AUTHOR - Amazon S3 · 2016-04-19 · hardships, strife, and abuses. The encomienda system, established by the Spaniards was under the false pretence of Christianizing and making the

The Dutch Relationship with the Amerindians in Guiana during the 18th Century By Carlene R. Bascom

April 19th 2016 Page 1 of 15

TITLE

The Dutch Relationship with the Amerindians in Guiana during the 18th Century.

AUTHOR

Ms. Carlene R. Bascom

Indigenous People Studies Course, University of Guyana

Date: December 9th, 2009; Revised: April 19th, 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author (Carlene R. Bascom) would like to firstly give praise and thanks to Almighty God for

His strength, wisdom, guidance, patience, and love, without which, nothing is possible. Secondly,

I would like to express special thanks to my Parents and Brother for their constant support,

guidance, and encouragement in all endeavours I pursue. Finally, I extend gratitude to the

dedicated Lecturers and Teachers along the way, for the knowledge and educational principles

they have imparted in me.

ABSTRACT

The relations with the Native Amerindian people of the Newly discovered world was marked by

large population decline of the Natives due to epidemics, enslavement, abuses, hardships, strife

and a forced change in their cultural identity by the conquering Spanish colonist in the Region at

that time. Unlike the Spaniards, the Dutch chose a different path; they were not interested in

imposing their Christian religion on the Natives. Rather the relationship fostered by the Dutch with

the Native Amerindian people, through the implementation of the Dutch Friendly Policy, was

critical to the Dutch survival at the time. The policy was crucial, as the Dutch faced a number of

issues that threatened the survival of their colony from hunger and starvation initially, to the



development of a plantation economy, and the insurmountable threat of external incursion and

internal uprising by the neighbouring Spanish and enslaved Africans respectively. In addition, the

relationship they fostered was not that of a conquering Nation demanding service, but rather the

relationship was a beneficial alliance between both Nations.

Keywords: Dutch, Amerindians, Relation, Guiana (Guyana)

INTRODUCTION

During the colonial period in the region, the Europeans through their contact with the Amerindians

have in one form or another affected the Amerindian Societies (aka Nation). This impact felt by

the Amerindian people was most notably that of rapid population decline. Overall, with a careful

examination of the European /Amerindian Relations, striking differences amongst the Europeans

were apparent. Case in point, for instance, the Natives resisted the Spanish due to their encomienda

system in comparison to the Dutch friendly policy with the Natives. This act of resistance clearly

shows rebellion by the Native Amerindian people to the system imposed on them by the Spaniards

Under the encomienda system, the encomendero essentially owned the Amerindian people1,

whereby the Natives endured forced labour, loss of liberty etc., and as a result faced tremendous

hardships, strife, and abuses. The encomienda system, established by the Spaniards was under the

false pretence of Christianizing and making the Amerindians “civilised” noting, that at the point

in time, the Native Amerindians were considered primitive people.2 In actual reality, the Spaniards

were exploiting the Natives for their own self-interest.

1 Menezes, Sr. Mary, The Amerindian, and European revised edition, Georgetown, Red Thread Women’s Press,

1993, p. 61. 2 Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindian in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, London, Frankcass, 1979 p.

xvii.



However, in comparison the Dutch pushed their friendly policy in Guiana with the intention to

foster alliances and trade with the Amerindians. Despite the implementation of the policy, the

Dutch initially engaged in Amerindian Slavery. In addition, close contact with the Dutch had other

impacts on the Amerindian society, such as the development of dependence. Overall, the

Amerindian culture despite these influences generally remained intact due to the Dutch Nation not

imposing their ways on them.3

The good Dutch relations with the Amerindian Nation fostered and helped in the overall

development of the Dutch colonies [which was a necessity for Dutch Survival at the time]. To

better understand and appreciate the great value, or rather how vital the Dutch policy was, it is

important to note and refer to the fact that the British adopted the friendly policy on gaining control

of Dutch territories.4

Therefore, this paper will attempt to convey that the Dutch Strategic Approach with the

Amerindians was vital for the Survival of the Dutch.

Theme: Friendly Strategy begets Alliance Ensuring Survival

The Dutch arrived in the Guiana territory during the late 16th Century and their early settlement

were small among the large Amerindian population, with an estimate of 5000-6000 Natives for

just Berbice (excluding Corentyne Caribs etc.).5 Therefore, we can insinuate the extent of the

Amerindian population in the territory overall, which the Dutch upon their settlement of Guiana

would have determined and weighed the pros and cons. This conveys the point that conquering the

3 Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, Barbados West Indies, Caribbean

Research and Publications Inc., 1987 p. 191. 4 Granvesande, Caesar, ‘Amerindian Jurisdiction in the Guiana Territory in the 17th and 18th Centuries’, History

Gazette #44, Turkeyen, May 1992 p. 1. 5 Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during

the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Guyana Historical Journal Vol. IV and V, Georgetown, 1992-1993 p. 1.



Amerindians would not have been an option for the Dutch, due to the circumstances and

vulnerability on the part of the Dutch. Notably, considering the provision of food, threats from

Spanish invasion, and later revolts from the enslaved Africans to name a few. As a result, the early

Dutch settlers became more and more dependent on the Amerindians for their survival, initially,

by the Natives’ provision of food such as cassava, crabs, turtles to name a few.6

Trade between Nations

The need for provisions from the Amerindians, in fact fostered TRADE development between the

two nations (Dutch and Amerindian Societies). This necessity indicates that trade was critical to

early colonial activities, as the Dutch recognised its economic viability7 and at the same time the

concept of exports. Consequently, due to trade, the Dutch received (Native) Indian commodities

in exchange for European goods.8

The Dutch, because of the trade with the Amerindians received besides food, hammocks, annatto

dye (critical for exports),9 letter-wood, canoes, oriane paint, red slaves, maraan oil,10 crab oil,

balsam copaiba, timber planks, parrots, to name a few. In exchange, the Amerindians received

mirrors, beads, axes, choppers, knives, razors, combs, iron arrowhead,11 hardware, copperware,

fishhooks, glass, textiles, kilthum (rum) to name a few. This established trade was through the

intricate system of ‘Uitlopers’ (outrunners) and Uitleggers’ (outlyers).12

6 Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during

the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 2. 7 Ibid, p. 4. 8 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, New Hampshire, Van Goreum and

Comp., 1985 p. 432. 9 Simmons, Terrence, ‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday October 25th, 1991 p. 5. 10 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 432. 11 Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 4. 12 Cornelis Golinga, op.cit., p. 432.



As stated before, trade in Red slaves was common initially, although the Dutch recognised the

Amerindians as ‘Free people’ in the 1688 ordinance for Berbice.13 To be more specific the

ordinance applied mainly to the Caribs, Arawaks, Waraus, and Akawaios (the tribes that initially

had greater contact with the Dutch).14 In other words, this indicated that, if the Dutch did not

recognise an individual or group of people, that particular group legally were slaves by law.

On the other hand, despite allowing trade in red slaves (Natives not recognised by law), the Dutch

treaded cautiously concerning red slaves. The reason being, all of the trade practically depended

on the good will of the (Native) Indians and freedom from internal conflict.15 Hence, the Dutch

settlers did not want to antagonise the Native Amerindians. Therefore, due to this concern, Hendrik

Rol (1670) issued a regulation prohibiting the purchase of red slaves without first appearing before

him.16 The regulation attempted to regulate the trade in Red slaves by the requirement of

authorisation.

Dutch Jurisdiction

Dutch JURISDICTION (or influence) penetrated a wide area of the Guiana colonies, because of

trade and the establishment of post-holders at distinct locations, which the British later mapped

and defined in the 19th Century. What was striking about jurisdiction was the actual

misunderstanding about the Dutch influence with the natives. That misunderstanding was in terms

of the indictment of the (Native) Indians’ recognition of Dutch authority as the protectorate, and

as a consequence the Dutch assumed responsibility of being protectors of the Indians.’17 In reality

13 Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during

the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 9. 14 Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 9. 15 Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 434. 16 Ibid, p. 432. 17 Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 198.



however, it was the Dutch who needed the protection of the Amerindians from the threat of

Spanish invasion, from the maroons and even from hunger (as mentioned earlier by facilitating

trade in goods) and not the (Native) Indians. Hence, the Dutch depended on the (Native) Indians

and not the (Native) Indians on the Dutch.18 Consequently, the relationship between the Dutch and

Natives was that of an Alliance, rather than control by the Dutch.

Understandably however, at that point in time the viewpoint of most Europeans was, if ‘I occupy,

I control’. The Dutch therefore tried to establish this view in their relations with the Amerindians

even if they did not administer the area.19 Despite this, Dutch correspondence has even implied

that the Dutch depended on the assistance of the Natives, forming a critical alliance20 between the

Dutch and the Amerindian population. Therefore, one must not confuse Influence with

Jurisdiction, nor Alliance with Allegiance.21 The Dutch /Amerindian relationship was rather a co-

existence for each Nation’s own interest.

The Plantation Economy

By the commencement of the 18th Century, the importance of trade to the Dutch colonial economy

slowly faded, as there was an increase in Plantation agricultural development. The development

of plantation agriculture was due to the move by colonists primarily towards the coastal plains (aka

the then swamplands). Nevertheless, it was due to the Dutch, with their extensive knowledge of

drainage and irrigation development22 that resulted in the shift from trade to a PLANTATION

ECONOMY along the coastal plains of Guiana.

18 Thompson, Alvin, op.cit. p. 198 19 Ibid, p. 198 20 Thompson, Alvin, op.cit. p. 199 21 Caesar Granvesande, History Gazette #44, p. 6. 22 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 438.



The shift to plantation economy however, accompanied the increasing dependence on African

slave labour, with the African slaves numbering approximately 21,259 in Essequibo by the end of

the 18th Century.23 Therefore, it was the high demand for increasing plantation yields that resulted

in the increased demand for intensified labour of enslaved Africans. The African slaves brought to

the Guiana territory encountered harsh conditions – maltreatment and grave abuses were received

at the hands of the Dutch colonists. The harsh conditions faced, and the reality of forced labour

gave rise to increased resistance and revolts, an increase number of runaways, and the

establishment of maroon communities by the enslaved Africans in an attempt to be free.

Consequently, taking into account the increasing disproportionate numbers of enslaved Africans,

the threat of rebellion, and the threat of Spanish invasion24, the Dutch settlers relied more and more

on alliance to ensure their survival.

Dutch Defence

Based on the circumstances at the time, the most effective method of defence the Dutch

implemented was primarily based upon their friendly relations towards the Natives. This defence

method was particularly pushed by Lauren Storm Van Gravesande under his administration.25 This

form of alliance defence was crucial for the Dutch colonists, ‘since the Dutch greatest weakness

was their inability to defend themselves against their enemies, especially the Spanish.’26

Thus, the alliance formed between the Dutch and the Amerindian Nations in-turn strengthened the

external military DEFENCE, and fostered internal security for the Dutch colony. The alliance was

a success, given that the Amerindians were crucial in quelling uprisings. Their knowledge of the

23 Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit. p. 439 24 Menezes, Mary Noel, ‘British Policy towards the Amerindians in British Guiana 1803-1873’, The Caribbean Press,

2011, p. 1. 25 Simmons, Terrence, ‘Dutch Indian Trade’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday November 1st, 1991, p. 5. 26 Ibid, p. 5



extensive interior forest locations enabled them to track runaway slaves (maroons), capture them,

and return them to the Dutch authorities. This was all possible because African Slaves were

unaware of the “Indian-Path” and the Natives keen observation in the forest.27

A case in point to note for example, is the suppression of the 1763 Berbice slave revolt. The 1763

Berbice revolt highlights the point that the co-operation of the Natives was critical for the Dutch

victory over Cuffy (Coffy/Koffy) and his group, indicating the Amerindian effectiveness. General

Storm proclaimed the point of the key role of the Natives, when he indicated that ‘he had never

seen so many Caribs in his life as mustered on that occasion.’28 In other words, the Amerindians’

role as slave catchers attributed to the practical absence of maroon communities29 and extensive

uprising in the colonies (Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice) compared to the Dutch Suriname

colony.

Therefore, the Natives were clearly the key defence and security of the colony because of good

relations. This was emphasised by Storm, the Governor General of Essequibo, in a dispatch of

1762:

“So long as we have the good fortune to stand well with the Indians and I shall always continue

to try to do so… we will need have no fear”30

Dutch Rewards and Gifts

A misguided assumption concerning the Amerindian militia was that they were under Dutch

authority and command, but this was not so. It should be noted that when the Dutch sent word to

27 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 464. 28 Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 15. 29 Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 440. 30 Ibid, p. 448



the chieftains (or captains), as the Dutch called the Amerindian leaders,31 to gather manpower for

military expeditions against maroons and invaders, the Native Amerindians were not ordered (or

commanded) to do so but rather asked if they would co-operate (assist).

These requests were accompanied with the added bonus or promise of rewards, which was apart

from the regular presents32 given to chiefs in order to foster an alliance with the Amerindians

against all those who the Dutch deemed their enemies. For example, in 1763 when the Dutch

sought Carib assistance, the Director-General of Essequibo said: “I shall write… to instruct to

post-holder to induce the Carib nation, by the promise of recompense, to take up arms in this

matter.”33

As a result, one can deduce that the distribution of gifts or rewards was in-turn aimed at stimulating

or fostering assistance34 in an attempt to cultivate friendship with the Native Indians as a matter of

survival35 and cementing the alliance between the two Nations.

Dutch Amerindian Policy/ Regulations

The Dutch developed various POLICY/ regulations (aka The Red Code)36 in order to protect the

Amerindians from abuses by other Dutch white colonists. The whole aim of the Red Code was

intended to keep the peace with the Natives, as the Dutch saw them as valuable allies. As a result,

the earlier references to the occurrence of Red slaves, which existed, later ceased (no enslavement)

31 Benjamin, Anna, op.cit., p. 8. 32 Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 202. 33 Ibid, p. 202 34 Granvesande, Caesar, op.cit., p. 8. 35 Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindian in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xviii 36 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 432.



as the Dutch now recognised all the Amerindian tribes along the coast and in the interior, which

General Storm’s administration accepted and confirmed.37

This policy change and acceptance of the Native Amerindians was emphasised by the Abraham

Beekman (Essequibo) 1686 ordinance, which stated that no Planter “would be permitted to buy

directly or indirectly Indian slaves, nor carry the same away from their houses with or without

force.”38 In addition, the 1793 ordinance, which supported the 1686 ordinance, forbade ‘the

purchasing or holding as slaves, any Indian or the offspring of Indian women of whatever tribe.’39

The Amerindians as a result, were recognised as a Free Nation40 of independent people, and their

Chieftains (captains) treated with respect. Recognising the chief status as leaders was received in

colonial capitals,41 and presents regularly given. The Chiefs were also encouraged to bring any

form of complaints/ disputes or grievances for the Dutch42 officials to settle.

The Dutch therefore, acted as mediators in an attempt to keep the peace, with examples of cases

such as those in 1686 and 1765 to identify a few. 43 This act of mediation by the Dutch was to

prevent conflict, as occurrences of conflict would have hindered trade and the overall security of

the Dutch colony of Guiana. In the end, the Amerindians practically enjoyed a form of status,

which the enslaved Africans never attained during the Dutch reign,44 and in-turn the Dutch fostered

alliance with great reciprocal Benefits for security and trade.

37 Golinga, Cornelis, The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791, p. 448. 38 Ibid, p. 432 39 Menezes, Sr. Mary, (ed), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xvii. 40 Sanders, Andrew, ‘Amerindians in Guyana: A minority group in a multi-ethnic society’, Caribbean Studies Vol.12;

No.2, p. 39. 41 Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 560. 42 Sanders, Andrew, op.cit., p. 39. 43 Simmons, Terrence, ‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday October 25th, 1991 p. 5. 44 Golinga, Cornelis, op.cit., p. 561.



Effects of Dutch Contact with Amerindians

Nevertheless, even though there was a friendly alliance between the Dutch and the Amerindian

people of the Guiana colony, the Amerindian people still encountered effects based on their contact

with the Dutch settlers. Some of the EFFECTS faced by the Amerindian people were caused by

the introduction of diseases (epidemic) that resulted in the decline of the Amerindian population.

Other effects were also high alcohol consumption among the Natives, and a change in dress and

ornaments because of the use of glass beads and cloth.45 As a consequence, the Amerindians

became more dependent upon Dutch goods, presents, materials, and payment received. This

dependence was observed because of the apparent settling of Amerindians near plantation estates

on the East Coast.46

Additionally, increased prostitution among Amerindian women was apparent, and inter-racial

relations occurred which produced a mixed set of people into the society.47 Note also that relations

with the Dutch settlers also resulted in the development of a class system in the Guiana colony.

The class system resulted in certain tribes or groups taking the leading role in trade,48 with the

Caribs being one such group, which resulted in internal conflicts between the Amerindian tribes.

For an example of conflict, take the occurrence of when an outside tribe such as the Manaos people

from Rio Branco migrated to Dutch territory.49 This migration caused conflict between the tribes

due to fear of the Manaos people compromising the existing trade other Amerindian tribes had

with the Dutch.50

45 Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 210. 46 Benjamin, Anna, Guyana Historical Journal Vol. IV and V, p. 7. 47 Thompson, Alvin, op.cit., p. 210. 48 Ibid, p. 210 49 Thompson, Alvin, op.cit., p. 194. 50 Thompson, Alvin, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803, p. 194



Amerindian Sense of Security

Despite these effects, the overall general Amerindian culture remained fairly intact with the

Dutch not imposing their way of life or religion on the (Native) Indians like the Spanish. It was

because of the Amerindians resentfulness against the Spanish encomienda system and the Spanish

forced cultural and religious conversion, that they gravitated towards the Dutch settlers to foster

an alliance. The Caribs practically allied themselves with the Dutch for their own self-interest, in

terms of their survival, preferring the Dutch against being targeted by the Spanish.51 As a result,

the Caribs were one of the key Amerindian groups that co-operated with the Dutch.

Furthermore, due to the Amerindian status and sense of equality, they did not hesitate to voice

objections or even threaten the Dutch administration if needed in order to get what they wanted.

The Governor-General of Essequibo in 1785 was faced with such a situation where, ‘the Caribs in

the presence of African slaves pressed to obtain their presents and if not received, would ally

themselves with the blacks against the whites if a next revolt occurred. Therefore, the Governor

had no choice but to give them what they wanted.52

Regardless of this, overall, the Dutch-Indian Relationship was one of an alliance between the

Nations; so successful that the British on gaining control of the Dutch colonies adopted the Dutch

Friendly Policy realising the significance of maintaining such an alliance.53 In fact, upon the

British colonists’ control of the Guiana colony in 1803, the Native Amerindians pressed the new

colonists to receive the same treatment bestowed upon them by the Dutch. As stated before, the

51 Benjamin, Anna, ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch Plantation System in Guyana during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, p. 10. 52 Ibid, p. 18 53 Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: a documented History, p. xviii.



British obliged like the Dutch, having analysed the significance of good relations with the

Amerindian Nation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, although the Dutch successfully obtained the Guiana territory of Essequibo,

Demerara, and Berbice, they encountered issues in the management of the colony because of their

vulnerability and extending circumstances. A number of issues threatened the survival of their

colony mainly:

Threats of external invasion from the Spanish neighbours

Hunger (starvation) of the colonists initially

Instability due to:

o The disproportionate population of the African and runaway slaves,

o Rebellions and the establishment of maroon villages (as was experienced in

Suriname).

The Dutch moreover, having analysed the extenuating circumstances they faced initially from

settling in the Guiana colony, to the development of the plantation economy, coupled with both

the external and internal security, realised with great importance the necessity of good Amerindian

relations for their own survival and the overall growth and development of the colony.

Consequently, the Dutch settlers on the shores of Guiana strategically sought to foster good

relations with the Amerindians through the implementation of the Dutch Friendly Policy towards

the Amerindian Nation. The friendly policy emphasized the abandonment of the ‘Red Code’ policy

and the recognition of all Amerindian tribes as free people, not traded as slaves. The friendly policy

also highlighted the gifts and presents bestowed on the Amerindian tribes for services rendered to



the Dutch, the elevated status of the Native Chiefs, and the fact that these Chiefs could raise

concerns to the Dutch authority.

The friendly policy implemented by the Dutch was in order to cement strong ties and build a

critical/ vital alliance with the Amerindians, without whom, literally, the Dutch would not have

survived. Thus, in the final analysis, the Amerindians were an integral part of Dutch

Administration of the Guiana colony during the early 17th and 18th Century.

REFERENCE

1. Benjamin, Anna, (1992-1993), ‘A Preliminary look at the free Amerindians and the Dutch

Plantation System in Guyana during the Seventeenth and

Eighteenth Centuries’, Guyana Historical Journal, Vol. IV

and V, Georgetown.

2. Golinga, Cornelis, (1985), The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guiana 1680-1791,

New Hampshire, Van Goreum and Comp.

3. Gravesande, Caesar, (1992), ‘Amerindian Jurisdiction in the Guiana Territory in the 17th

and 18th Centuries’, History Gazette (#44), Turkeyen, May

1992.

4. Menezes, Sr. Mary, (1993), The Amerindians and Europeans (revised ed), Georgetown,

Red Thread Women’s Press.

5. Menezes, Sr. Mary (ed), (1979), The Amerindians in Guyana 1803-73: A Documented

History, London, Frankcass.

6. Menezes, Mary Noel, (2011), British Policy towards the Amerindians in British Guiana

1803-1873, the Caribbean Press.



7. Sanders, Andrew. (n.d), ‘Amerindians in Guyana: A Minority Group in a Multi-ethnic

Society’, Caribbean Studies Vol. 12; No.2.

8. Simmons, Terrence, (1991), ‘The Amerindian in Dutch Defence’, Guyana Chronicle,

Friday October 25th, 1991.

9. Simmons, Terrence, (1991), ‘Dutch-Indian Trade’, Guyana Chronicle, Friday November

1st, 1991.

10. Thompson, Alvin, (1987), Colonialism and Underdevelopment in Guyana 1580-1803,

Barbados, West Indies, Caribbean Research, and

Publications, Inc

Documents

AUTHOR - Amazon S3 · 2016-04-19 · hardships, strife, and abuses. The encomienda system, established by the Spaniards was under the false pretence of Christianizing and making the