reduce project duration by

increasing the rate of production of selected activities, performing cost optimization, and

improving the visual presentation of LPC diagrams.

In simple terms, the time chainage diagram, or location time chart

refer to by Cormican (1985), is combination of bar chart and line of balance scheduling

formats and it is from these programming techniques that time chainage principles have been

developed. The time chainage form of presentation enables the time dependencies between

activities to be shown together with their order and direction of progress along the job. These

diagrams are most usefully employed as the planning tool on projects such as motorways and

major highway works, pipelines, railway track work, tunnelling etc. Project of this nature can

be viewed as mainly linear in nature. In other words construction starts at one point and

proceeds in an orderly fashion towards another location. This would be typified on a highway

project by activities such as fencing, drainage, road surfacing, and road marking. To some

extent this type of work calls for a different planning technique because bar charts would not

be useful in giving locational information and precedence/ arrow diagrams would not reflect

the time /location relation ship which clearly exists on such projects. In this respect, most


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operations take place on a forward travel bases with the gang starting at one point or chainage

and moving along the job. As one activity leaves a particular location then other activities can

take their place. This ensures the correct construction sequence and avoids over intensive

activity in one location.

Linear construction consists of a group of operations that involve

repetitive ‘‘units’’ of construction elements. Highways, high-rise buildings, tunnels, and

pipelines are good examples that exhibit repetitive characteristics where the same basic unit is

repeated several times. Multiple-dwelling, multiple-floor, or linearly progressive

projects allow construction to proceed in a repetitive fashion, allowing for

cost and time efficiencies. To achieve these possible efficiencies, it is necessary to balance the

crews. By such scheduling, a construction manager achieves continuity in the placement of all

repetitive elements, thus maximizing the productivity of labor and equipment ~Ashley 1980!.

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS LINEAR SCHEDULING?

Linear scheduling is a unique means of resources leveling or allocation with a simple

graphic display of time-space interaction. This technique is known by a number of other titles,

including the vertical production method, time-space scheduling method and repetitive-unit

construction. The term linear scheduling has become more widely accepted in recent years.

The exact origin of linear scheduling is unknown, but it stems from efforts in

manufacturing work to prevent delays or bottlenecks. In the manufacturing industry a related

scheduling technique is more widely known as the line of balance.

The development of a linear schedule for a project is similar to any other scheduling

process. The first three steps, familiar to most scheduler, are:

1. Identify activities.

2. Estimate activity production rates.

3. Develop activity sequence.


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In accomplishing these three steps, one must determine whether the linear schedule

method is the most appropriate. As a rule, the project will work well in linear sched¬uling it

the vast majority of the activities can be grouped as a family of repetitive and nearly identical

tasks. The activities should be defined in a level of detail comparable to that found on a bar

chart.

The fundamental aspects of the use of linear schedules eta fee described

Through the use of some examples. Figure 14.3 shows a simple linear schedule that Consists

of the layout of the centerline of the fence; Activity B consists of auguring the post holes,

installing the posts and attaching the boards; and Activity C consists of painting the fence. In

Figure 14.3, the vertical axis represents the station position or distance along the fence. Since

the horizontal axis is lime, the slope of the activities represents the rate of production

(distance/time). That is, the steeper the

Slope, the faster the activity is accomplished. In this example, it should be obvious

That erecting the fence itself will take longer than laying out fence or painting the fence.


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As noted earlier, with the linear schedule there is no need to think in terms of an early-

start schedule or a late-start schedule. Rather, the linear schedule is generally more akin to the

expected schedule, which is some form of compromise between the early and late schedules,

is the linear schedule deterministic or probabilistic? At first glance, the linear schedule would

appear to be deterministic; however, a closer examination will reveal that it too is a reflection

of the probabilistic approach.

It display time and space graphically on the same instrument. This allows the cost

engineer to visually deconflict production activities on the project space representation.

Additionally, instead of being activity-based, they are production- based and allow the cost

engineer to synchronize the schedule with the same assumed production rates that were used

in the project cost estimate. This furnishes a method for seamlessly transitioning from project

planning to project execution schedules.

HOW LPC IS DIFFERENT

“Linear schedules are simple charts that show both when and where a given work

activity will take place. Because they put time and space together on one chart, linear

schedules allow us to see how the pieces of the project fit together. Enhanced with color,

varying shades, or patterns they also communicate types of work and crew movement. This

is something neither bar charts nor CPM schedules can do....”


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All the interviewees agreed that LSM scheduling is superior to the

CPM when scheduling projects of a repetitive nature; and these projects capitalize and make

use of many of LSM scheduling benefits. One of the interviewees explained how in repetitive

projects, LSM scheduling is more beneficial in areas like managing the project resources,

visualization of the project schedule, creating schedules more efficiently, managing and

updating the schedule, and decreasing the chance of scheduling errors. He believes that for

projects of a non-repetitive nature, CPM and LSM are equally suitable and usable. Another

interviewee believed that scheduling projects with a less percentage of repeated activities is

one of the weaknesses of LSM scheduling. Even though, it is possible to schedule them using

LSM, he still faced hardships doing so. A scheduling practitioner commented that LSM

scheduling is more practical when used to schedule projects with a repetitive nature, however

on other types of projects LSM loses many of its advantages. Another scheduling practitioner

discussed how the LSM technique is better in scheduling repetitive and non-repetitive projects

alike, because it allows for easier tracking of productivity rates through inspection of the

scheduled activities‟ slopes. Furthermore, he discussed how LSM permits enhanced

management and tracking of sub-contractors' work on the project site. The academician

explained how the strength of LSM is its ability to schedule repeated activities with the same

crews or resources over various locations, and if the repetition of the activities did not exist,

then LSM scheduling loses its edge. The academician stated “If you don’t have a lot of

repetitive activities, than Line of Balance doesn’t make sense, because its strength is in how

you could optimize your resources over different locations or zones. If I've got a project

where each crew is only going to do one thing and show up one time, than Linear scheduling

method doesn’t make much sense. I can just use a CPM and optimize the use of my

resources.”

FEATURES OF LPC

The study also attempted to investigate various advantages and limitations of applying

LSM scheduling to construction projects, and how it compares with CPM. Some of LSM

scheduling advantages discussed by the interviewees are listed below:


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Clearly shows the amount of work taking place in a certain area at a specific

time of the project.

Has the ability to show and optimize the resources used for large number of

repeated activities, executed in several zones or locations.

Easier cost and time optimization analysis because of all the information

available for each activity in the project.

Ease of setup and its superior presentation and visualization.

Easier to modify, update and change the schedule.

Better managing of all the various sub-contractors in the project.

Allows for simpler and clearer resource management and resource

optimization functions.

Better consideration of the site space which enhances the management of the

crews and resources involved in a certain spot at a certain time of the project.

Visualization of productivity and location of crews.

Generates schedule forecasts, based on the information of the “actual built”

productivity rates.

The major disadvantages they discussed include: the difficulty to schedule soft

activities (like procurement or milestones activities), activities could only be divided by

locations and not by systems or any other classification or grouping, and LSM scheduling

inability to generate a clear critical path for the project. Below, is a table presenting the

interviewees comments and opinions regarding the limitations of LSM scheduling.

In the case of projects which are mainly containing the repetitive kind of activities, the

precedence diagram in the figure below shows the comparison between the LSM and Activity

based diagram.

In the below diagram the work of simple multistoried building frame is shown in

figure.


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Another comparison is shown in Figure 14.2 where a simple highway is presented as a

precedence diagram and also as a linear schedule. The precedence diagram shows a finish-to-

start relationship between activities, while the linear schedule not exhibit such a clear

distinction between the completion of one activity and the of the next. It should become clear

that the linear schedule is a more accurate portrayal of the actual construction of the highway.

For example, there will be a point in the last portion of the fill work is being done that

finishing grading is well underway and paving work will have started. There are other

differences between precedence diagram and linear scheduling. While the precedence diagram

may use the beginning of-day convention this has no meaning in the linear schedule. Since the

project duration is shown as a continuum in the linear schedule, there is no need to think in

terms of beginning-of-day or end-of –day convention as the entire day is portrayed in the

linear schedule.

Where is the critical path in the linear schedule? This is not an easy question to

answer. The linear schedule itself does not identity the critical activities, in linear schedules,

the level of detail is such that most, of the activities, will be critical In the example only two

activities are not critical, namely,, striping the pavement and performing the signage work,

These activities will take place as the landscape work is performed.


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a graphic depiction of the float. What does the vertical distance between two contiguous

activities represent? It simply represents the physical distance between two activities at a point in

time, also known as a space buffer. It essentially shows how close together two contiguous

activities are. A vertical line extended fully through the linear schedule at any selected time

represented on the horizontal axis will intersect all activities that are scheduled to occur

at the time. It is worthwhile to examine this relationship. Even if an activity has ample float, the

operation of one activity might be too close to another operation to effectively accomplish both at

the same time. Considerably below that which is anticipated and at other times will far exceed

the expected production rate? It is practical to portray it as a straight line and include a

sufficient time buffer to accommodate for the hour-to-hour or day-to-day fluctuations in

productivity.


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As shown in Figure 14.3, the horizontal distance between two activities is a graphic

representation of the free float of the earlier activity at that location. It is evident that the float for

the activity may change for different locations along the fence. The layout work must begin

promptly so that the fence installation can commence. At this point in time (start of the layout

work), the layout activity has very little float, but as the layout work nears completion, its float is

considerable. Thus, the layout work must begin promptly in order to keep the project on schedule,

while a delay at layout completion may not have an adverse impact on the project duration.

Once the linear schedule format is understood, it is easy to grasp the nature of a project. As

mentioned, the horizontal distance between two contiguous activities is a graphic depiction of the

float. What does the vertical distance between two contiguous activities represent? It simply represents

the physical distance between two activities at a point in time, also known as a space buffer. It

essentially shows how close together two contiguous activities are. A vertical line extended fully

through the linear schedule at any selected time represented on the horizontal axis will


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intersect all activities that are scheduled to occur at the time. It is worthwhile to examine this

relationship. Even if an activity has ample float, the operation of one activity might be too close to

another operation to effectively accomplish both at the same time.

Conflict between the activities would indicate that two activities are occurring

concurrently at the same location, generally an irreconcilable conflict (see Figure 14.4). It should be

evident that there might be some activities that might actually appear to be able to occur at the same

place at the same time. For example, one activity might show that the sign-age is being installed at a

particular station or location along a roadway. Another activity, painting the centerline stripe of the

roadway, might take place at the same station at the same time. While these activities might actually

cross when portrayed on a linear schedule, in reality they are not in conflict. It is only because of

the lack of sufficient detail that there is a visual, but no actual, conflict.

One interesting feature of linear schedules is their simplicity. It is easy to grasp the

operations that are taking place and it is also easy to see the impact of making modifications to the

schedule. For example, suppose it is desirable for the fence project to be completed earlier than

originally scheduled. The activity that warrants immediate focus is the fence construction activity,

as this activity (Activity B) essentially drives the schedule (see Figure 14.3). One way that the


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schedule can be reduced is to add a second crew for this activity. This second crew will begin the

work later than the first crew and it will begin at a considerable distance from the first crew. The

schedule compression is readily observable when this is done (see Figure 14.5). Note that

Activity B now appears as two different activities that have the same production rate as seen by the

slope of the line.

LPC LIMITATIONS:

The early start and finish times in the first and last units should be calculated for each and

every activity on all possible paths between the origin and terminal nodes of the unit network.

To do this, an LPC analysis must be conducted in the following way.

Once the first activity in the first unit starts at time zero, the production rate of the

succeeding activity should be compared with that of the first activity. If the production rate of

the first activity is faster than that of the succeeding activity, the succeeding activity in the

first unit can start right after the first activity in the first unit is finished. Otherwise, the

succeeding activity cannot start until sufficient lead time is provided, to prevent a conflict in

the logical relationship between the two activities. Therefore, the early start time of the

succeeding activity of the first unit can be derived from the early start time of the succeeding

activity in the last unit, which can start right after the first activity in the last unit is finished .

The same procedure can be applied to all of the consecutive activities, until the early start and

finish times of all activities in every path are determined in every unit. If there is an activity

that belongs to more than one path, it is called a bottleneck activity. The start time of this

activity is the latest one among the early start times that are obtained by analyzing the

different paths. Paths that share a bottleneck activity should be appropriately adjusted

according to the bottleneck activity’s start and finish times.

Dealing with Constraints

Successful scheduling should include proper sequencing of activities, comprehensive

understanding of interdependent activities, and flexible linking of services that flow


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simultaneously. The resource requirements for each activity are to be analyzed and estimated,

preferably in detail. If resources are limited, the activity start and finish times and the

resource-based logic may be changed because resource analysis.

Resource Aggregations

The distribution of resources during the course of the project is of particular importance to

construction managers. Not only do managers have to make sure that the resources they

allocate to the activities do not exceed availabilities, but they would also want to see as

smooth a distribution as possible in order to avoid the disruption of hiring and firing crews

during the course of the project. The proposed approach that is borrowed from work allows

for the generation of resource histograms superimposed on LPC diagrams. The resource

distribution for a single activity is presented. The area under the histogram represents the

man-hours ~or equipment hours! necessary to perform that activity. It should be possible to

combine distributions plotted for individual activities that make use of the same type of

resource and plot a single histogram that shows the distribution of that particular type of

resource over the life of the project.

Resource Limitations

To produce a realistic schedule, it is necessary to incorporate into the system a

procedure that can handle resource constraints that may exist in some activities. In that

respect, the activities that are performed by the same crew or equipment should be identified.

Those activities cannot be carried out simultaneously because of their exclusive use of the

same crew or equipment. The LPC analysis should be modified when determining the start

and finish times of these activities. Regardless of rates of production, the start time of such an

activity in the first unit should be determined by calculating the finish time of the preceding

activity ~that makes use of the same resources! in the last unit. The concept of the modified

LPC analysis.

Contractual Milestones


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In addition to limited resources, contractual milestones can be important parameters to

be considered in scheduling a project using the LPC technique. If the completion date of a

particular activity and/or of a particular unit is specified in the contract, this

information should be taken into consideration in LPC calculations. Since the target rate of a

project has little meaning in LPC calculations, scheduling capabilities that can meet the

requirements of partial delivery are essential. The proposed procedure of incorporating

milestones in LPC calculations makes use of an optimization process that compresses

activities. Once an optimized schedule is obtained that satisfies the contract duration, the

calculated date of the milestone activity is compared with the required milestone on the

specified unit. If any compression is required, the production rates of relevant activities

preceding the milestone activity are accelerated

until the requirement is met. The activities succeeding the milestone activity are not

considered in the optimization process performed on a time basis.

Resource Limitations

To produce a realistic schedule, it is necessary to incorporate into the system a

procedure that can handle resource constraints that may exist in some activities. In that

respect, the activities that are performed by the same crew or equipment should be identified.

Those activities cannot be carried out simultaneously because of their exclusive use of the

same crew or equipment. The LSM analysis should be modified when determining the start

and finish times of these activities. Regardless of rates of production, the start time of such an

activity in the first unit should be determined by calculating the finish time of the preceding

activity ~that makes use of the same resources! in the last unit.

Resource Aggregation

The distribution of resources during the course of the project is of Particular

importance to construction managers. Not only do managers have to make sure that the

resources they allocate to the activities do not exceed availabilities, but they would also want


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to see as smooth a distribution as possible in order to avoid the disruption of hiring and firing

crews during the course of the project.

Interdependencies among Activities

LSM scheduling can be performed easily, based on a combination of network

technology and the basic concept of LSM. Usually, a network diagram called the ‘‘unit

network’’ is prepared to represent the logical sequences of individual activities in one of the

many units to be produced. This unit network shows the interrelationships and/or

interdependencies among activities ~Fig. 2!. However, organizing activities in a chronological

order is not always adequate in representing interdependencies. Sometimes, special

characteristics of particular activities can also have a crucial impact in defining

interdependencies among activities. For example, when using the time data generated by a

unit network, the use of early starts ~or late starts! across the board for all activities without

exception may create workflow problems. Care must be taken to make sure that network

floats are not used arbitrarily or indiscriminately in the preparation of the LSM schedule. The

following are two special cases that illustrate this condition.

Time Dependency

When an activity must be carried out right after the preceding activity, these

two activities are characterized as activities with time dependency. In highway projects, for

example, primecoating activities should immediately follow the sweeping of the base course.

Therefore, a time-dependent activity does not have the freedom to be performed at its own

rate of production. Its rate of production is governed by the rate of production of its time

dependent counterpart activity. In LSM calculations, time-dependent activities should be

assigned the same rate of production in order not to provide an undesirable time gap between

the two activities as the number of units increases. The unified rate of production of time

dependent activities can be decided by taking the production rate of whichever of the two

activities is the dominant one. The other activity whose rate of production is adjusted will

inevitably suffer idle times for its crews and/or equipment, since the adjusted rate of

production will cease being a multiple of its natural rhythm


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Space Dependency

The phenomenon of space dependency is encountered mainly in high-rise building

construction. The typical example for this kind of dependency is the sequence formwork-

reinforcements concrete. These three activities have to proceed at rates of production that are

very close to each other, and yet the precedence relationships have to be strictly adhered to.

Otherwise, schedulers run the risk of prescribing formwork on the upper floor while the

concrete on the lower floor has not been poured yet. In this case, a dependent activity does not

have the freedom to be performed at its own rate of production and will have to wait until the

other dependent activities within the same unit are completed. It is therefore inevitable that

space-dependent activities have idle time.

In LSM calculations, the individual space-dependent activities should be considered as

a combined activity whose unit duration is calculated by adding up the unit duration of each

space dependent activity.

ADVANTAGES OF LPC:

The advantages of LPC Technique are:

1. Clearly shows the amount of work taking place in a certain area at a specific time of

the project.

2. Has the ability to show and optimize the resources used for large number of repeated

activities, executed in several zones or locations.

3. Easier cost and time optimization analysis because of all the information available for each

activity in the project.

4. Ease of setup and its superior presentation and visualization.

5. Easier to modify, update and change the schedule.


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6. Better managing of all the various sub-contractors in the project.

7. Allows for simpler and clearer resource management and resource optimization functions.

8. Better consideration of the site space which enhances the management of the crews and

resources involved in a certain spot at a certain time of the project.

9. Visualization of productivity and location of crews.

10. Generates schedule forecasts, based on the information of the “actual built” productivity

rates.

DISADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF LPC:

1. Inability to generate a clear critical path of the project schedule relative to one provided by CPM schedules.

2. It can only be divided by location.

3. In CPM scheduling the user could divide project by location and other systems like trades, in LOB only location.

4. Productivity rates in LOB schedule do not include the effect of crews‟ learning curve, or if the individuals working in the crews changed.

COMPARISON BETWEEN LPC & NETWORK ANALYSIS:

Technique Planning uses Programme uses Progress Control Uses

LOB Repetitive work (Houses, Precast Concrete production, Multi storey buildings)

1) Good communicating tool2) Demonstrates trade interference

1) Useful planning tool2) Difficult to show a lot of detail clearly3) Illustrates general pace of work and trade interference

Network Analysis

1) Project Management2) Contracts3) Design Management

1) Poor communicating tool2) In network form3) Usually converted to bar chart for general use

1) Powerful controlling tool for large numbers of contractors 2) Forms basis of computer.

EFFECT OF LEARNING IN LPC S CHEDULING:


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Learning rates are generated by modifying historical learning rates of typical construction

activities and by incorporating the impact of relevant factors such as number of operations in

one unit, activity complexity, and job and management conditions. Fuzzy set theory is used

to develop production rules to treat both factual and uncertain information. An S-type

membership function is used to interpret the fuzzy data and to produce adjustment factors that

are in turn used to modify consecutive learning rates until an adjusted learning rate is

obtained. The adjusted learning rate is then used to calculate expected worker-hours and

activity durations at each unit. A final LPC diagram is generated using this information.

Different pairs of curves represent the start and the finish times of each activity in sets of units

that make use of different numbers of crews. Learning reduces project duration and resource

requirements. The proposed approach demonstrates the potential for formalizing the

inclusion of learning effects into the LPC scheduling of repetitive-unit construction.

NONLINEAR AND DISCRETE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS:

Repetitive construction process may contain some nonlinear and non-repetitive (discrete)

activities.

(a) Nonlinear activities

In a high way project, earthwork will vary from section to section due to differences in the

terrain, which is defined by nonlinearity in most literatures. A nonlinear activity is

characterized by repetitive operation where the output of operations is not uniform at every

unit. The nonlinear activities cannot be treated like the linear and repetitive activities in LOB

calculations because the outputs in these activities differ from unit to unit.

(b) Discrete activities


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In a high way pavement project, the posting of the occasional sign structure is de fined a

discrete activity, which does not repeat itself in every unit. The discrete portions of the project

cannot be scheduled directly by the LOB method either, because these activities are not

included in the typical network. Yet, both nonlinear and discrete activities may interfere with

the scheduling of adjacent activities and, consequently, with the critical. Therefore, the

schedule of the entire project cannot be produced until these nonlinear and discrete activities

are scheduled and coordinated with the linear and repetitive.

CONCLUSION

The research has shown that most of the Line of Balance (LOB) scheduling

practitioners interviewed are satisfied with the scheduling technique and prefer using it over

the Critical Path Method (CPM). They all discussed a myriad of LOB scheduling advantages

and demonstrated how it helps in improving the planning and managing processes of

construction projects. LOB scheduling is effective in applying changes in job progress,

resource allocations, performing schedule changes efficiently, and simplicity and clarity of the

whole project schedule. They also discussed how, after some study of the schedule, the user

should be able to understand the flow of work through the project and comprehend the

reasoning for performing the work in the illustrated manner. Most of these advantages were

part of the scheduling practitioners‟ experience and were mentioned in their replies to the

interview questions.

BIBLOGRAPHY

Harmelink, D. J., and Rowings, J. E. ~1998!. ‘‘Linear scheduling model: Development of controlling activity path.’’ J. Constr. Eng. Manage.,124~4!, 263–268

D.B. Ashley, "Simulation of Repetitive-Unit Construction," J. Constr. Div.,ASCE, Vol. 106 (2), pp. 185-194 (1980).S.M. Hafez, “Survey of the-State-of-the-Art: Scheduling Projects with Repetitive Construction Process,” AlexandriaEngineering Journal, Egypt, Vol. 43 (4)(2004).

Lutz, J. D., and Halpin, D. W. ~1992!. ‘‘Analyzing linear construction operations using simulation and line-of-balance.’’ Proc., Transportation Research Board 71st Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Record 1351, Transportation Research Board, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 48–56.

Moselhi, O., and El-Rayes, K. ~1993!. ‘‘Scheduling of repetitive projects with cost optimization.’’ J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 119~4!,681–697.


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Thabet, W. Y., and Beliveau, Y. J. ~1994!. ‘‘HVLS: Horizontal and vertical logic scheduling for multistory projects.’’ J. Constr. Eng. Manage.,120~4!, 875–892.


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NATIONAL INSTITTE OF CONSTRUCTION

MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH


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Assignment on Linear Programming Chart