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Document Name: BSBOHS509A Ensure a safe workplace JB Wbk Created Date: 18 Mar. 10 Document No: Version No: V1 Last Modified Date: 18-Mar-10 © John Bailey 2010 Page Sequence: Page 2 of 96

BSBOHS509A - Ensure a safe workplace

Author: John Bailey

Copyright

Text copyright © 2010 by John N Bailey.

Illustration, layout and design copyright © 2007,2010 by John N Bailey.

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Australia.



Contents Description: .................................................................................................................................................... 6 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6 This Learning Guide covers: ........................................................................................................................... 6 Learning Program .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Additional Learning Support .......................................................................................................................... 7 Facilitation ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Flexible Learning ............................................................................................................................................ 8 Space .............................................................................................................................................................. 8 Study Resources ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Time ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 Study Strategies ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Using this learning guide: .............................................................................................................................. 9

THE ICON KEY ................................................................................................................................................ 10

How to get the most out of your learning guide .......................................................................................... 11 Additional research, reading and note taking.............................................................................................. 11

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA ............................................................................................................................... 12

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE ............................................................................................................................... 14

Required knowledge..................................................................................................................................... 14 Required Skills .............................................................................................................................................. 14

RANGE STATEMENT ....................................................................................................................................... 15

EVIDENCE GUIDE ............................................................................................................................................ 17

1. ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN AN OHS SYSTEM ............................................................................................. 18

PROLOGUE ........................................................................................................................................................... 18 The Robens model: historical background ................................................................................................... 18 Key recommendations of the Robens Report ............................................................................................... 19 Standards-setting in the post-Robens era .................................................................................................... 19 Specification standards ................................................................................................................................ 20 General duties or principle-based standards ............................................................................................... 20 Performance-based standards ..................................................................................................................... 20 Process-based standards.............................................................................................................................. 21 Risk management approach ........................................................................................................................ 21

1.1 LOCATE AND COMMUNICATE OHS POLICIES WHICH CLEARLY EXPRESS THE ORGANISATION’S COMMITMENT TO

IMPLEMENT RELEVANT OHS LEGISLATION IN THE ENTERPRISE ......................................................................................... 22 Development Process and Rationale ............................................................................................................ 23 Integrated systems ....................................................................................................................................... 24 Creating a dynamic system .......................................................................................................................... 24 Elements of a Dynamic System .................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 1: The basic elements of OHSMSs ..................................................................................................... 25 Commitment and policy ............................................................................................................................... 25 Words ........................................................................................................................................................... 26 Deeds ........................................................................................................................................................... 26

1.2 DEFINE OHS RESPONSIBILITIES FOR ALL WORKPLACE PERSONNEL IN ACCORDANCE WITH OHS POLICIES, PROCEDURES

AND PROGRAMS .................................................................................................................................................... 28


Organising .................................................................................................................................................... 28 Defining Job Positions .................................................................................................................................. 29 Health and safety manager ......................................................................................................................... 29 Planning ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 2: A basic planning tool ...................................................................................................................... 31 Identifying what you are required to do ...................................................................................................... 32 Training ........................................................................................................................................................ 33 Finding out where you are in relation to what you are required to do ........................................................ 33 Identifying what activities you need to carry out......................................................................................... 33 Priority.......................................................................................................................................................... 33

1.3 IDENTIFY AND APPROVE FINANCIAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES FOR THE EFFECTIVE OPERATION OF THE OHS SYSTEM ...... 34 Setting Objectives, Targets and (Key) Performance Indicators .................................................................... 34 Table 3: Dimensions of OHS performance ................................................................................................... 34 Dimensions of performance ......................................................................................................................... 35 Effectiveness, efficiency, economy ............................................................................................................... 35 Table 4: The ways we measure performance ............................................................................................... 35 Table 5: Evaluating the performance of a training program ....................................................................... 35 Indicators ..................................................................................................................................................... 36 Effectiveness Indicators ................................................................................................................................ 36 Table 6: Outcome indicators expressed as equations .................................................................................. 37 Measurement intervals ................................................................................................................................ 37 Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................ 38 Problems with outcome indicators .............................................................................................................. 38 Table 7: Process indicators ........................................................................................................................... 39 Table 8: The four elements expressed as OHS process indicators ................................................................ 40 Key performance indicators (KPIs) ............................................................................................................... 41 The Dashboard Principle .............................................................................................................................. 41 Targets ......................................................................................................................................................... 42 Assigning responsibility, scheduling and resourcing .................................................................................... 42 Table 9: Sample set of indicators and targets .............................................................................................. 43 Implementing ............................................................................................................................................... 44 Monitoring and evaluating .......................................................................................................................... 44 Reviewing and improving ............................................................................................................................. 45 Case Study 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 45 Section Activities .......................................................................................................................................... 47

USEFUL WEBSITES .................................................................................................................................................. 53 USEFUL BOOKS AND OTHER PRINT MATERIAL ............................................................................................................. 53

2. ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN PARTICIPATIVE ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF OHS .................. 1

2.1 ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN PARTICIPATIVE ARRANGEMENTS WITH EMPLOYEES AND THEIR REPRESENTATIVES IN

ACCORDANCE WITH RELEVANT OHS LEGISLATION .......................................................................................................... 1 Content of statement of policy....................................................................................................................... 1 Policies versus programs and procedures ...................................................................................................... 2 Sample health and safety policy .................................................................................................................... 2 Planning Risk Management ........................................................................................................................... 2 Sample OHS policy ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Elements in successful planning ..................................................................................................................... 4 Contribution to overall management............................................................................................................. 4 Prerequisites to implementation .................................................................................................................... 4 The people asset ............................................................................................................................................ 5 Setting objectives and targets........................................................................................................................ 5 Assessing results against original objectives ................................................................................................. 6 Case study 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 6 OHS management plans ................................................................................................................................ 7 Roles and Responsibilities of Staff.................................................................................................................. 7 Who is responsible for health and safety? ..................................................................................................... 7 Responsibilities of top management .............................................................................................................. 8


Responsibilities of line managers and supervisors ......................................................................................... 9 The role of the human resources department ................................................................................................ 9 The health and safety officer or manager .................................................................................................... 10 Table 10: Duty Statement ............................................................................................................................ 10 OHS representatives and committees .......................................................................................................... 12 Selection of representatives ......................................................................................................................... 12 Involvement of unions/union delegates ....................................................................................................... 12 Functions and powers .................................................................................................................................. 13 Rights of OHS representatives and committees ........................................................................................... 13 Functions of OHS committees and representatives ..................................................................................... 14 Composition of OHS committees ................................................................................................................. 14 Training ........................................................................................................................................................ 15 Conducting a health and safety committee meeting ................................................................................... 15 The first aid officer ....................................................................................................................................... 15 Table 11: General duties of a first aid officer ............................................................................................... 16 Contents of first aid box ............................................................................................................................... 17 Responsibilities of employees and other parties .......................................................................................... 17 Other Considerations at the Planning Stage ................................................................................................ 17

2.2 APPROPRIATELY RESOLVE ISSUES RAISED THROUGH PARTICIPATIVE ARRANGEMENTS AND CONSULTATION ................... 20 Case Study 3: ................................................................................................................................................ 21 What is consultation? .................................................................................................................................. 25 What are the benefits of consultation? ....................................................................................................... 26 Case Study 4: ................................................................................................................................................ 26 When is consultation required? ................................................................................................................... 27 How is consultation organised? ................................................................................................................... 27 OHS representatives ..................................................................................................................................... 27 Rights and duties.......................................................................................................................................... 28

2.3 PROMPTLY PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE OUTCOMES OF PARTICIPATION AND CONSULTATION IN A MANNER

ACCESSIBLE TO EMPLOYEES ...................................................................................................................................... 29 OHS Committees .......................................................................................................................................... 29 Consultation policy and principles ............................................................................................................... 29 Table 12: Checklist: How To Conduct an OHS Committee Meeting ............................................................. 31 Dispute resolution ........................................................................................................................................ 32 Table 13: Sample dispute resolution procedure ........................................................................................... 32 Too small? .................................................................................................................................................... 33 Employer's support ...................................................................................................................................... 33 Consultation Training ................................................................................................................................... 34 Information Sharing ..................................................................................................................................... 34 Monitoring, evaluating and reviewing consultation .................................................................................... 35 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 35 Section Activities .......................................................................................................................................... 36 Useful websites ............................................................................................................................................ 40 Useful Books and Other Print Material ........................................................................................................ 40

3. ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN PROCEDURES FOR IDENTIFYING HAZARDS, AND ASSESSING AND CONTROLLING RISKS ...................................................................................................................................... 41

4. ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN A QUALITY OHS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ........................................................ 42

RESOURCE EVALUATION FORM ..................................................................................................................... 43



Description:

This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge required to establish, maintain and evaluate the organisation's occupational health and safety (OHS) policies, procedures and programs in the relevant work area in accordance with OHS legal requirements. No licensing, legislative, regulatory or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of endorsement.

Employability skills:

This unit contains employability skills.

Application of unit:

Managers play an important role in ensuring the safety of the workplace and the wellbeing of their staff. This unit applies to managers working in a range of contexts. It takes a systems approach and ensures compliance with relevant legislative requirements.

All those who have, or are likely to have, a management responsibility for OHS should undertake this unit.

It is relevant for those with managerial responsibilities, either as an owner or employee-manager of a business.

Introduction

As a worker, a trainee or a future worker you want to enjoy your work and become known as a valuable team member. This unit of competency will help you acquire the knowledge and skills to work effectively as an individual and in groups. It will give you the basis to contribute to the goals of the organization which employs you.

It is essential that you begin your training by becoming familiar with the industry standards to which organizations must conform.

This unit of competency introduces you to some of the key issues and responsibilities of workers and organizations in this area. The unit also provides you with opportunities to develop the competencies necessary for employees to operate as team members.

This Learning Guide covers:

Establish and maintain an OHS system

Establish and maintain participative arrangements for the management of OHS

Establish and maintain procedures for identifying hazards, and assessing and controlling risks

Establish and maintain a quality OHS management system

Learning Program


As you progress through this unit you will develop skills in locating and understanding an organizations policies and procedures. You will build up a sound knowledge of the industry standards within which organizations must operate. You should also become more aware of the effect that your own skills in dealing with people has on your success, or otherwise, in the workplace.

Knowledge of your skills and capabilities will help you make informed choices about your further study and career options.

Additional Learning Support

To obtain additional support you may:

Search for other resources in the Learning Resource Centres of your learning institution. You may find books, journals, videos and other materials which provide extra information for topics in this unit.

Search in your local library. Most libraries keep information about government departments and other organizations, services and programs.

Contact information services such as Infolink, Equal Opportunity Commission, and Commissioner of Workplace Agreements. Union organizations, and public relations and information services provided by various government departments. Many of these services are listed in the telephone directory.

Contact your local shire or council office. Many councils have a community development or welfare officer as well as an information and referral service.

Contact the relevant facilitator by telephone, mail or facsimile.

Facilitation

Your training organization will provide you with a flexible learning facilitator. Your facilitator will play an active role in supporting your learning, will make regular contact with you and if you have face to face access, should arrange to see you at least once. After you have enrolled your facilitator will contact you by telephone or letter as soon as possible to let you know:

How and when to make contact

What you need to do to complete this unit of study

What support will be provided.

Here are some of the things your facilitator can do to make your study easier.

Give you a clear visual timetable of events for the semester or term in which you are enrolled, including any deadlines for assessments.

Check that you know how to access library facilities and services.

Conduct small ‗interest groups‘ for some of the topics.

Use ‗action sheets‘ and website updates to remind you about tasks you need to complete.

Set up a ‗chat line‖. If you have access to telephone conferencing or video conferencing, your facilitator can use these for specific topics or discussion sessions.


Circulate a newsletter to keep you informed of events, topics and resources of interest to you.

Keep in touch with you by telephone or email during your studies.

Flexible Learning

Studying to become a competent worker and learning about current issues in this area, is an interesting and exciting thing to do. You will establish relationships with other candidates, fellow workers and clients. You will also learn about your own ideas, attitudes and values. You will also have fun – most of the time.

At other times, study can seem overwhelming and impossibly demanding, particularly when you have an assignment to do and you aren‘t sure how to tackle it…..and your family and friends want you to spend time with them……and a movie you want to watch is on television….and…. Sometimes being a candidate can be hard.

Here are some ideas to help you through the hard times. To study effectively, you need space, resources and time.

Space

Try to set up a place at home or at work where:

You can keep your study materials

You can be reasonably quiet and free from interruptions, and

You can be reasonably comfortable, with good lighting, seating and a flat surface for writing.

If it is impossible for you to set up a study space, perhaps you could use your local library. You will not be able to store your study materials there, but you will have quiet, a desk and chair, and easy access to the other facilities.

Study Resources

The most basic resources you will need are:

a chair

a desk or table

a reading lamp or good light

a folder or file to keep your notes and study materials together

materials to record information (pen and paper or notebooks, or a computer and printer)

reference materials, including a dictionary

Do not forget that other people can be valuable study resources. Your fellow workers, work supervisor, other candidates, your flexible learning facilitator, your local librarian, and workers in this area can also help you.


Time

It is important to plan your study time. Work out a time that suits you and plan around it. Most people find that studying in short, concentrated blocks of time (an hour or two) at regular intervals (daily, every second day, once a week) is more effective than trying to cram a lot of learning into a whole day. You need time to ―digest‖ the information in one section before you move on to the next, and everyone needs regular breaks from study to avoid overload. Be realistic in allocating time for study. Look at what is required for the unit and look at your other commitments.

Make up a study timetable and stick to it. Build in ―deadlines‖ and set yourself goals for completing study tasks. Allow time for reading and completing activities. Remember that it is the quality of the time you spend studying rather than the quantity that is important.

Study Strategies

Different people have different learning ‗styles‘. Some people learn best by listening or repeating things out loud. Some learn best by doing, some by reading and making notes. Assess your own learning style, and try to identify any barriers to learning which might affect you. Are you easily distracted? Are you afraid you will fail? Are you taking study too seriously? Not seriously enough? Do you have supportive friends and family? Here are some ideas for effective study strategies.

Make notes. This often helps you to remember new or unfamiliar information. Do not worry about spelling or neatness, as long as you can read your own notes. Keep your notes with the rest of your study materials and add to them as you go. Use pictures and diagrams if this helps.

Underline key words when you are reading the materials in this learning guide. (Do not underline things in other people‘s books). This also helps you to remember important points.

Talk to other people (fellow workers, fellow candidates, friends, family, your facilitator) about what you are learning. As well as helping you to clarify and understand new ideas, talking also gives you a chance to find out extra information and to get fresh ideas and different points of view.

Using this learning guide:

A learning guide is just that, a guide to help you learn. A learning guide is not a text book. Your learning guide will

describe the skills you need to demonstrate to achieve competency for this unit

provide information and knowledge to help you develop your skills

provide you with structured learning activities to help you absorb the knowledge and information and practice your skills

direct you to other sources of additional knowledge and information about topics for this unit.


The Icon Key

Key Points

Explains the actions taken by a competent person.

Example

Illustrates the concept or competency by providing examples.

Activity

Provides activities to reinforce understanding of the action.

Chart

Provides images that represent data symbolically. They are used to present complex information and numerical data in a simple, compact format.

Intended Outcomes or Objectives

Statements of intended outcomes or objectives are descriptions of the work that will be done.

Assessment

Strategies with which information will be collected in order to validate each intended outcome or objective.


How to get the most out of your learning guide

1. Read through the information in the learning guide carefully. Make sure you understand the material.

Some sections are quite long and cover complex ideas and information. If you come across anything you do not understand:

talk to your facilitator

research the area using the books and materials listed under Resources

discuss the issue with other people (your workplace supervisor, fellow workers, fellow candidates)

try to relate the information presented in this learning guide to your own experience and to what you already know.

Ask yourself questions as you go: For example ―Have I seen this happening anywhere?‖ ―Could this apply to me?‖ ―What if….?‖ This will help you to make sense of new material and to build on your existing knowledge.

2. Talk to people about your study.

Talking is a great way to reinforce what you are learning.

3. Make notes.

4. Work through the activities.

Even if you are tempted to skip some activities, do them anyway. They are there for a reason, and even if you already have the knowledge or skills relating to a particular activity, doing them will help to reinforce what you already know. If you do not understand an activity, think carefully about the way the questions or instructions are phrased. Read the section again to see if you can make sense of it. If you are still confused, contact your facilitator or discuss the activity with other candidates, fellow workers or with your workplace supervisor.

Additional research, reading and note taking.

If you are using the additional references and resources suggested in the learning guide to take your knowledge a step further, there are a few simple things to keep in mind to make this kind of research easier.

Always make a note of the author‘s name, the title of the book or article, the edition, when it was published, where it was published, and the name of the publisher. If you are taking notes about specific ideas or information, you will need to put the page number as well. This is called the reference information. You will need this for some assessment tasks and it will help you to find the book again if needed.

Keep your notes short and to the point. Relate your notes to the material in your learning guide. Put things into your own words. This will give you a better understanding of the material.

Start off with a question you want answered when you are exploring additional resource materials. This will structure your reading and save you time.



Element Performance Criteria

1. Establish and maintain an OHS system

1.1 Locate and communicate OHS policies which clearly express the organisation‘s commitment to implement relevant OHS legislation in the enterprise

1.2 Define OHS responsibilities for all workplace personnel in accordance with OHS policies, procedures and programs

1.3 Identify and approve financial and human resources for the effective operation of the OHS system

2. Establish and maintain participative arrangements for the management of OHS

2.1 Establish and maintain participative arrangements with employees and their representatives in accordance with relevant OHS legislation

2.2 Appropriately resolve issues raised through participative arrangements and consultation

2.3 Promptly provide information about the outcomes of participation and consultation in a manner accessible to employees

3. Establish and maintain procedures for identifying hazards, and assessing and controlling risks

3.1 Develop procedures for ongoing hazard identification, and assessment and control of associated risks

3.2 Include hazard identification at the planning, design and evaluation stages of any change in the workplace to ensure that new hazards are not created by the proposed changes

3.3 Develop and maintain procedures for selection and implementation of risk control measures in accordance with the hierarchy of control

3.4 Identify inadequacies in existing risk control measures in accordance with the hierarchy of control and promptly provide resources to enable implementation of new measures

3.5 Identify intervention points for expert OHS advice


4. Establish and maintain a quality OHS management system

4.1 Develop and provide an OHS induction and training program for all employees as part of the organisation‘s training program

4.2 Utilise system for OHS record keeping to allow identification of patterns of occupational injury and disease in the organisation

4.3 Measure and evaluate the OHS system in line with the organisation‘s quality systems framework

4.4 Develop and implement improvements to the OHS system to achieve organisational OHS objectives

4.5 Ensure compliance with the OHS legislative framework so that legal OHS standards are maintained as a minimum


Skills and Knowledge

Required knowledge

application of the hierarchy of control (the preferred order of risk control measures from most to least preferred, that is, elimination, engineering controls, administrative controls, personal protective equipment)

hazard identification and risk management

relevant legislation from all levels of government that affects business operation, especially in regard to OHS and environmental issues, equal opportunity, industrial relations and anti-discrimination

reporting requirements.

Required Skills

analytic skills to analyse relevant workplace data in order to identify hazards, and to assess and control risks

communication skills to consult with staff and to promote a safe workplace

problem-solving skills to deal with complex and non-routine difficulties

technology skills to store and retrieve relevant workplace data.


Range Statement The range statement relates to the unit of competency as a whole. It allows for different work environments and situations that may affect performance. Bold italicised wording, if used in the performance criteria, is detailed below. Essential operating conditions that may be present with training and assessment (depending on the work situation, needs of the candidate, accessibility of the item, and local industry and regional contexts) may also be included.

OHS legislation will depend on state/ territory legislation and requirements, and will include:

common law duties to meet general duty of care requirements

regulations and approved codes of practice relating to hazards in the work area

requirements for establishment of consultative arrangements including those for health and safety representatives, and health and safety committees

requirements for effective management of hazards

requirements for provision of information and training including training in safe operating procedures, procedures for workplace hazards, hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control, and emergency and evacuation procedures

requirements for the maintenance and confidentiality of records of occupational injury and disease

Control of associated risks may include:

administrative

counselling/disciplinary processes

elimination

engineering

housekeeping and storage

issue resolution

OHS records maintenance and analysis

personal protective equipment

purchasing of supplies and equipment

workplace inspections including plant and equipment


Organisational health and safety record keeping may relate to:

audit and inspection reports

workplace environmental monitoring records

consultation e.g. meetings of health & safety committees, work group meeting agendas including OHS items and actions

induction, instruction and training

manufacturers' and suppliers' information including dangerous goods storage lists

hazardous substances registers

plant and equipment maintenance and testing reports

workers compensation and rehabilitation records

first aid/medical post records


Evidence Guide The evidence guide provides advice on assessment and must be read in conjunction with the performance criteria, required skills and knowledge, range statement and the Assessment Guidelines for the Training Package.

Critical aspects for assessment and evidence required to demonstrate competency in this unit

Evidence of the following is essential:

detailed knowledge and application of all relevant OHS legislative frameworks

establishment and maintenance of arrangements for managing OHS within the organisations' business systems and practices

identification of intervention points for expert OHS advice

principles and practice of effective OHS management in a small, medium or large business.

Context of and specific resources for assessment

Assessment must ensure:

access to appropriate documentation and resources normally used in the workplace.

Method of assessment A range of assessment methods should be used to assess practical skills and knowledge. The following examples are appropriate for this unit:

analysis of responses to case studies and scenarios

assessment of written reports

demonstration of techniques

direct questioning combined with review of portfolios of evidence and third party workplace reports of on-the-job performance by the candidate

review of OHS policies, information provided on the OHS system, information about the outcomes of participation and consultation provided to employees

oral or written questioning to assess knowledge of OHS and OHS legislation

evaluation of OHS induction and training

review of OHS record keeping system.

Guidance information for assessment

Holistic assessment with other units relevant to the industry sector, workplace and job role is recommended, for example:

other OHS units

units from the Diploma of Management.


1. Establish and maintain an OHS system

1.1 Locate and communicate OHS policies which clearly express the organisation‘s commitment to implement relevant OHS legislation in the enterprise



Prologue

The Robens model: historical background

In 1972, a British Government Committee of Inquiry into Health and Safety at Work chaired by Lord Robens released a ground-breaking report (the Robens Report) calling for a new approach to the regulation of occupational health and safety.

The Robens Report identified a number of major flaws in the existing OHS legislation.

In the Committee‘s view, there was ―too much law‖ regulating occupational health and safety. Much of this law had been developed in a ―piecemeal fashion decade after decade‖. Overwhelmed dutyholders struggled to navigate a complex maze of prescriptive and technical provisions – in the Committee‘s view, a problem that contributed to ―apathy‖ about health and safety issues. Furthermore, maintaining and updating this body of law was ―an endless and increasingly hopeless task‖; thus, the legislation was incapable of responding to technological, social and economic change.

Furthermore, existing law reflected a preoccupation with physical hazards and overlooked ―equally important human and organisational factors‖, such as the impact of work systems on the attitudes and behaviour of people in the workplace.

There was no over-arching legislative framework: responsibility for the administration of the various health and safety law was split between the various regulatory agencies. Some workplaces had obligations under several jurisdictions, while others were not covered at all. The separate inspectorates did not share knowledge and expertise.

The legislation did not afford protection to all workers or provide for the participation of workers in achieving safe and healthy workplaces.

It failed to impose sufficiently stringent penalties and was rarely used as the basis for prosecution


Key recommendations of the Robens Report

The Robens Report proposed a number of reform objectives. It called for “the creation of a more unified and integrated system to increase the effectiveness of the State’s contribution to safety and health at work”. All OHS legislation was to be brought together under a single enabling Act, which would establish broad procedures and standards, to be administered by a single regulatory agency and inspectorate.

The Report also advocated a transition from the traditional command-and-control regime to a self-regulating system, founded upon:

―the acceptance and exercise of [responsibility for OHS] at all levels within industry and commerce, particularly by directors and senior managers‖; a systematic, rather than ad hoc, approach to prevention; provision for greater employee participation in improving and maintaining health and safety, because ―real progress is impossible without the full cooperation and commitment of all employees‖. In this scheme, the State would relinquish its punitive role in order to stimulate attitudinal change and encourage preventative action. The Robens Committee recommended that the new Act should -

enunciate ―the basic and overriding responsibility of the employer to provide a safe working system including safe premises, a safe working environment, safe equipment, trained and competent personnel, and adequate instruction and supervision‖;

be limited to essential matters, such as the administration of the statute, a general regulation-making power and provisions dealing with offences and penalties; prescribe general duties only. Detailed provisions would be relegated to regulations and guidance; cover all workplaces, work processes, hazards and categories of worker; and

impose duties on ―upstream‖ parties (such as designers, manufacturers and suppliers) in recognition that OHS risks are best controlled at their source.

Standards-setting in the post-Robens era

In the years following the Robens Report, OHS legislation in most Western industrialised nations has moved away from prescriptive or specification standards, towards Robens-style general duties (or principle-based standards), performance-based standards and process-based standards. It should be noted that these standards are ―ideal-types‖; most contemporary OHS legislation relies upon a mix of standards – depending on the policy objective to be achieved.


Specification standards

Specification standards have the virtue of spelling out precisely the actions a dutyholder must take in a given situation. Thus, it is clear to dutyholder and inspector alike whether or not a standard has been breached. Specification standards are an appropriate approach where there is a single, commonly agreed, means of controlling a hazard or risk.

Specification standards, however -

set only minimum health and safety standards and do not encourage innovative or cost-effective solutions;

cannot provide for a continuous cycle of improvement;

quickly become obsolete and are difficult to keep up-to-date; and

are more effective in regulating static, physical hazards typical of factories (such as inspections of boilers or ventilation requirements) than more subtle hazards associated with the social organisation of work (such as musculoskeletal disorders or stress).

General duties or principle-based standards

A general duty articulates an all-encompassing principle that can be applied to every workplace and allows dutyholders the freedom to develop their own solutions to particular OHS problems. Unlike specification standards, general duties do not readily become obsolete. While often classed as performance-based standards, general duties focus on broad social objectives and allow the dutyholder substantial discretion in achieving compliance.

At the same time, it is often argued that the breadth and flexibility of a general duty creates significant ambiguity and uncertainty for dutyholders and inspectors. A general duty does not articulate a desired performance outcome (that is, the goal to be achieved), nor is it possible to determine clearly whether compliance has been achieved until the matter has been tested in court.

Performance-based standards

A performance-based standard establishes the outcome required, but leaves to the dutyholder the choice of concrete measure(s) to achieve that outcome. The performance standard may be loosely specified, in which case the dutyholder will be required to make qualitative judgments, or tightly specified, in which case the dutyholder will need to employ quantitative measures of performance – which in some cases may involve highly-specified modelling methodologies. Performance standards are articulated in terms of the problems they are intended to solve – for example, the severity of risk, the likelihood of injury in the event of an incident, and the number of organisations and/or persons affected


Performance standards facilitate technological innovation, enable the dutyholder to adopt the most cost-effective solution and focus preventative efforts on specific hazards and workplace contexts.

On the other hand, performance standards do not necessarily encourage consideration of integrated/holistic approaches to the control of OHS risks. And, like general duties, performance standards involve a degree of uncertainty. In the case of rare and catastrophic events, performance cannot be directly measured; instead, it must be predicted, making implementation more problematic.

Process-based standards

Process-based standards stipulate a series of steps or a process to be followed in order to eliminate or reduce risks associated with particular OHS hazards. The most familiar is the three-step risk management process: hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control

The strength of process-based standards lies in their capacity to address organisational factors – albeit only in relation to individual hazards.

Risk management approach

The conventional three-step risk management model, comprising hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control has been important in modernising the management of workplace health and safety, and is mandated in most hazard-based regulations made under the Act.

The risk management process has for many years been considered an essential component of the systematic approach to the control of workplace hazards and risks. Thus, not surprisingly, many submissions to the Review recommended that the model be adopted in the Act itself. For example, one submission argued that the introduction of a general duty to identify, assess and control all hazards would make the legislation ―more streamlined, clearer, less cumbersome and less ambiguous‖. Others did not share this view, commenting that the regulations provide the best scope for industry - or hazard-specific risk management processes.

One submission in particular raised questions about ―inflexible adherence‖ to the risk management model. Reflecting on his extensive experience in the field, Brian Bottomley

(website:http://www.workcover.vic.gov.au./dir090/vwa/home.nsf/pages/OHSAct_review 158)

observed that, while pertinent to many common physical hazards, the model is not necessarily appropriate for subtle, multi-factorial hazards such as musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, and occupational violence and bullying. The use of the risk management model may, he says, encourage the misconception that all hazards are simple, objectively observable and derived from a single source. He argues that psychosocial hazards are not well served by a natural science model and would be better served by methods that ―tap the human experience of risk and injury‖.

Further, the application to these hazards of probabilistic risk assessment methodologies may “generate a risk management practice based on false certainty‖. These methodologies do not deal particularly well with the compounding effects of the multifarious factors associated with a psychosocial hazard such as fatigue. Where hazards are complex and


recalcitrant to definition, the hazard identification and risk assessment phases can overlap, causing confusion. It becomes very difficult to estimate the likelihood and severity of the risk. In these circumstances, a “universal precautions‖ approach may be preferred.

Bottomley also submits that, in the case of risks for which there are well-known and universally-accepted risk controls, there is little point in requiring an employer to perform a risk assessment – especially given the frequency with which many become entangled in a ―risk assessment web‖, never to make it as far as putting risk controls in place. In these circumstances, it is more sensible and cost-effective to require the employer to simply implement the particular risk control via prescriptive regulation.

Finally, Bottomley notes that the sequential emphasis of the conventional risk management model can obscure the iterative nature of actual risk management processes.

1.1 Locate and communicate OHS policies which clearly express the organisation’s commitment to implement relevant OHS legislation in the enterprise

An effective and useful OH&S system must address the social, organisational and physical aspects of the organisation. Primarily, it should be considered as a synergistic and dynamic web of operations. It should be synergistic because any group of people working together and interacting with their environment produces a greater effect than the sum of their individual actions. It is this 'greater effect' that we should be concerned with when contemplating the OH&S of the organisation. As a manager your primary motive will be to develop a 'greater effect' that is positive rather than negative. Too often the 'greater effect' culminates in the negative result of injury or disease. The strategies you design and implement within your system must support the goal of developing a 'greater effect' that is positive.

The dynamic nature of work and interaction generates the energy which drives the organisation. If the energy is negative because of poor communications and lack of consultation the 'greater effect' is more likely to be negative. The synergistic effects of multiple hazards can result in injury, disease, low morale and lower productivity-not to mention the costs associated with workers compensation and loss of work hours. A useful system will include strategies that create positive energy and transform negative energy into positive. It will promote and capitalise on this positive energy creating strong, clear channels of communication throughout the network of the organisation.

Policy development is an integral and formative aspect of any OH&S system. It is imperative that policy is constructed within both an ethical and legislative framework. As a manager you must be fully acquainted with the relevant OH&S legislation and codes of practice within your state and territory. Whilst this is an imperative it is the ethical considerations which add integrity to the system and engender the respect of the workforce.


Development Process and Rationale

Adopting and developing a systematic approach needs consultation with managers, employees and their representatives and other possible stakeholders, such as contractors. For such a consultation to be effective, OHS training is critical. Plainly, those managers and workers directly involved must have a certain minimum level of OHS knowledge if they are to assist. A committee could be used to develop an OHSMS with the assistance of an OHS consultant. Again, a suitable industry model would be a good starting place; it could then be adapted to local circumstances.

It is important to make sure that the reasons for adopting a systematic approach are made explicit. These may be moral concerns, legal and customer requirements or brand and image considerations. Such reasons will be expressed in the OHS policy, which, in turn, identifies what the specific requirements or standards for the system will be. These reasons will be used when monitoring, evaluating and reviewing the OHSMS.

The factors influencing the design of a particular system also need to be discussed. They would include

the benefits of any resulting certification

the organisational structure

the level of management commitment to OHS

the suitability of management style

the degree of OHS knowledge and skills

workplace (safety) culture

industrial relations considerations

the capacity of current consultation and communication processes

the interface and overlap with existing management systems, for example, quality, environment, performance management, finances, operations

the resources and organisational capacity available to make it work

the nature of work processes, hazards and level of risk

the abilities and constraints of the workforce to participate and make a systematic approach effective, for example, literacy, numeracy, diversity, special needs.


Integrated systems

Whichever OHSMS you eventually develop and use, it should be part of the overall management system of the organisation and sit comfortably alongside other systems. Like other systems, it should form part of the planning, goal setting, budgeting, organising, implementing, monitoring, measuring and reviewing processes undertaken to ever improve performance. Putting the ‗management‘ in OHSMS is achieved by identifying the OHS responsibilities, accountabilities and authority of each and every one in the organisation, from the CEO to the receptionist. For more information on this, see the section on Òrganising', below. Often, an OHSMS is linked closely with quality or risk management systems and may have environmental concerns attached to it. Whatever the links, OHS becomes a seamless part of business activity by being organised as an important business system alongside others.

Creating a dynamic system

Like other management systems, an OHSMS should not be mechanical. It should he a dynamic system, involving the whole workplace in continuously improving its health and safety and responding to changes. Continuous monitoring and regular reviews of the OHS program by the OHS committee can ensure that the OHSMS is dynamic and responsive.

The remainder of this section deals with the elements of an OHSMS in more detail and how each element can be integrated into the overall management system.

Elements of a Dynamic System

OHSMSs contain the following basic elements.


1 Commitment and policy

2. Organising

6. Reviewing and improving

3. Planning

5. Monitoring and evaluating

4. Implementing

Figure 1: The basic elements of OHSMSs

As you might imagine, OHSMSs are not usually found in very small organisations, where their administration would involve too much time and effort. In these smaller establishments, scaled-down solutions are appropriate.

Commitment and policy

The starting point is a commitment by management to OHS. Fortunately, most general managers express some form of verbal commitment that at least gives you an opportunity to build upon.


Words

Management commitment is expressed in words and deeds. The verbal commitment takes the primary form of a written OHS policy document - usually one page - committing the organisation to certain goals and principles and signed off by the head of the organisation's As everything else flows from the policy - planning, organisation, funding and activity - the wording is significant and careful attention should be spent on its content. It should be remembered it will be displayed throughout the organisation and could be submitted as evidence in court.

Aspects to consider in an OHS policy include

a reflection of the relevant objective from the organisation's overall mission, vision and core values - how does OHS fit in

a commitment to

provide a healthy and safe workplace and effective return-to-work programs for the injured

measurable objectives and ongoing improvement

compliance with relevant OHS law and the highest standards in OHS

consultation with staff at all levels to achieve policy goals

consistently identify, evaluate and control hazards

an expression of the OHS responsibilities of all key stakeholders, for example, workers, supervisors, managers.

Importantly, the policy should be endorsed by employees (normally through the OHS committee) as cooperation is needed for implementation. The policy also needs to be reviewed periodically to ensure that it is relevant and up-to-date. The date of last review should be indicated on the policy itself. Finally, the policy should be displayed prominently and headlined in training and induction.

Deeds

To demonstrate real commitment, the organisation needs to implement the policy through OHS management activities such as planning and reviewing, consulting, communicating, resourcing, recognising and rewarding good OHS performance. Apart from the policy, commitment can be shown by management walking the walk, for example, taking part in inspections, participating in fire and emergency drills, discussing health and safety at regular meetings, following up promised corrective activity and modelling appropriate behaviour in the workplace. Finally, each activity needs to be reported and communicated to staff as part of marketing OHS to them. People need to be aware and reminded of the priority management attaches to OHS by deeds, rather than by management merely putting up safety posters.


Gaining Management Commitment

An individual approach by the health and safety manager is a useful way of developing wider management commitment.

Know Thy Customer

First understand what the issues are for the managers you are addressing. Different managers have various agendas and different understandings of what OHS is all about. Don't assume that the managing director, the financial officer, the marketing manager, the human resource director and the chief operations officer all have the same issues or understanding. Recognise your audience as individuals and listen to what each of their problems are - OHS or non-OHS - remembering all the while that they are working under time and resource constraints.

Listen And Hear

It may be OHS issues they are directly concerned about - a rash of incidents, a near miss, increased compensation costs or a compliance issue. Other problems may be related to OHS, but not be OHS issues directly, such as productivity lags, absenteeism (including unpunctuality) or corporate culture. Many will be issues that bear no relation to OHS - a supply problem, dysfunctional staff member or forthcoming merger, for example. Listen to the managers and respect their experience and understanding, even if you don't agree.

Remove The Pain

Where you have the skills and resources - and the manager is amenable - prepare a proposal to help them with a significant OHS or OHS-related problem that you are confident of succeeding at. In the first instance, work with those individuals who have the most influence in the organisation, usually the CEO or managing director. Otherwise, build up your credibility with others on the management team. Above all, only pick those problems that you are sure of solving; do not add to the manager's workload and make sure that the improvement can be clearly identified. Having consulted and gained endorsement, then deliver. Document the project and, where appropriate, publicise it internally and possibly externally in, say, your OHS network. The managing director may wish to use it as a marketing tool.

Commitment to OHS by managers grows incrementally with each successful project. With that commitment, senior management is more comfortable with OHS and will make sure that line management make it their responsibility too. In this way, the health and safety manager does not become the OHS sheriff.



Organising

To implement policy and demonstrate commitment, OHS activity first needs to be organised and people need to know their roles within it.

Identification of OHS responsibility, accountability and authority

With any job, we all need to know

what our responsibilities or duties are

to whom we are accountable and what we are accountable for, that is, what are the standards by which we are measured

what authority we have to carry out our responsibilities.

These need to be written down somewhere, such as in the job description or contract, and fully understood. So it is with OHS. Our health and safety responsibility, accountability and authority must also be documented for the OHS policy to be implemented by everyone.

How responsibilities, accountabilities and authority are identified will depend on

the position held and the tasks carried out

what corporate OHS policy and the law requires

the hazards associated with the job.

Example 1

The head of the purchasing department is responsible for the purchase of all goods and services. The head is accountable to the chief financial officer for ensuring that all supplies or contracts are checked so that they meet the relevant health and safety standards and those receiving or using the goods or services have been informed of any associated hazards and know how to control them. The purchasing head will need the authority to cancel services, return products or refuse delivery.

Example 2

The fleet manager is responsible for the leasing, maintenance and allocation of company vehicles. The manager is accountable to the chief administrative officer for ensuring that all the vehicles used meet the latest safety standards, are properly maintained, that drivers are licensed and trained in safe loading procedures and that accident and incident notification procedures are in place. The fleet manager must have the right to take any action to make sure all of this happens, such as taking the vehicle off the road or suspending the driver from further use of company vehicles.


Responsibility, accountability and authority begin with the managing director or CEO and cascade through the organisation, including to contractors. Everyone then knows what they are supposed to do as part of their OHS responsibility, to what standard and what action they may take to ensure that their OHS duties are fulfilled. This needs to be documented, regularly reviewed and checked to see that everyone with an OHS responsibility is complying with corporate OHS policy and the law.

As a good test, imagine an accident has occurred and it has reached court. Can it be demonstrated clearly that, before it reached this stage, everything had been done to ensure that everyone knows what their OHS responsibilities are, what standards must be met and what power they have to carry out their responsibilities?

Defining Job Positions

Some positions have specific legal responsibilities attached to them, for example, controller of a workplace, while others are more general. In Queensland, for example, the job description or supporting documentation ought to reflect the duties set out for all workers in section 36 of the Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 (Qld), namely,

A worker or anyone else at a workplace has the following obligations at a workplace

(a) to comply with the instructions given for workplace health and safety at the workplace by the employer at the workplace and, if the workplace is a construction workplace, the principal contractor for workplace health and safety at the workplace;

(b) for a worker-to use personal protective equipment if the equipment is provided by the worker's employer and the worker is properly instructed in its use;

(c) not to wilfully or recklessly interfere with or misuse anything provided for workplace health and safety at the workplace;

(d) safety of any person at the workplace;

(e) not to wilfully injure himself or herself.

Health and safety manager

The principal role of the health and safety manager is to assist the organisation, its managers and employees to promote health and safety in the workplace in line with corporate policy and the law. This normally includes

reporting to the senior management team on OHS matters

conducting safety inspections

providing administrative support for consultative arrangements

preparing the OHS program

developing risk management strategies and monitoring their progress

establishing appropriate information and training programs

reporting and assisting in the investigation of incidents


administering workers' compensation and rehabilitation.

As part of the management team, the OHS manager also has obligations to inform other managers and the CEO of changes to OHS legislation and codes of practice and to contribute to the reporting of OHS matters to senior managers. Health and safety managers ought to participate in benchmarking their approach to the management of OHS and in sharing information within their industries (we will discuss benchmarking briefly later)

Example

QUEENSLAND'S WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY OFFICERS (WHSOS)

Under Queensland law, employers or principal contractors at certain types of workplaces with more than 30 employees must appoint a qualified Workplace Health and Safety Officer. They are to provide expert advice to employers to help them meet their obligations under the Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 (Old) and must be trained to identify health and safety hazards and help implement risk assessments in the workplace. The functions are specified in the regulation (see section 93 of the Workplace Health and SafetyAct 1995 (Old) and section 30 of the Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 1997 (Old).

Whatever those duties are, the responsibility for health and safety lies with the organisation and all its employees - CEO, managers, supervisors and staff - not just with the health and safety manager. This is made clear in the law and should be made clear in the policy. Health and safety managers need to remind themselves and others of this fact, otherwise, they may be solely identified with health and safety responsibility and the (impossible) task of implementing it by themselves. OHS activity must be owned by the line managers involved and not be or be seen to be owned by the health and safety manager or any other individual.

Similarly, the arrangements by which employees and management consult on OHS should not lessen the responsibilities of everyone else. Consultative arrangements are there to assist, not to take over OHS responsibilities.

Planning

With everyone's OHS role specified, you can begin to plan the implementation of the OHS policy. A documented plan or program based on an understanding of what is required is needed to direct implementation.

A very basic planning tool is represented below, with the example of a partially successful organisation. It only deals with a few aspects of the OHS program. Whether you are starting from scratch or not, the general steps remain the same.


Table 2: A basic planning tool

What we need to do (that is,

requirements, standards,

benchmarks)

Where we are What we need to do to fill any gap

Priority (critical, major, minor)

What are our objectives,

targets, performance

indicators

Who is going to do what, when and with which

resources?

Have hazards identified, risks assessed and controlled in all the workplaces. (ref: company OHS handbook, s.5)

Hazards have been identified in the last 6 months, risks assessed and controls implemented for HO and 4 depots.

3 depots are regularly non-compliant.

Have relevant depot supervisors complete hazard identification and risk assessments.

Train depot supervisors in risk management (RM).

Major Completed documentation by end of December 2004.

RM training completed by end of November.

Logistics manager and depot supervisors – week commencing 15/11/04.

HS manager to conduct RM workshop week commencing 1/11/04.

HS manager to check with LM manager 7/1/05.

HS manager to check with all sites to ensure activity occurs regularly.

Provide safe access and egress. (ref: Building Code of Australia)

All passageways, exits and entries compliant except two emergency doors in dispatch area open inwards.

Arrange with landlord for alteration of doors.

Major 100% compliant by end of November.

Facilitie manager- wk commencing 1/11/04 HS manager to check with F manager 3/12/04.

Have an alcohol policy in place (ref: NH&MRC Australian Alcohol Guidelines).

No policy and procedures in place at all; two related incidents reported 2002.

Have OHS medical provider prepare policy for discussion by OHS committee.

Minor Policy prepared and endorsed at next

February's OHS committee meeting and placed on intranet.

OHS manager to contact offsite medical provider first week November 2004, and liaise with communications manager.


Identifying what you are required to do

Everything flows from the OHS policy. The policy should state what the general requirements are, which can include

complying with the law

meeting any company-specific standards

enterprise agreements with unions

Australian standards

industry best practice.

Where the organisation spans a number of jurisdictions and providing there is no conflict, use the highest standards. Jurisdictions provide regulations, codes and guidance material to explain in greater detail what is required. Industry or Australian standards will have specific requirements. Corporate policy may have even more stringent standards. It is then a matter of listing the specific program requirements in headline form (in the first column). You don't need to repeat the detail, but be sure to refer to the documentation to be used.

In addition to having an OHS policy and organising OHS responsibilities and consultation, which we have discussed, the following requirements would be found in an OHSMS:

training management and workers in OHS

gathering OHS information, collecting data, analysing data and managing records

identifying hazards and managing risk

health and safety policies and procedures (P&Ps) to deal with hazards peculiar to the specific workplace, for example, manual handling, stress, alcohol, motor vehicles, confined spaces

inspecting workplaces

promoting health

preparing for emergencies

notifying, reporting and investigating incidents

auditing health and safety

providing medical and first aid

compensating and rehabilitating injured workers.


Training

Training in OHS needs to be given to all workers appropriate to their position. As with all jobs, competencies need to be identified and procedures put in place to make sure that workers have the necessary competencies and that they are maintained. Consultation with managers and workers can help define the required competencies and verify that everyone has them to the level required. Managers should have a system in place to ensure that the required competencies - OHS and non-OHS - are in place and maintained. There are specific legal requirements for the training of health and safety representatives.

Finding out where you are in relation to what you are required to do

The next step is to assess how far current organisational arrangements and activities match the requirements. Information can be gathered from documentation, records, interviews, inspections, surveys and databases. Managers, supervisors, employees and their representatives need to be involved to provide information and confirm reports.

Basically, you need to carry out an internal audit documenting your evidence and findings. Specific regulations, codes of practice and guidance material should be able to tell you what to look for.

Identifying what activities you need to carry out

There are requirements that are being met and requirements that need further attention. Both sorts of activities - maintenance and gap-filling - make up the OHS program.

You can expect to find gaps between what should be and what is. The size of the gap will vary and some will be able to be fixed relatively easily. Others may suggest a program seriously in need of special attention. In discussion with those affected, identify how the gap can best he closed and if OHS specialists or technical advisers are required to help close it. If closing the gap involves significant costs, set out all the options, their comparative effectiveness and full costing to provide reasons for the preferred option.

Priority

All the activities that make up an OHSMS are important to health and safety. It is a matter of attending to the gaps without neglecting the other activities that is the tricky part.

In terms of the consequences for the organisation and employees, some gaps will appear more serious or basic than others. Establish some priorities based on an estimate of the probable consequences for everyone if the activity does not take place. A simple triage - critical, major and minor - should be used to order and schedule gap-filling activities while fulfilling the other requirements.



Setting Objectives, Targets and (Key) Performance Indicators

Before setting objectives, targets and indicators, we must ask why we measure performance in the first place, as this will tell us how to measure. The three main reasons for measuring performance are to

1. identify the level of existing performance to help set goals and strategy

2. identify progress against goals to see how we are going, possibly review strategy and, sometimes, goals

3. identify outcomes against goals to see how we went, identify areas for improvement and, often, reward (or punish) those involved.

By measuring, we are able to manage our performance, able to make clear our goals and plan to achieve them. We can then see how we are going and make any necessary changes. Finally, we can see if we achieved our goals and how we could improve next time around. And, if we did well enough, we would hope to be rewarded. Measurement, then, motivates us.

The link between measurement and motivation is worth emphasising. Measuring effectiveness not only highlights areas for attention; it can also be a boost if we are doing well (or a source of sleepless nights if we aren't). By being linked to pay incentives, awards or, more often, personal achievement and professional recognition, measurement drives performance.

Table 3: Dimensions of OHS performance

Example: Safety training course

Term Definition Example

Goals (or objectives,4 aims, purposes, ends)

Targets

What you want to achieve

What you want to achieve in measurable terms

Safer handling of hazardous substances.

20% improvement in safety audit rating by the end of the year.

Inputs (money, time, energy, people, facilities, material, information)

What you use in trying to achieve your goals

8 weeks of my time, $10 000 of my budget, 150 supervisor days.

Processes, activities What you do to achieve your goals

Planning, organising, training, assessing.

Outputs (products, services)

What you complete or produce in order to achieve your goals

Provided 5 two-day courses on hazardous substances to 75 supervisors together with 75 handbooks.

Outcomes (or results, effects, consequences)

What you actually achieve by your output - in relation to your goals and targets

Safer handling of hazardous substances, 30% improvement in safety audit rating at the end of the year.


Dimensions of performance

If measurement is good for us, how do we measure? To understand how to measure OHS performance, we need to understand the dimensions of performance (see above).

The distinction some people have difficulty with is the difference between outputs and outcomes. The outcome of your intended goal or the purpose of your activity may not turn out to be what you wanted, for example, people may not be handling hazardous substances any better. This is likely to be a result of your output - what you put out into the world -not being what was needed to achieve the desired outcome. In this example, training courses and handbooks may not have been what was needed, but instead, better labelling or using non-hazardous substitutes. The output may not have been effective in achieving your goal. Outputs and outcomes, then, are very different.

Effectiveness, efficiency, economy

In general, we measure performance in three ways

Table 4: The ways we measure performance

Effectiveness Did you achieve your goals? Were you successful?

Efficiency Did you make the maximum use of the time and resources provided to you? Did you avoid waste?

Economy Did you use the least amount of time and resources necessary?

Putting together the two sets of terms gives us.

Table 5: Evaluating the performance of a training program

Economy Did we need

to go to this

expense?

Efficiency

Did we use the time and resources allocated in the most efficient way and not waste them?

Goal Safer handling

Target 20 improvement in

safety audit rating by the end

of the year

Inputs

$10000 + 8 weeks time

Processes planning,

organising, training,

assessing

Outputs

5 training courses + 75 handbooks

Outcome

30% improve-ment in

safety audit rating at the end of the

year

Effectiveness Were we effective in achieving the goals as measured by the outcomes?


Indicators

To measure things, we use indicators or measures. To measure our weight, we use kilograms; for distance, we use metres or kilometres.

Using the order found in Table 4, economy indicators are used to measure the amount of the inputs - the amount of money, time, material, people and resources used. As a health and safety manager, your economy indicators would include your OHS budget; the number of full-time-employee days used in the OHS program or the cost of your suppliers, for example, your compensation and rehabilitation costs.

Efficiency indicators are used to measure the processes of converting the inputs into outputs. The more output per unit of input means greater efficiency. Efficiency indicators are usually expressed as a ratio or equation - x kilometres per 1 litre of petrol or they could include, say, the number of people trained per $1000 of your budget.

Value-for-money or cost-effectiveness measures the cost of producing effective outcomes. If you could have achieved the same effective outcomes at less cost, say, by having someone else doing the training or simply using better labelling, then you were not being cost-effective. However, first your outcomes must be effective in meeting your goals (see below).

Such indicators are usually not difficult to identify or use when you as the health and safety manager have to report on your own performance. On the other hand, measuring the effectiveness of an organisation's OHS performance can be tricky.

It is important to remember that the purpose of measuring OHS performance is to compare the present state of affairs with the past and with the targets we have set for ourselves. Has the organisation been effective in making any headway and getting closer to achieving its OHS goals and targets? Where can we improve? This is the point of looking for indicators of effectiveness.

Effectiveness Indicators

Some organisations measure their performance by outcomes, the number of lost time injuries or illnesses over a set period, usually, a year. Others also use the number of working days lost over a period. However, because the number of workers employed or hours worked during a period may vary, many prefer to use rates such as lost time injury frequency rates (LTIFR), lost time injury incidence rates (LTIIR), average lost time rates (ALTR).

Because these rates directly measure failure they are called negative outcome indicators.

Such indicators are straightforward, relatively easy to apply and widely accepted. Used internally, they can help identify hot spots. Rates can be tracked over time as well as benchmarked against comparable industry or occupation rates. You can use them to set targets, for example, by reducing the LTIFR by 30 per cent for the next calendar year.

To keep the rates standard, the number of cases of injury or disease includes those resulting in lost time of one day or shift or more during the specified period. The `number of workers' is defined as the average number of workers who worked in the recording period. People who were


absent from work on paid or unpaid leave for the entire period should be excluded from this calculation. In the case of incidence rates, it may be useful to break down the category of `workers' into employees and contractors, full-time and casuals, male and female, blue-collar and white collar or other categories in order to get more information. Otherwise, frequency rates are more commonly used.

The `number of hours worked in the period' refers to the total number of hours worked by all workers in the recording unit including, for example, overtime and extra shifts. Where incidence rates can be influenced by the number of full-time, part-time or casual workers, the frequency rate focuses on the hours exposed to hazards, however many are actually employed.

Table 6: Outcome indicators expressed as equations

Lost time injury frequency rate

Number of lost time injuries or illnesses in the period x 1 000 000

Number of hours worked in the period

Lost time injury incidence rate

Number of lost time injuries or illnesses in the period x 100

Number of workers employed

Average lost time rate

Number of working days lost in the period

Number of lost time injuries or illnesses in the period

The àverage lost-time rate' measures the severity of the incidents being experienced by workplaces over time. The `number of working days lost' refers to the total number of working days - irrespective of the number of hours that would normally have been worked each day - that were lost as a result of the injury or disease for any individual incident up to a maximum of 12 months. For the purposes of calculating the average lost-time rate, occurrences that result in a fatality should be assigned a time lost of 12 months (220 standard working days). The focus here is not on the number of incidents, but on the severity of their impact.

Measurement intervals

Rates can be calculated at intervals that best meet the individual organisation's needs. Medium to large size employers (that is, those who have 200 or more employees) may benefit from calculating rates on a monthly and a cumulatively monthly basis. Individual monthly totals and rates can be derived from counting those incidences that occurred in a particular month and the corresponding time lost in respect of those cases in that month. Cumulative monthly data can be derived by adding the total number of incidences for a specific period, such as 12 months, and the total time lost that corresponds to those cases for that period. Smaller-size employers need only calculate totals or rates on a 6 monthly or annual basis as rates calculated more frequently are likely to be meaningless due to the influence of random factors.


Analysis

Measurement rates are of limited value when used in isolation. Analysing the rates in conjunction with each other provides workplaces with more complete information. This is particularly so for frequency and average lost-time rates, which, when examined together, give a more accurate measure of the number of incidents and time lost as they relate to the level of exposure to risk.

Large organisations will need to keep data to compare rates over time and identify seasonal trends. For small businesses that generally experience few incidences of injury or disease, time series analysis will be largely meaningless due to the random nature of events. Data may also be aggregated to cover all the operations of a firm or broken down to check performance of individual units.

Analysis using external data can be useful. Comparing your organisation's rate with government-produced industry rates or with information from your insurer may be able to tell you how well you are going in comparison with others and how serious your OHS problems are, which could, in turn, motivate management. However, the aim of continually improving is only really helped by measuring your own performance and setting realistic goals and strategies. Rates measuring incidence, frequency and average cost together with other indicators should be directed towards self-improvement and not just finding your position on some league table.

Problems with outcome indicators

While such indicators make good sense and should be used, they are not sufficient on a number of scores.

Such indicators tend to encourage underreporting, either by supervisors trying to make their sections look good or by employees trying to protect their continued employment.

They don't tell you whether your strategy or management system is responsible or not for the outcome. You may have a low rate of LTIs, for example, but there may have been a lot of lucky escapes. The workplace could still be an accident waiting to happen.

Even where accidents occur and are reported, such goals and indicators focus on the injury and not necessarily the potential seriousness of the accident. Had, for example, others been nearby at the time, the impact could have been much worse. Again, you are not given enough information.

Similarly, negative indicators don't capture incidents, that is, where no time or money is lost, but where the consequences could have been enormous.

Negative indicators don't always pick up occupational diseases in which there is a prolonged latency period. The statistics may show a decline in time off work for a period, but much later the figures may suddenly spike as a disease takes hold, for example, with occupational cancer.

Outcome indicators tend to reinforce reactive rather than preventative action. Action focuses on dealing with yesterday's problems and not what may lie ahead.


As most outcome indicators are negative, they focus on the downside of OHS activity. The fact that you didn't have as many accidents this year as last year is good, but it doesn't necessarily make you feel inspired.

Importantly, such indicators focus on only one aspect of human concern, the need to be safe and secure. They do not tell whether the workplace is satisfying the wider range of psychological and social needs that make up our well-being. For such reasons, we need additional indicators to supplement the negative outcome ones.

You need indicators telling you whether the system you have put in place is actually working and likely to achieve immediate and final goals. You must go upstream from outcomes and look at the processes you are using to promote health and safety. You need process indicators (see table below). An analogy may help. To arrive home safely, you must drive safely. The processes of following the rules of the road and not exceeding the speed limit indicate that you are likely to be driving safely (immediate goal) and will achieve your goal of arriving home safely (final goal). The same applies to OHS.

Table 7: Process indicators

Identify nature of agent or condition

Select a suitable measuring technique

Determine from regulations / standards whether monitoring is required

Develop collection methodology

Determine whether any exposure standard is involved

Carry out sampling

Assess workplace size and environmental conditions

Collect data, analyse, evaluate

Determine scope of monitoring

Report findings and recommendations

Fortunately, finding OHS process indicators is not too hard. Simply imagine that you were sent in to check whether the organisation was doing all it could to promote health and safety in the workplace. Which activities would you look for, given the risk profile of your organisation?


Using the four elements of the OHS model, you might come up with a list such as this (see table 8).

If you saw these sorts of activities established and being done well, then you would expect the workplace to be a safe and healthy one. These processes are indicators that OHS is alive and well.

Table 8: The four elements expressed as OHS process indicators

Element Sample indicators

Commitment OHS placed on the agenda of business meetings regularly

OHS forms part of performance measurement for all employees

resourcing of OHS is sufficient

Consultation OHS committee meets regularly

OHS newsletter produced monthly

decisions acted upon promptly

OHS System OHS policy and program documented and communicated

hazard identification and risk management done regularly

risk controls reviewed systematically

incidents notified, reported and recorded according to procedures

Culture reporting incidents is rewarded

lessons learnt are communicated

work-life balance program is being used by carers

In addition to process indicators, you may also wish to use input indicators, such as the percentage of plant (machinery, tools and equipment) purchased or hired according to safe design principles, of contractors screened for OHS performance or new entrants with licensed qualifications. These input indicators would tell you that you are less likely to be introducing or importing risk.

Finally, you may wish to use output measures: percentage of employees given OHS training by the organisation, the quality and coverage of the safe operating procedures produced by the organisation or the quality of the investigation reports.

In any case, you are looking for those indicators that will tell you whether the workplace is safe or healthy, given the particular hazards and risks facing the organisation.


Key performance indicators (KPIs)

The problem is not so much finding performance indicators - input, output, outcome or process indicators - but settling on which are your key performance indicators. A useful principle for assembling your KPIs is to think in terms of a car dashboard.

The Dashboard Principle

Ask Yourself

What sort of gauges, meters or warning lights do you need to assist you to manage?

Is the information provided relevant to the objective (OHS), accurate and up-to-date?

Do you have confidence in those gauges, meters and warning lights?

Have you enough? Have you too many -a flight deck?

Which are essential? Which are used most?

Once identified, then see if the indicators can be represented graphically on one side of a single sheet of landscape A4 paper and arranged to reflect priorities and associations.

Are the gauges designed appropriately? Which, for example, of barcharts, pies and dials or other graphic representations are more suitable?

Are they self-explanatory, requiring the absolute minimum of words and numbers?

Are priorities reflected, for example, in the size or position?

Are they arranged together logically, reflecting associations?

If the number of indicators makes the page too crowded, cut back. Keep working at it, testing it - consulting -with other drivers until you are satisfied.

Such a dashboard not only functions as a simple presentation tool, but also serves to help you remember key performance information (and help to make you sound as if you are on top of things). Most of all, it is an important test of your management focus. Remember, that we measure to help us manage.


Targets

Once you have decided on your performance indicators, you need to devise some targets and use them. In assigning targets, use the SMARTA principle - make your targets Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, be given a Timeframe and Agreed upon.

A sample set of indicators with targets and mid-year progress report is provided below.

Assigning responsibility, scheduling and resourcing

Once the objectives have been identified, it is a matter of management assigning responsibilities, scheduling the activities and providing resources according to any priorities.

All of these factors need to be consolidated by management into a draft plan for discussion and implementation. Management and employees, usually within the framework of the OHS committee or its equivalent, need to read, discuss, possibly amend and, finally, endorse the plan. They need to be clear how it was drafted, the thought processes involved and the evidence underlying the decisions that were made to reach the plan. Management and employees have to be confident of achieving the objectives. If possible, involve a subcommittee in preparing the plan. Often, preparing a plan will mean taking last year's plan as the base document and amending it in the light of its review. In any case, agreement would be helped by prior subcommittee discussion.

Resourcing or budgeting for the OHS program should be prepared by management on a careful estimate of the required inputs (people, money, OHS information, training, equipment, etc.) and their costs for activities to be successful. The health and safety manager should be involved.

Among the bigger upfront costs will be

workers' compensation insurance

salaries and administrative costs for the health and safety unit (manager, support staff, superannuation, payroll tax, office, furniture, equipment, travel)

training.

The finance officer or cost accountant may be needed to help, depending on the size of the total activity required, particularly if it involves capital purchases. Estimates of any downtime may need to be made if significant amounts of training are required. Where the money comes from will depend on the financial management system used by the firm.


Table 9: Sample set of indicators and targets

Type of indicator

Indicator Target at end of year

Year to date

On target?

Input Contractors screened for OHS performance

100% 85% N

Process Senior management team meetings receive and discuss OHS reports and act on issues arising

100% of all meetings

100% Y

Committee members attend meetings

90% attendance over the year

95% Y

Manager and supervisor

OHS training

95% by end of year

60% Y

Workplace hazard inspections

OHSMS audit rating

Climate survey rating

55, as set out in OHS program

20% improvement

Top 20 percentile

35

Due

Nov.

Due

Nov.

Y

N/A

N/A

Outcome Frequency rate (LTIFR) 30% reduction

31% Y

Incidence rate (LTIIR) 30% reduction

35% Y

Medical and rehabilitation costs 30% reduction

32% Y

Notes

1. Draft outcome targets for the organisation as a whole may be set prior to or after planning all the OHS program activities. The targets are set as each process or activity is planned.

2. In the example, the OHSMS audit and Climate Survey ratings are included as process indicators as they measure the quality of processes or activities.

3. Reporting against the OHS KPIs should go into the annual report alongside other business KPIs.


The important points are that OHS be specifically budgeted for and that there should be sufficient resources as pledged in the OHS policy. So, for example, the OHS training budget, along with other items, such as human resource training for managers and supervisors, professional development and so forth, must form an identifiable part of the total training budget.

Implementing

To be most effective, occupational health and safety management planning should be integrated into the organisation's business plan. As well as ensuring that the appropriate resources (human, physical, financial) are available, the implementation phase should include continued attention to the responsibilities and accountabilities required for OHS management. Although the ultimate responsibility lies with senior management, all staff in the organisation have an active role to play in the management of OHS. While the health and safety manager will advise and provide support, it is the responsibility of the workers, supervisors, line management, senior management and the managing director to implement the plan. Implementation should not be the responsibility of the health and safety manager nor should it be seen to be.

Monitoring and evaluating

The monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of all the OHSMS activities is a form of pulse-taking. You are checking to see, first of all, if such activities are happening and whether they are achieving their objectives or are likely to achieve their objectives. What is the performance level of our OHSMS? Do we need to make changes? Is the pulse there? Is it strong? If it is weak, what do we prescribe?

It is worth emphasising that the monitoring and evaluation process applies to all activities comprising the OHSMS, not simply hazard identification and risk management activities. So the policy needs to be checked to see, for example, if it is properly communicated to all staff. The OHS committee needs to monitor how well information is shared among members and decisions acted upon. The allocation of OHS responsibilities, accountabilities and authority needs to be monitored to see that it is appropriate, reflects changes to the work being undertaken and to the law. And so it goes throughout the entire OHSMS.

The method of monitoring and evaluating will vary according to the nature of the activities and the associated objectives, targets and performance indicators. Those methods need to be discussed, agreed upon and documented. The main considerations are as follows.

Who will do the monitoring (technical assistance may be required)?

What equipment, data, information or procedures are required?

When will it be done and how often?

How will it be reported, by whom and to whom?

Monitoring and evaluation reports are then made directly up the line to more senior management for any comment. These, then, are referred to the health and safety manager and the OHS committee. The point of such procedures should be clear - to ensure that OHS remains the ultimate responsibility of management.

As monitoring and evaluation will provide information on how the particular OHSMS practices are going, they also reveal whether the larger OHS


goals for the organisation as a whole are being met or are likely to be met. If, for example, hazard identification and risk management practices are being carried out effectively, then the chances of improving workers' health are increased

Reviewing and improving

Developing an improvement strategy means identifying the specific actions that need to be taken to meet any system shortcomings - ineffectiveness, unsuitability - and realistic ways of improving upon current levels of performance.

The review will need the attention of the OHS committee. If possible, the committee should spend time away from the workplace to listen to activity performance reports and discuss ways of improving performance. The CEO should be invited to open any workshop, to show commitment to OHS and indicate what changes or challenges face the organisation that will have an impact on OHS. Invite the CEO back to hear the outcomes. The health and safety manager can assist by gathering information on best practice in similar firms or industries, while managers and workers can be encouraged to come up with their own recommendations. Providing they are done professionally, techniques such as brainstorming and using de Bono's six hats technique can be useful. The use of external third-party facilitators can also be effective in opening people's imagination to possible improvements.

Whatever process is used, it needs to have input from management and workers before recommended changes are adopted. In many organisations these days, this consultation would occur using the intranet.

The most important point is that there should be no performance complacency as that is precisely the time things go wrong. It is important to continue to question the way things are done and find ways to do them better. The process of change and improvement never stops.

As this section has demonstrated, managing OHS information is critical to a systematic approach. The next section outlines the principles of OHS information management.

Case Study 1

THE CLUB ZERO PROJECT

Club Zero was an initiative funded by NSW WorkCover to facilitate the implementation and evaluate the effectiveness of OHS management systems in small to medium businesses in the fabricated metal product industry. The project targeted small business, as research has shown that small businesses have higher injury rates than large ones and lower legislative compliance.

The Club Zero project used a before and after design and involved two groups of 10 companies located in southwest Sydney (one group in the Ingleburn-Minto area and the other in the Bankstown-Milperra area).

The underlying principle for Club Zero is the need for small to medium businesses to be able to network in respect of OHS and reduce the time and cost involved in complying with legislative requirements and improving OHS. The project methodology involved four steps:


1. establishment of a baseline measure of the OHSMS (or lack thereof)

2. development of industry sector-specific OHSMS guidelines

3. a six-month implementation phase

4. an audit phase using questions derived from the OHSMS guidelines for fabricated metal products.

Due to the inherent danger in working metal at high speed the fabricated metal industry is recognised as hazardous.

Jamie Clapham, the general manager of K J Clapham Metal Spinners Pty Ltd, one of the firms involved, documented Clapham's experience in a case study. It demonstrates the significant improvements made to OHS performance in a four-year period, which the owners attribute to their increased commitment to OHS, implementation of their OHSMS and participation in the Club Zero project.

So in Summary

Planned, systematic approaches to OHS pay dividends to workers and employers and enjoy widespread support from labour, industry and the government.

Occupational health and safety systems (OHSMSs) are used to provide a systematic approach to OHS in many organisations. An OHSMS is made up of linked management practices aimed at improving workplace health and safety and complying with the law. OHSMS models should be tailored to the specific needs of the organisation.

An OHSMS contains certain basic elements

OHS policy committing management

consultation

organisation of OHS responsibility, accountability and authority

planning to implement the OHS policy - its requirements and the activities needed to fulfil them

implementation of the plan by management and workers as part of their responsibilities

monitoring and evaluating the system

regularly reviewing and improving it.

Measuring OHS performance requires a combination of negative and positive indicators.


Section Activities

1. What is a systematic approach to OHS and what are the benefits to

(a) Employers

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2. How is commitment to OHS expressed in your organisation? Provide evidence. How could it be improved?

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3. In your organisation, what are your chief responsibilities, your accountabilities and your authority? Are they written down and, if so, are they accurate? Do they contain any reference to OHS?

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4. Locate a copy of your organisation's strategic plan and analyse it to determine whether the organisation's OHS planning is explicit or implicit (or non-existent). If it is only implicit or non-existent, list the ways in which OHS could be included. If OHS is incorporated in your organisation's strategic plan, list the ways in which it could be improved.

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5. Locate a copy of your organisation's OHS policy and mission or value statement and consider the following.

(a) Are these policies or statements readily available to all staff? How?

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(b) Are they routinely referred to in OHS training? How?

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(c) Does the OHS policy fit with the principles outlined in the mission or value statement? How?

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6. Using the planning format provided, identify three legal requirements applicable to your workplace, identify any shortfall, specify the activity or activities required to meet the requirement, allocate a suitable priority, identify the relevant objectives, targets and performance indicators and, hypothetically, assign responsibilities, schedules and resources.

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7. When measuring OHS performance, what are the pros and cons of

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8. NSW WorkCover has developed a simple positive performance measurement tool called the Safety Meter for the construction industry that could be applied to other industries. Workplaces were scored using established sets of safe practice for conformance and non-conformance. Using the same principles, develop a safety meter for your workplace (see http://www.workcover.nsw.gov.au and use the search engine).

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Useful websites

The Clapham case study, which is a useful discussion of OHSMSs, can be found at <www.workcover.nsw.gov.au/Publications/pdf/ohsms.pdf>.

The National Occupational Health & Safety Commission developed guidelines for writing OHS policy. These can be found at <www.nohsc.gov.au/ohsinformation/databases/practicalguidancematerial/g/002667.htm>.

Warwick Pearse's work on the Club Zero project can be found at <www.workcover. nsw.gov.au/Publications/pdf/ohsms.pdf>.

Useful Books and Other Print Material

Australian and New Zealand standards and guidelines on occupational health and safety should be referred to in order to develop a systematic approach to OHS. AS/NZS 4804:1997, Occupational health and safety systems - General guidelines on principles, systems and supporting techniques with guidance for use together with AS/NZS 4801:2001, Occupational Health and Safety management systems - Specification.

de Bono, E. 2001, Six Thinking Hats, Penguin, Harmondsworth.

Pearse, W., Gallagher, C. & Bluff, L. (eds) 2000, Club Zero: Implementing OHS management systems i n small to medium fabricated metal product companies, proceedings of the First National Conference, Crown Content, Melbourne, pp. 83-99, is useful for a discussion of the Club Zero project. This volume contains a number of discussions of OHSMSs, including the Clapham case study.

Although audit tools are not OHSMSs, they imply a model upon which the tool is built. Jurisdictions and commercial providers have developed such audit tools, the most well known being SafetyMAP created by WorkSafe (Victoria), TriSafe (Queensland) and SABS (South Australia).


2. Establish and maintain participative arrangements for the management of OHS





The logical first step in managing health and safety risks is for top management to issue a policy statement on occupational health and safety. The policy should state that the organisation accepts responsibility for the safety and health of its employees and should set out management's goals, responsibility, accountability and participation in the safety/health function. The statement should aim to enlist the support of all employees, and should express support for OHS representatives and committees. It should not create a situation where what is said cannot (or fails to) be implemented at all organisational levels, otherwise the policy will lose credibility with the workforce.

A "team" approach between management and employees in the formulation of the policy statement will provide an opportunity for workers to relate to the statement and also help develop a relationship of mutual trust.

Content of statement of policy

1. Expression of management's objectives and intentions.

2. A set of general guidelines to the health and safety function (not to be confused with more specific procedures).

3. Acceptance of primary responsibility for the health and safety function by top management.

4. Expression of support for health and safety representatives and/or the workplace safety committee.

5. Outline of authorities and responsibilities of all employees at all levels.


The policy must be publicised, either by distribution to employees, display on noticeboards or announcement. It is important to talk to people as well as making communications in writing. Some workers may not be attuned to attending to written communications, either because English is not their first language, or they are disadvantaged in terms of functional literacy, or they are inundated with written communications, or for some other reason. Where there are workers who do not read or speak or understand English well, it is important to provide multilingual translations or convey the information by other means, e.g. verbal explanation and demonstration.

Policies versus programs and procedures

A distinction needs to be drawn between the role of a policy (as a general statement of intention and objectives), a program (a set of detailed steps that explain how the policy is to be implemented), and procedures (which may include safety rules or work method statements for particular tasks). The OHS risk management program will describe the organisation's plans for addressing particular issues. For example, a program on hearing conservation may cover testing procedures, noise reduction and use of ear-muffs and it may be supported by a set of specific instructions.

Sample health and safety policy

See the sample health and safety policy below. This is an example of an organisation's policy, to show what items could be included. Alterations can be made to cater for each organisation's different circumstances.

In large organisations, it may be a good idea for line managers to countersign the policy, as it emphasises local responsibility and improves the status of these managers where safety and health matters are concerned.

Planning Risk Management

The planning process

To meet the overall goals of the organisation's policy, specific objectives and targets need to be established during the planning phase. This entails setting performance standards, which should cover both organisational procedures and the control of specific risks. Information arising from the planning process is therefore essential for effective implementation.

For example, in planning risk management objectives, information may be sought on current industry standards with regard to the control of specific risks in that sector. This information will be extremely useful later in indicating hazards, which should be checked for during workplace risk identification exercises. Equally, statistical information on industry accident rates may be useful in determining the priority of risks during the risk assessment phase.


Sample OHS policy

It is this organisation's policy that each of its employees shall be provided with a safe and healthy place in which to work, and that our work practices will not compromise the health or safety of others present at the workplace, for example, contractors, visitors or other non-employees.

To achieve this policy, management will make every reasonable effort in the areas of hazard identification, risk assessment and control, as well as health preservation and promotion. These aspects of working conditions will be given top priority in company plans, procedures, programs and job instructions. In conjunction with this policy, a series of programs, procedures, and rules on specific individual health and safety matters will be prepared and issued. Health and safety at work is both an individual and shared responsibility of all employees. The following areas of responsibility are essential to the success of the policy:

1. Top management. Senior management is required to actively pursue the goals set out in the first two paragraphs of this policy through the following approaches:

(a) devising and administering a comprehensive OHS risk management program

(b) holding regular senior staff and supervisors' meetings to discuss health and safety performances, and

(c) taking effective action to provide and maintain safe and healthy working conditions for all employees and others affected by the undertaking.

2. Supervisors. Supervisors will be held accountable for working conditions under their control and for the extent of information, instruction, training and supervision given on safety and health matters to employees. They are to provide the initiative and follow-up action to maintain this policy within their own sections.

3. All employees. Employees share responsibility for their own safety and that of their co-workers and others affected by work practices. The success of safety and health program ultimately rests on the willingness of everyone to cooperate and work collectively with a "team spirit".

The workplace health and safety committee/health and safety representative shall be supported by management and employees.

Reducing work-related injury and disease, as well as related insurance costs, will permit the company to be more competitive in its industry, thus helping to safeguard jobs.

Signed ………………………………. Date ………………………………

(Chief Executive Officer)


Elements in successful planning

To plan effectively for risk management, employers should be familiar with:

the legal duties to employees, contractors, members of the public and others who might be at risk as a result of the organisation's activities

relevant industry health and safety standards, and other OHS guidance material, such as guidance notes or safety guides

the availability of in-house health and safety advice and support

access to relevant outside services and organisations that may be able to provide advice and assistance (such as government agencies, training consultants, emergency services and statutory authorities), and

the principles of risk management.

This requires organisations to make sure they identify, and have access to up-to-date versions of all the legal and other requirements applicable to the organisation. It also requires the development and documentation of procedures to identify assess and control risks to health and safety.

Contribution to overall management

The process of deciding on the safest way to undertake the organisation's work activities expands management's understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the various options. There are always some ways of working which are safer than others. Safe working methods must be defined before they can be followed, so risk management planning activities can raise managers' awareness of issues such as:

the benefits of developing and defining safe work procedures

prevailing health and safety risks associated with the types of plant, substances and processes existing at the workplace

current industry practice with regard to the control of risks

OHS implications of introducing new processes or production methods, and

new technology available in areas such as plant safety devices, alternative substances to currently used hazardous chemicals, personal protection and work systems (for example, automation and access control).

Prerequisites to implementation

Certain matters should be resolved during the planning process. Prior implementing a risk management program the employer should:

identify the need for information on health and safety issues and ensure that it is disseminated as required

ensure that effective methods of communication are established and used to promote safety awareness at all levels, and


ensure that arrangements are in place (and that they are properly used) to achieve effective consultation between management and employees on health and safety issues.

The people asset

Effective management of health and safety risks requires engagement of upper management and the entire organisation. The selection of competent personnel as core participants is another critical factor. The responsibilities the health and safety manager, OHS committee, OHS representatives, management team leaders and others involved in specific tasks within process must be clearly defined during the planning process. All of these people must be provided with sufficient information and training to undertake their individual roles effectively.

The steps required to achieve objectives should be planned and the plan broken down into tasks that can be allocated to identified individuals or groups. These tasks must be matched to individual competencies and must conform to overall organisational systems and planning.

For example, an overall objective to reduce strain injuries will require many supervisors and managers in the organisation to understand the individual tasks required of staff. Their abilities and capacities in terms of workload must be matched to the tasks allocated. In addition, they must be provided with sufficient information, training and support (including time and resources) to carry out their tasks efficiently.

Setting objectives and targets

Clearly formulated objectives give the organisation a clear vision for what is to be achieved as well as a way to evaluate its OHS performance.

The objectives will depend on the program and the workplace. What is important is that the objectives chosen are measurable, rather than vague statements. Performance objectives should be based upon the "SMARTA" principle, that is, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, given a time frame, and agreed.

For example, "a better place to work" or "cleaner air in the laboratory" are not measurable objectives. Better choices would be "a 30% reduction in labour turnover within 12 months" or "reducing the concentration of compounds X, Y and Z in the laboratory atmosphere to below the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission's published exposure limits".

Where the program is one of ongoing improvement, a time frame should be specified. In some cases improved productivity, or increased safety with no loss of productivity, can form part of the objective.

While objectives state what is intended to be accomplished, targets define the performance level within a time frame. The extent to which objectives are met is then measured by performance indicators.


For example, in an effort to eliminate or reduce back injuries or other strain or sprain injuries associated with lifting, moving or carrying loads, an organisation could adopt the following objective, target and performance indicator:

Objective: Eliminate manual handling injuries.

Target: Assess risks and introduce measures to control all manual handling risks, by [date].

Indicator: Proportion of manual handling risks assessed and for which control measures have been implemented.

Assessing results against original objectives

The reason for setting measurable objectives is to enable the outcome of a program to be assessed, and to make any changes that are shown to be necessary.

Case study 2

A hazardous substances safety program

The objectives of a hazardous substances safety program were agreed to be:

catalogue and prepare MSDSs (material safety data sheets) for all chemicals and other hazardous substances at the workplace

adequately label all chemical storages at the workplace

ensure that showers and eye-baths are available at all locations where they may be needed, and

reduce the atmospheric level of specified chemicals to below agreed levels.

Six months was set as the target time for achieving these objectives.

At the end of six months a survey of all chemicals and other hazardous substances in the workplace had been carried out, and all chemical storage had been labelled in accordance with the NOHSC's guidelines. Showers and eye-baths had been placed within easy access of all major chemical usage areas at the workplace.

Measurements of the specified chemicals showed that atmospheric levels had in fact been reduced to below internationally accepted exposure standards However, MSDSs had not been compiled for some of the chemicals that were catalogued. The reason for this was a delay in getting information from certain chemical supply companies. It was decided to put pressure on the companies to supply the necessary information, and to investigate other suppliers if information was not forthcoming within two months.


OHS management plans

To achieve its objectives and targets, the organisation can create and use an OHS management plan. The plan is the key to the successful implementation of the OHS management system.

OHS management plans should describe the means by which the targets will be achieved. Typically, they include time frames and personnel responsible for implementing the organisation's policy.

The plan can focus on specific elements of the organisation's operations, for example, on manual handling risks, or on the design of equipment, work systems and individual jobs. Where appropriate and practical, the plan may include a consideration of production and maintenance. This may be undertaken for current or new activities, products and services.

For installations or significant modifications of work processes, the OH&S management plan may address the planning of the change, the design construction, commissioning and operation of the proposed new process. The plan should also address matters such as decommissioning of plan and disposal of substances. Procedures should be established to ensure that plans are reviewed at regular and planned intervals, and amended if necessary.

Roles and Responsibilities of Staff

This section describes the roles and responsibilities of the various types of staff involved in an organisation's OHS functions.

The use of these types of staff will depend on the organisation's own circumstances — its size, dispersion of employees, type of work, control systems for hazardous processes, quantities of dangerous materials in use, incidence of shiftwork, working conditions, proximity to outside health and medical care, and other individual aspects relevant to its style of leadership and organisational structure.

All employees at the workplace should be made aware of the various safety and health staff and the functions of each. This information should be included as part of induction training.

Who is responsible for health and safety?

The final responsibility for occupational health and safety lies with the person who is ultimately in charge of the workers, such as a CEO. Particular OHS responsibilities can be delegated, and persons held accountable.

The authority delegated to carry out health and safety responsibilities must operate in the same way as other management functions. It begins at the top level with an approved written policy statement, procedures, rules and instructions that, once issued, must have some type of performance assessment system to measure compliance and personal accountability.

To carry out the health and safety function effectively, the degree of authority delegated must equal the amount of responsibility given. For example, those who are accountable for the health and safety of


workers in a particular area must have the authority to redesign work processes in that area. While this is relatively straightforward for organisations that employ workers on their own premises, it is more difficult when the employer is a labour hire company whose workers are hired out to other organisations.

The courts have held that in this case the employer, that is, the labour hire company, still shares responsibility for the safety of workers who are employed at other organisations. In this situation the labour hire company as well as the "host employer" are both responsible for the workers' health and safety.

Many organisations evaluate health and safety performance as one aspect of performance when considering possible promotion opportunities. Frequently, financial loss due to accidents, injuries and damage may equal or exceed the organisation's profit for the same period. Therefore it is advisable that these losses and results be included in all relevant reports, including annual reports to shareholders.

It is important to remember that the exercise of health and safety responsibilities has a flow-on effect to other aspects of the company's overall health. For example, the growth in socially responsible investment funds means that good OHS performance may represent a potential business development opportunity (or risk).

Responsibilities of top management

Senior management are responsible for an organisation's strategic planning in relation to occupational health and safety. This will mean determining the resources (finances, staff, time and access to consultants) that are to be devoted to health and safety. What constitutes adequate resources may be contentious, with employees and management expressing conflicting views. Senior management will be required to make the final decision and must take responsibility for an organisation's health and safety performance.

Other top management functions relevant to health and safety include:

determining which safety programs are to receive priority

monitoring the outcome of an organisation's health and safety programs

ensuring compliance with legislation, awards and standards .

endorsing the formulation of appropriate rules, procedures and methods for the workplace

ongoing and effective dissemination of OHS information and promotion of health and safety awareness in the workplace, and

commitment by personal example.


Responsibilities of line managers and supervisors

Line managers and supervisors must accept as an integral part of their duties the responsibility for implementing and administering health and safety procedures at the workplace.

Supervisors/managers will have overall management responsibility for their sections, and the basic functions of planning, organising (including staffing leading and controlling apply to the safety issue. Responsibilities include the following:

overall supervision of employees to ensure the health and safety of the worker, the public and the consumer

hazard identification and assessment and control of risks

implementation of particular safety programs

on-the-job training and instruction

efforts to motivate employees to comply with safe work practices, including specific directives when giving orders

accident investigation and correct reporting

issue of and ensuring correct use and maintenance of appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment

submission of reports and recommendations/suggestions about hazard controls, workplace procedures, etc, to more senior management, when these issues are outside their scope of authority, and

decision-making regarding job design, workplace layout and (possibly) recruitment, where they have this authority.

Where the organisation has full-time health and safety staff this staff will provide a support or back-up role to managers and supervisors, but will not have the responsibility of the latter transferred to them.

The role of the human resources department

The role of a human resources department within an organisation is one of a service/advisory/strategic function, not a line management function. Frequently, the health and safety function is administered by the human resources department, where it is often one of the "extra duties" added to that function. Where this is the case, a specific time allocation must be given to enable those duties to be carried out. Otherwise, this function will be given less time due to other pressures until it becomes a function in name only. Furthermore, it should be clearly understood that the human resources department's activities in administering the health and safety function do not lessen the responsibility of line managers or supervisors, nor do they replace the requirement for employers to consult with workers.

Where the human resources department is given the task of administering or resourcing the health and safety function, some or all of the duties set out in Table10 should be performed by that department. In this situation it will be worthwhile to build up a list of outside contacts and sources of technical and health and safety information, as it is likely that this type of assistance will be required.


Human resources personnel may participate in a workplace health and safety committee.

It is also appropriate for this department to be aware of the functions of occupational health and safety staff and of training available in this area. The department may be required to coordinate training for staff.

The health and safety officer or manager

Where organisations employ full-time OHS staff, these are usually known as the "health and safety officer (or manager)", or sometimes the function is performed by a "safety, health and environment manager". These designations are tending to replace "safety officer" and the narrower focus that title implies.

As can be seen from the list of the person's likely duties below, the job is mainly an administrative and advisory one (that is, a staff position). The officer/manager should report directly to top management, which takes required in a possible emergency. For example, if the supervisor were not readily available, and a dangerous situation arose in which an accident could occur, action must be taken to prevent injury and damage. Normally however, the position will have no formal authority over line managers or supervisors.

The duty statement below is a sample relating to a large public sector organisation.

Table 10: Duty Statement

Duties of a health and safety officer/manager

1. Conducts inspections personally or in company with executives and supervising officers, specialist consultants, or health and safety representatives /committee members to ensure the observance of health and safety standards and for the purpose of discovering unsafe or unsatisfactory conditions and practices before personal injury occurs. The health and safety officer/manager should be able to identify and qualify/quantify risks of injury or disease from occupational hazards and determine possible control measures.

2. Reports any unsafe and unsatisfactory conditions, procedures or operations to the supervisor or executive in charge (note that authority to order cessation of work in a dangerous situation must receive serious consideration, particularly where there is legislative provision for the cessation of work deemed to be unsafe

3. Acts as adviser to executive and supervisory staff and employees in all matters concerning prevention of accidents, injury, hazard, disease and the promotion of health and safety. Monitors the organisation's overall safety performance in order to report this to senior management.

4. Receives and reviews all reports of accidents, incidents, injuries potential hazards or "near misses". All such reports should reach the health and safety officer as quickly as possible. Prepares reports and recommendations to management and/or safety committees/ representatives.

5. Investigates selected accidents, hazards or "near misses", as distinct from the obligatory investigation made by supervisory staff, and recommends the appropriate action to prevent a recurrence.


6. Maintains an injury record system generally in accordance with legislation and relevant standards.

7. Attends all meetings of health and safety committees, and staff meetings or conferences when health and safety matters are discussed or considered

8. Organises health and safety training of staff and employees in conjunction with executives and supervisors. Institutes health and safety promotion campaigns to create and maintain an interest in health and safety at all levels. Conducts or arranges health and safety induction courses for new employees.

9. Identifies necessary resources and is aware of the availability of specialist support advice. Where medical or nursing staff are not immediately available on the premises, ensures that first aid facilities are adequate and maintained in satisfactory condition. Also makes arrangements with ambulance, casualty and medical services to be available as required.

10. Monitors and advises — on changes to legislation and award provisions relevant to health and safety, as well as the OHS implications of changes

11. Reviews, monitors and updates health and safety manuals, rules/ procedures, etc.

12. Encourages compliance with safe work practices through distribution of information and training resources such as websites, publications, posters, warning signs, videos, etc. This material can be either general (such as an induction handbook) or on specific topics (such as handling harmful chemicals, manual handling, etc).

13. Liaises with the organisation's insurance company or broker. This person may be involved in liaison in a workplace rehabilitation program (assisting in evaluating the effectiveness of programs, etc).

14. Stays abreast of health and safety strategies within the particular industry.

15. Carries out or organises research into safety and health matters as required by the organisation.

16. Answers enquiries from management, supervisors and employees.

17. Evaluates health and safety products and systems, and advises management on their suitability and application to the organisation.

The health and safety professional should have the training to be able to recognise most of the types of hazards that exist, and be able to learn by both studying the workplace and consulting other sources of information. Good liaison between the health and safety officer and supervisors is essential as the health and safety officer could lack the technical background of the supervisor.

The qualifications relevant for OHS officers or managers are set out in Appendix A


OHS representatives and committees

Employee consultation is required in all Australian jurisdictions, and this is mostly done through health and safety representatives and workplace OHS committees. Through these mechanisms, employers and workers can jointly tackle OHS problems, and employees can express safety concerns to management and provide management with information which they may not otherwise obtain on potential safety problems at the workplace. Active health and safety representatives and committee members will be able to generate an interest in safety throughout the area that they represent.

Generally the legislation sets out the method of selecting a representative or committee, as well as their powers and functions.

Selection of representatives

Health and safety representatives and committees typically act for one particular group of employees. These groups will often be the various departments or geographical areas within an organisation, but they may also be chosen along other criteria such as shiftworking arrangements or commonality of the hazards faced by particular employees. In smaller organisations it may be sufficient to have only one health and safe representative.

To ensure employees' confidence in OHS representatives and committee members, and to guarantee that they remain accountable to the group, OH&S representatives and committees should be elected by those they will represent.

An appointment for a period of at least two years is desirable, because of the training necessary and the period required for individuals to familiarise themselves with their role. However, there is also some advantage in rotation of employees through the position of OHS representative, because of the experience and awareness that it creates in the employees concerned.

Involvement of unions/union delegates

An issue that arises in relation to OHS representatives and committees whether workgroups should be determined along the lines of union membership and whether union delegates should become health and safety representatives or committee members. Clearly, the health and safety of employees is a major union concern; however, health and safety issues should not become mixed up with more general employer/employee matters.

In workplaces that have poor industrial relations records, it may be best not to determine workgroups along union lines. To do so could encourage safety issues to be thought of as an extension of industrial relations issues, and may lead to an adversarial approach in relation to the safety issues that do arise.

There is no overwhelming argument either in favour of or against having union delegates as OHS representatives and committee members. In addition to the risk of merging OHS and general industrial relations issues, where one person occupies both positions, he/she may not be able to give sufficient time and energy to either. On the other hand, a good union delegate will already have the necessary negotiation and consultation skills required to succeed as a representative or committee


member. In reality, a popular and effective union delegate is likely to be elected as a representative or committee member (if he/she wishes to take on the additional workload), whilst a poorly performing delegate will not be.

Functions and powers

The crucial functions of health and safety representatives and committees are to provide a mechanism for employers to consult employees about health and safety, to convey employee safety concerns to management and to represent employees in relation to the improvement of workplace health and safety.

In order to carry out the function of health and safety representative effectively, the following powers are regarded as essential (in each state, these powers are prescribed to a greater or lesser degree).

Rights of OHS representatives and committees

The right to know about health and safety at the workplace. This means suitable training must be given to representatives and committee members. It also means access to information that the employer has relating to potential dangers at the workplace. Representatives and committee members should be allowed to keep up to date with safety developments in the relevant area (courses, subscriptions to journals, tours of similar workplaces).

The right to inspect the workplace. It is important that representatives and committee members conduct regular inspections of the area they represent. A checklist may be useful. The right to investigate an accident or dangerous occurrence is also usually prescribed by the legislation.

The right to participate in health and safety activities. Representatives and committee members should have input into the OHS policies adopted at the workplace. They should be informed of any new equipment or processes that are being considered. The legislation may also provide a right to be present at any interview between the employer and an employee concerning a safety matter.

In some states health and safety representatives are given the power to direct employees to cease work where the workplace is considered to be unsafe, and the right to serve the employer with a provisional improvement notice where the representative considers that there is a breach of legislative requirements. In these situations the representative should first consult with the employer in an attempt to solve the problem.

The functions of workplace health and safety committees and representatives are advisory and educational, not decision-making. Management's ultimate authority, and that of supervisors, must not be undermined by the committee. Therefore, a committee can make recommendations to persons who do have the authority to implement them.


Functions of OHS committees and representatives

These functions are:

to enable rank and file workers to take an active part in the promotion of a healthy and safe workplace

to give employees the understanding necessary to assess the feasibility of proposed risk control measures

to obtain the benefit of the great store of knowledge and experience possessed by many employees regarding health and safety aspects of the work they perform by obtaining feedback from them

to review measures taken to ensure the health and safety of persons at the workplace

to investigate matters brought to the employer's attention which a committee member or employee considers to be unsafe or a risk to health (resolution of that may involve recourse to an inspector, appointed under the relevant Act, to inspect the workplace)

to assist in the development of recording systems for incidents and hazardous situations and to promote among employees an understanding of such matters as accident causation by reviewing recent accidents.

to assist in the development of a safe working environment and safe system of work

to assist in the formulation and effective implementation of an organisation‘s overall occupational health and safety policy

to monitor measures taken to ensure the proper use, maintenance and (if necessary) replacement of protective equipment, and

to make recommendations to the employer regarding health and safety matters.

Composition of OHS committees

Ideally, the workplace health and safety committee consists of representatives of several levels of management, with at least 50% of the members be elected employee representatives. The inclusion of a senior management representative will give the committee status and authority as long as manager has the authority to make decisions. The size of the organisation along with the number of separate departments within the organisation, may determine the size of the committee. Note that a committee of more than eight or 10 people will tend to become unworkable. The legislation in most cases provides a guide to the composition of the committee, as well as the method of selecting the employee representatives.


Training

Adequate training of health and safety representatives and committee members is crucial to their successful functioning in the role. Generally, legislation states that they must be granted time off without loss of pa) attend accredited training courses. Training courses are available through government departments, union bodies and private agencies.

An effective OHS representative or committee can help realise the benefits which are the aim of employee consultation but, conversely, there is possibility that the committee will become simply a "talkfest", rather than a forum for actually generating improvements. There is also the risk that committee will become entwined in general industrial relations issues. This can be overcome by having a strong chairperson and by setting agendas (see below).

Conducting a health and safety committee meeting

Timing of meetings should be arranged according to the organisation's own needs and workloads. They should be frequent enough to avoid an excess number of topics having to be discussed at each meeting.

A suitable time for conducting meetings could be either one hour before lunch or one hour before finishing time, thus providing an automatic time limit on meetings.

Typical duties of committee members are set out below;

1. Chairperson: arrange for meeting venue and time, review previous minutes and materials for meeting, arrange program, notify all members of above items and make other arrangements as necessary.

2. Secretary: prepare and distribute minutes, prepare agenda, forward recommendations and deal with correspondence.

3. Members: attend all health and safety meetings, report all hazards and instances of unreported injuries, accidents or near misses, contribute ideas and suggestions, work safely and endeavour to influence others, and carry out other duties as delegated.

The first aid officer

Occupational health and safety legislation generally requires employers to provide first aid facilities in their workplaces. Industrial awards may contain a similar requirement. The scale of facilities required varies with the number of employees and the type of workplace.

Employers should ensure they are familiar with the details applying in their state or territory. This information is available from OHS authorities.

First aid facilities include:

a properly stocked first aid box (as to contents, see below)

a stretcher

a shower and/or eye-bath (where chemical hazards are present), and

a first aid room (large organisations only).


Several employees should be trained in first aid, with one of them placed in charge of first aid facilities (including stock and maintenance). Many awards prescribe a first aid allowance to be paid for performing this duty.

First aid officers should hold an appropriate (and current) certificate. First aid courses are conducted by both the Australian Red Cross and the St John Ambulance Association. The names and locations of the current first aid officers should be well publicised throughout the organisation.

Provision of first aid facilities should be regarded as a minimum requirement, even if the organisation has no other form of occupational health facilities or service.

In an organisation that has its own occupational health service, first aid facilities should still be available at appropriate locations in case of emergencies or very minor injuries that do not require the attendance of occupational health staff and to cover work times when OHS service staff are not in attendance, e.g. shiftwork, weekends.

Occupational health staff should supervise the first aid staff in charge of these facilities and oversee the maintenance and stocking of first aid boxes, etc. First aid staff should still be appointed from the shop, office, and construction site or factory floor.

Table 11: General duties of a first aid officer

1. Dispense and control items from first aid cabinet.

2. Ensure cabinet supplies are adequate.

3.

Treat minor wounds and injuries, such as applying dressings, stopping bleeding and treating burns.

4. Deal with fits/fainting.

5. Resuscitation.

6. Record accident/injury details in accident book.

7. Arrange further assistance if required.

8. Advise top management immediately of any serious or potentially serious accident for which treatment has been required.


Contents of first aid box

Advice on first aid facilities may be obtained from state health departments. Legislation and regulations in each state should be consulted, as in some cases a list of minimum contents is set out. At the same time, there may be peculiarities of the individual work location which mean that extra items are needed. This information can be obtained from the health and safety survey.

Responsibilities of employees and other parties

Employees also have responsibilities under OHS legislation. Generally, the law requires them to take reasonable care of their own and others' health and safety, as well as to cooperate with systems established and not misuse anything provided to protect health and safety. They should also report hazards or OHS problems to their supervisors, and follow safe working procedures.

In addition, they should understand and contribute to the risk management process, by taking part in the identification and assessment of risks, and by helping to monitor the effectiveness of control measures.

Other parties with OHS roles and responsibilities include designers and manufacturers of plant (that is, machinery, equipment and appliances) to be used at work, suppliers of hazardous substances to be used at work, and people installing or erecting or dismantling workplace plant or equipment. These parties must ensure the plant or substances they design, manufacture, supply, or install are safe to use when properly used. They must also make available information about the safe use of the plant or substances they supply. For example, manufacturers of equipment must provide manuals or instructions setting out information such as maintenance required for safe use, and suppliers of workplace chemicals must make available material safety data sheets which provide specified information about precautions for safe use, first aid and other related matters.

Occupational health and safety professionals such as occupational physicians, occupational health nurses, occupational hygienists, ergonomists and others can also assist with many aspects of OHS risk management.

Other Considerations at the Planning Stage

The effect of job design

It is important to understand the potential effects of job content and job design in order to identify any risks arising from these aspects of work.

Employees may quickly lose interest in a boring, mundane, monotonous job (particularly one over which they have little control or discretion). The likely results of such situations are dissatisfaction with a job and alienation. This in turn may lead to consequences such as lack of attention, tiredness, daydreaming/distraction, lack of care, errors and even sabotage. The adverse effects on safety, costs and productivity are obvious, and they can be compounded by other unsafe or unhealthy aspects of the working conditions.


Many factors may contribute to unsatisfactory job design and content, including:

lack of control over the job, a particular problem with assembly-line situations and where technological enhancement results in "de-skilling" and/or where the operator has to meet the pace set by the new technology

inability to use potential and initiative

lack of "relevance" of work — the worker is unable to see the point of the work or its end product

lack of variety in work tasks, a problem that can often be overcome by introducing job rotation

a mismatch between job needs and opportunities with individual ability, skills and aspirations

social isolation, and,

lack of feedback and recognition on the job.

Basically, these add up to a conflict between the needs of the employee and the needs of the organisation and may result simply from an unimaginative approach, or through management being unaware of potential problems. Consultation with employees through health and safety representatives or health and safety workplace committees on matters such as the implementation of changes may obviate many such problems.

When designing jobs and allocating employees to them, attempts should be made to align individual and job needs as much as possible. Popular techniques include job enlargement and enrichment schemes, attitude surveys, forms of employee participation in decision making, quality circles and the use of autonomous or semi-autonomous workgroups. Remember that the more interested and satisfied an employee is with the job, the more chance there is that the job will be performed efficiently and safely.

Ergonomics

Ergonomics may be defined as the scientific study of the physical relationship between people, the equipment they use and their general environment. As an applied science, ergonomics is involved with the design of equipment and working environments that enable the best use of human capabilities without exceeding human limitations.

Ergonomics can be critically important for preventing back injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders to recognise the impact of ergonomics on workers' wellbeing. For example, the managing the risk of back injuries and other strains and sprains, as well as overuse injuries.

As indicated by the definition, ergonomics covers a wide range of workplace aspects — especially location, comfort, layout and ease of use. In any health and safety survey the layout of each workplace should be considered. The employees concerned can usually provide information on aspects of design or layout which are not user-friendly.

As ergonomics is a very complex science, it is advisable to seek expert advice when purchasing or installing new equipment, instituting new work processes or changing the workplace layout.


Personal observation of and interviews with employees prior to introducing change or purchasing new equipment provides useful information to highlight deficiencies — a health and safety representative and/or committee provides a mechanism for consultation for such purposes.

Catering for employees with disabilities

An important part of health and safety is to ensure that the workplace is safe and convenient for any current physically disabled employees (or suitable for future ones). This refers to a wide range of disabilities and is a consideration that may become more relevant with an increasing emphasis on the rehabilitation of employees. As what will be required varies according to the circumstances of each individual, it is only possible to provide general guidelines on what needs to be considered.

Important information to be aware of includes state building regulations and AS 1428: Design for access and mobility.

Items to be considered include:

building layout — parking, ramp entrances, doors, lifts, washrooms, level entrances and adjacent floor levels

work layout — desks, shelves, drawers, chair adjustment, work-benches, and

work equipment — a wide range of equipment specially designed for disabled people (such as those with sight disabilities or limb amputations) is available.

Advice is available from manufacturers of equipment and organisations involved with disabled people. It can also be helpful to consult the employee, who is in a very good position to know what he/she can and cannot do, and what assistance is needed.



Consultation, in which everyone's knowledge and cooperation is required, is critical to the success of occupational health and safety. Consultation,' a form of employee participation in decision making, is also termed ìndustrial democracy'. Governments have run hot and cold on industrial democracy as it appears to challenge managerial prerogatives, but governments have also recognised the clear dividends that come from OHS consultation and so, on health and safety issues, have made it a legal requirement for employers to consult with their employees.

Formal consultation is only part of the picture; informal, day-to-day consultation in its broadest form should be standard management practice. In an important sense, formal consultative arrangements are there to see that information sharing and clear communication are genuine and two-way so that decision making in general is improved. Consultation outside these formal requirements needs to occur as part of day-to-day operations provided everyone is trained to deal with the issue and has sufficient information and equipment to do so. Informal consultation can include employee meetings, gathering input for safety audits, hazard identification and risk assessment processes, communicating hazard alerts, carrying out surveys using checklists, holding tool-box meetings, sending intranet emails and requesting feedback on procedures.

Formal consultation is there to ensure that such day-to-day operations promote health and safety and do not endanger workers. Formal consultation, especially, in larger organisations, is designed to overcome the shortcomings of a suggestionbox approach and an open-door policy. Formal consultation reinforces a systematic approach to health and safety.

Finally, consultation over OHS is an important step towards industrial democracy, giving workers a say over matters that affect their lives. In challenging traditional managerial prerogatives, it provides a model for reviewing how organisations and society can be managed in a more democratic way.

In this section, we explain what formal consultation requires, its benefits, the roles and responsibilities of committee members and representatives, the conditions for it to be effective and how to monitor, evaluate and review OHS consultation.


Case Study 3:

Danum Engineering: A healthier, safer future

The following story illustrates the benefits of consultation. It is based on one of a number of studies done by the then Worksafe Australia (NOHSC) in 1991.

Danum Engineering set up as a toolmaking operation at North Shore, Geelong, in 1957. Still at the same location, the company has expanded into fabrication and erection, plant installation and maintenance, shutdown and maintenance labour, mechanical contracting, hire labour and machining work.

Danum now has two other permanent worksites, the Corio Shell Refinery and Point Henry Alcoa plant, as well as temporary locations. Of its 66 employees, 11 are in administration; all tradespeople are male. Danum's workers are covered by the Metals and Engineering Workers' Union and the Federation of Industrial, Manufacturing and Engineering Employees.

Taking control

Ten years ago Danum Engineering was facing a depressed market and high Workcare premiums. Today the market is just as tight - but not Danum's profits. The mechanical contracting company from Victoria drastically reformed its occupational health and safety (OHS) practices and now it's a better place to work, is more competitive and more profitable.

If we were still paying the levels of premium for workers' compensation that we were 10 years ago we may not be in business.

- Company director

It took Danum, a family-owned company, 10 years of commitment to get it right. Danum's company director, managers and workers designed an OHS plan that built safety into the company's priorities.

The whole process [OHS reform] has helped in all areas, it hasn't just helped in safety. It's helped in understanding each other better; in industrial relations, in quality, in meeting deadlines, in all aspects of our business.

- Company director

Danum hasn't had a serious lost time injury for more than 16 months, while the average for similar companies is five per year. But it wasn't always like that.

THEN - There was a division between them and us

Every time there might have been an incident or an accident or whatever, it was either management blaming the guy - it's his fault that he's done it - or guys on the floor blaming management because they contributed to it.

- Site manager


NOW - Health and safety belongs to everyone

Safety committee- consists mainly of employees, who oversee safety policy and practices throughout the company. If something can be done more safely the safety committee will see that it happens.

Safety effort recognition scheme-teams made up of tradespeople, supervisors and office staff work together in the scheme. The team with no accidents after six months wins a trophy for their favourite charity.

Final straw

'OHS' was one of the buzz terms of the 1980s. New legislation was in the wind and people were starting to take safety seriously. Yes, in 1986 at Danum, there was one serious accident for every five shop floor workers. Because of the company's poor OHS performance, Workcare premiums were skyrocketing, morale was low and lost time was affecting production.

A worker at a nearby site was killed on the job. Soon after, one of Danum's cherry pickers hit overhead power lines. It was pure luck the driver wasn't killed or seriously injured, but he could have been. And that's when Danum started to take safety more seriously.

We felt we couldn't keep going the way we were going.

- Company director

THEN - `[If] someone had an accident, oh well, bad luck. Patch it up and get on with the work.'

- Company director

Their reaction was, 'Say a little prayer and thank God no one died.'

- Shop steward

NOW - It's OHS practices that prevent accidents and health problems.

A safety action plan is drawn up each year. It maintains existing effective strategies and outlines new ideas, training courses and ways of measuring Danum's OHS performance.

Job start Every working day begins with a meeting. Hazards, risks and precautions are discussed before anyone opens their tool box.

Job task analysis: Safety when doing large or unusual jobs is not left to chance. Everyone involved sits down to talk through the risks. This way risks are identified and controlled.

Training and safety days are set aside to increase tradespeople, administrative staff and management's OHS knowledge and skills.

Long road ahead

The time for change had come; however, Danum realised that, if change was ever going to happen, both management and staff had to be involved and committed. They brought everyone together to talk about safer work practices.


Give your employees plenty of scope ... give them the chance to put plenty of input and they'll get right behind it.

- Shop steward

The company invested time, effort and money in the changes. A safety committee was set up, safety gear bought, new ways of doing things were tested and a safety management plan (SMP) developed.

This SMP is now the blueprint for all work practices at Danum's sites. Ten years down the track new employees, old hands, managers and workers are committed to following comprehensive OHS practices.

The objective is to talk about safety at 7.30 in the morning, before you open your tool box ... the same [as putting] on their safety boots or overalls.

- Site manager

Safety is a part of every manager, supervisor and employee's routine.

THEN - No one kept statistics on injuries, so nobody had any idea how poor safety standards were affecting the company.

NOW - Consultation and communication happens at every level.

Injury statistics are converted into graphs, displayed on noticeboards and discussed. This way it's easy to see safety trends over time.

Safety newsflash bulletins are posted on noticeboards to alert workers to onsite risks and notify of accidents at other sites.

A monthly newsletter is distributed in pay packets. In this way, everyone is assured of being able to keep up with safety achievements and problems.

Trying times

But there's no gain without pain. At first there was suspicion between workers and management. Neither side trusted the other's motives.

Anything like that, in the early stages there's always a bit of mistrust - what are they after and are they fair dinkum about it? We've found once things got rolling and issues came up and they were rectified and improved, that the sincerity was there.

- Company director

Initially, Danum's new work practices cost them business. They couldn't compete with companies who were taking shortcuts with OHS, but they held their ground.

Eventually, Danum's high standards have become a competitive advantage.

It makes us a lot more competitive, a lot more viable and a lot more attractive to our clients. Clients want to deal with companies that have a good safety record and good performance ... we're a lot more marketable.

- Company director


THEN - Production was all that mattered

Getting the job done, getting it done when the client wanted it done, and safety wasn't considered.

- Company director

NOW - Production and safety go hand in hand

The safety managementp/an is the company's code of practice. The plan is implemented on a day-to-day basis by everyone.

Safety manual Everyone has one, written by, and for, Danum employees. Secrets of success

Danum wouldn't be where it is today if management and staff hadn't worked together. Everyone has to be committed to making their workplace safer.

We've created a culture where people aren't scared to tell the boss they've slipped over and hurt their back, because they know that it'll be investigated and possibly it'll prevent one of their mates from slipping over and hurting their back.

- Company director

Changes weren't made without consultation. There was no need to rush into things. Danum realised it was a learning process for everyone and that it takes time.

From the beginning everyone talked about OHS. It was a real issue, not just a bulletin on a noticeboard. Danum continuously improves its OHS performance with a range of strategies. This keeps everyone interested and involved in the program.

There is no magic way to change poor OHS practices, but the pot of gold at the end of the (rainbow] makes it worthwhile.

It can make work a lot more enjoyable and make work easier.

- Site manager

Wake up. The world's a nice place if you're fit and healthy.

- Health and safety representative

*** National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Worksafe Australia

1992, from the series OHS: building best practice


What is consultation?

Consultation is information sharing and discussion with the objective of gaining greater understanding by and agreement between all parties involved in an issue. The underlying assumption of the requirement to consult is that OHS issues are best resolved through meaningful and effective consultation within the organisation.

In contrast, some consider consultation to be merely informing people in advance about, for example, an upcoming change to the workplace without letting all the people affected by the decision have a say in how that change is to be implemented. However, if there is no real intention or effort to reach agreement among all the parties concerned, this is not real consultation at all, rather, it is a warning or a notice. Consultation must be a two-way street in which employees are given the opportunity to consider the issues and have their opinions heard and valued.

Consultation is often contrasted with negotiation where negotiation is understood as a formal and often adversarial bargaining process involving representatives from management and, in the case of employees, normally, their union representatives. Normally, agreements resulting from negotiation are signed by both parties and lodged with an industrial court.

While there is usually some form of informal negotiation during consultation, the consultation under discussion here is not negotiation in the strict sense outlined above. Although union representatives may be involved and the agreements must be binding, there is no use of the formal industrial process.

Where consultation over health and safety does not result in consensus, any resulting dispute may have to be resolved in other ways, usually by submission to a third party, an expert, an inspector or an industrial court. A consultation policy should make clear how disputes are to be resolved and incorporate any legal requirements or industrial agreements (see below).

Consultation should not be seen as shifting management's legal responsibilities to the OHS committee or other consultative framework. Rather, consultation enables the parties to better exercise their duty of care while the legal duties remain unchanged.

Consultation is not restricted to employees, but applies also to contractors and labour hire. A firm using contractors must consult on the OHS issues contractors may face, for example, on the most appropriate way to remove toxic materials from the workplace or how best (and safest) to maintain hazardous plant or equipment. Similarly, principal contractors are obliged to consult with subcontractors. As a general rule, wherever and whenever you exercise control over work, you need to consult on OHS with those involved, whether they are employees, contractors or labour hire.


What are the benefits of consultation?

Consultation is not simply a legal requirement; it is also a means of improving decision making and, as a result, health and safety.

1. Consultation provides an opportunity for finding better solutions to workplace health and safety issues using the experience and knowledge of the workforce.

2. With the improved understanding brought about by consultation comes a greater commitment to OHS. As a result, implementation becomes easier.

3. Consulting improves morale and industrial relations by showing concern for all parties involved in the process.

4. Consulting provides a model and the skills for addressing other operational and industrial matters.

5. With better health and safety and improved industrial relations, there is the real potential for increases in productivity.

There are costs, such as time and energy, and some usually minor financial costs involved in consultation, which are clearly offset by the benefits of well-managed consultation.

Case Study 4:

South Australia's Review of Consultation (2001)

The following is an overview of the of the findings from a review of OHS consultation in South Australia. The review also summarises the findings into what promotes effective consultation and what are the barriers.

First and foremost, the review found that effective OHSW workplace consultative and participative arrangements lead to improved OHSW as determined by the cost of workers' compensation. Broadly speaking, the rate of workers' compensation claims incidence for companies with HSRs and/or Health and Safety Committees is higher than for those without them as indicated by aggregated WorkCover data. The focus groups and consultative workshop indicated that the higher reporting rate was possibly due to a greater OHSW awareness that HSRs and Health and Safety Committees give to both management and employees. Employees in organisations with formal consultative processes in place tend to believe that they have someone to go to and that reporting injuries and illness is acceptable and non-threatening. Management and workers understand employees' rights, and there are better reporting mechanisms. Together these result in an increase in injury and illness reporting. Participants in the review suggested that organisations with poor consultative mechanisms might experience under-reporting of claims.

On the other hand, aggregated WorkCover data indicates that the cost of injuries in workplaces with HSRs/Health and Safety Committees is lower than in those without such arrangements. The survey, focus groups and consultative workshop indicate that this is due to a combination of factors. Firstly, that preventative mechanisms are likely to be more effective in these organisations and secondly, that injuries


and illnesses are likely to be reported early and acted upon before they become intractable.

As one of the roles of Health and Safety Committees is overseeing rehabilitation - getting ill or injured workers back on the job - the cost of injury and illness is lessened as a result. Improved morale, a workplace where people feel 'cared about' and improvements in productivity were also identified as advantages of effective OHSW consultation and participation. Productivity improvements were seen to arise from OHSW consultation because practical solutions to problems could be found through this mechanism. People also identified that they took their OHSW knowledge and applied it away from the workplace; in their homes and leisure activities. This was seen to reinforce a positive attitude to OHSW in the workplace.

** Working Together. A review of the effectiveness of the health and safety representative and workplace health and safety committee system in South Australia, WorkCover Corporation, 2001

When is consultation required?

Consultation is typically required in the following instances:

when risks are to be assessed or assessments are being reviewed

when decisions are to be made on control measures

when monitoring procedures are to be introduced or altered

when decisions are to be made about the adequacy of facilities

when changes are being proposed to premises, systems of work or to plant or substances used for work

when decisions are to be made about the consultative procedures.

How is consultation organised?

Depending on the particular legislation, consultation may be achieved through

elected OHS representatives

a committee established jointly by the employer and employees

other agreements made by the employer and employees

any combination of these.

OHS representatives

An employee who is a workplace health and safety representative has an additional role to his or her normal work responsibilities, which is to represent the OHS interests of fellow employees to the employer. Through their representatives, employees can participate in decisions concerning OHS in the workplace.

The basic structure for a system of participation via workplace OHS representatives is one representative for each group of employees. Procedures for determining the number of groups needed in the workplace to ensure that everyone's interests are adequately represented may be guided by legislation. As well, there is usually


provision for the election of deputies to act in the absence of the representatives.

To ensure employees' confidence that their interests are being adequately represented and that the representative is accountable to the members of each group, the health and safety representative must be elected only by those they will represent. Some legislation imposes specific requirements on the selection of an OHS representative. In Western Australia, for example, the employee must have a certain length of experience in the workplace. There are usually specific grounds and procedures for disqualification of a person holding this position.

Under the terms of the legislation OHS representatives and/or committee members are not personally liable for acts or omissions. OHS representatives, as well as other employees, who raise a complaint in relation to health or safety, are protected from discrimination or dismissal arising from their activities as representatives or committee members.

Three essential rights are promoted to ensure the effectiveness of the role of the OHS representative. They are

the right to know about risks in the work environment

the right to participate in the day-to-day identification, assessment and control of risks

the right to refuse unsafe work, that is, to refuse to work in conditions known or believed to be unusually dangerous, without fear of repercussion.

Rights and duties

Generally, the rights of OHS representatives include permission to

conduct workplace inspections

accompany an inspector on an inspection

require an employer to establish an OHS committee (in some jurisdictions)

be present at interviews between an inspector and an employee on OHS matters.

The employer will generally be required to

permit access to certain categories of information

consult with the representative on certain matters

permit the representative to take time off work to undertake relevant training

provide such facilities and assistance as are necessary to enable the representative to carry out the relevant functions and duties.



OHS Committees

The main purpose of an OHS committee is to make recommendations to the employer about health and safety matters that affect the people in the committee members' workplace. In establishing a committee, legislation may dictate its composition, method of election and roles and responsibilities.

In some jurisdictions, such as Victoria, Queensland, South Autralia and the Commonwealth, employers must take steps to set up an OHS committee if requested to do so by an OHS representative. The time in which this must take place is also usually specified.

Consultation policy and principles

To lay the framework, a policy statement needs to be developed that indicates the commitment to consultation and which contains matters such as

a simple definition or understanding of what consultation is

the purpose and goals of consultation on OHS

when it should occur

when changes affecting health and safety are proposed

throughout the course of risk management

when facilities for the welfare of workers are being decided

the principles governing consultation

how consultation will occur

reviewing consultation.

As a general framework document, the policy statement should not go into the specific procedures of consultation, but it should have enough detail for everyone to understand the implications. It should be signed by the head of the organisation to indicate management's commitment to the policy statement. Normally, the policy statement is a one page document and, once signed, is displayed in an appropriate location at the worksite. The OHS committee should review the policy annually.

Consultation might cover commercially sensitive information, for example, new product lines or proposed acquisitions. Management must have the trust and agreement of everyone that such matters remain confidential. Specific agreements may need to be struck to cover commercial-in-confidence or other sensitive matters, such as individual privacy. The policy statement may refer to the need for such confidentiality.


How the consultation is organised and the procedures governing it should be first set by the goals of OHS consultation - what, precisely, do you want to achieve? - and then, by examining the

size and structure of the organisation - is it local, national, multinational, statebased?

the ownership of the organisation - public, private, not-for-profit?

industry or industries involved

the work carried out - what kind of processes, products and services are involved and, hence, what are the issues?

work organisation - nine to five, shift, central office, depots, warehouses?

nature of the workforce - what are the male:female and blue-collar:white collar ratios, high:low literacy levels? is the workplace unionised?

As far as possible, committee composition ought to reflect the broad workforce - males and females, white-collar and blue-collar - with management representatives being in the minority. In this way, the committee hears as much as possible of the issues affecting everyone, people can see their face at the committee level and broad consensus can be better achieved.

To enable everyone to feel that this is a genuine form of industrial democracy the chair of the committee should be an employee representative. In some jurisdictions, this is a legal requirement. For the same reason, the chair ought to be rotated regularly or at the minimum a limited term should be set.

Procedures such as the scheduling of meetings, due notification periods, leave arrangements, training and resourcing may also be spelt out. If there are other consultative or negotiating forums, such as a works council or industrial democracy committee, then the relation of the OHS committee to these organisations needs to be made clear.

The health and safety manager is the main administrative support for the formal consultation, usually organising the meetings, calling for agenda items and drafting the agenda, providing background papers, taking minutes and reporting to the senior management team.


Table 12: Checklist: How To Conduct an OHS Committee Meeting

The minutes of the last meeting are reviewed and approved as an accurate record, or amended as necessary.

The meeting hears a report back on any matters listed for action in the minutes of the last meeting.

The meeting works through the agenda in a business-like fashion. Avoid getting bogged down on minor points (which may be able to be addressed outside the meeting with a report back to the OHS committee) and sidetracked by issues not on the agenda (the OHS committee can consider these issues in general business or at the next meeting, as agreed).

DURING THE MEETING

All OHS committee members need to

focus on resolving problems by considering the appropriate recommendations to put to management

support the chairperson by ensuring that the meeting keeps on track and doesn't get bogged down.

AT THE END OF THE MEETING

All OHS committee members must be responsible for the following.

Ensure that there are clear outcomes from the meeting. Establish action items and responsibilities. (What has been decided? Who is going to follow through on the decision? When will that happen?)

Agree on a date and place for the next meeting.

Spend a few minutes evaluating the meeting. (Did the meeting follow the set down agenda? Was the desired outcome achieved? Are there clear action items and responsibilities?)

AFTER THE MEETING

The chairperson, with the assistance of the employer and/or other OHS committee members as appropriate, should ensure that

minutes of the meeting are written up

people responsible for actioning items are clear on what the OHS committee expects them to do

the meeting minutes are distributed to OHS committee members

the meeting minutes are displayed in the workplace where employees are likely to see them (if an employer has remote locations, it is still important to keep employees notified).

NSW WorkCover Code of Practice on OHS Consultation, 2001, Schedule 2


Dispute resolution

The role of committees and reps in resolving disputes is especially useful for the health and safety manager. Apart from reducing the potential workload, it is the most effective way of resolving problems at the earliest stage; that is, as long as everyone is properly trained, skilled and committed to the procedures.

A sample dispute resolution procedure is outlined in the diagram below, in which the role of the committee and the H&S rep are identified. In addition to making clear the steps to be taken, it enables problems to be solved at the workplace level as far as possible, freeing the OHS committee to focus on the larger problems.

Table 13: Sample dispute resolution procedure

Problem is identified by worker and reported to manager/supervisor

Problem is identified by worker and reported to manager/supervisor

Problem is not resolved

Worker reports problem to OHS rep who takes it up with manager/supervisor and then, if necessary, senior management.

OHS rep reports problem to OHS committee



OHS committee calls in third party – inspector, expert – to adjudicate

Problem is resolved


If the procedure is followed and the problem remains unresolved, it could become a matter for the industrial courts. While severe, this would be an extremely rare occasion.

Too small?

If the business is not large enough to have a health and safety committee, the requirement to consult with employees can be shown using other methods, such as

gaining agreement on health and safety issues with employees

receiving union endorsement for policies

issuing agenda items prior to holding regular meetings

holding and documenting regular meetings

notifying employees of OHS matters, discussing them and minuting the talks.

Employer's support

Fundamentally, the effectiveness of a committee will depend on the support it receives from the employer. Indicators of support would include

demonstrated commitment and support from senior and middle management

consultative arrangements are established and budgeted for

management representatives having the power to make decisions and valuing the opinions of others

provision of administrative support, for example, secretarial support

sharing of information in a timely fashion

provision of appropriate time off and support to reps in order that they may carry out their functions as reps and responsibilities as employees

availability of requisite training for consultation and specific OHS matters, for example, hazard identification and risk assessment

prompt implementation of decisions, and as agreed

promotion of the committee's activities throughout the organisation

access to facilities, such as meeting rooms and support resources.


Consultation Training

OHS consultation training focuses on

how to ensure effective and meaningful consultation

how to systematically manage health and safety.

The law and regulations provide details on training that must be provided to OHS committee members and representatives. The training must be undertaken as soon as possible after the election of committees

or representatives. The employer must consult about the arrangements for training of OHS committees and representatives (and members in other agreed arrangements), with regard to

training needs

when training will occur

who should deliver training

how the training will be delivered (that is, should all members and representatives be trained together).

When deciding whether workers who have previously undertaken approved training need to undertake training again, you should consider

how long ago the training was undertaken

legislative changes that have occurred since the original training

differences between the learning outcomes of the original training course and the current required outcomes.

Training must be provided by suitably accredited trainers.

The description of the topics, learning aims and participant learning outcomes are usually defined in the regulations or code of practice and must be covered in the training.

Information Sharing

Special attention needs to be paid to any barriers to individuals or groups seeking OHS information and data or to raising identified issues. These may include language, literacy and numeracy, employees' special needs, such as caring responsibilities, shift work and rostering arrangements, contractual arrangements, timing of information provision, workplace organisational structures (for example, geographic, hierarchical) and workplace culture related to OHS. Management needs to be prepared to make recommendations that will address any identified barriers, such as the timing and venue of meetings, tailored training and the adoption of culturally sensitive protocols.

The OHS committee should be marketed internally, as should the procedures necessary to raise OHS issues or request information.

The committee must identify exactly what it needs to achieve its goals - what kind of information, data, reports, records, documents are needed and in what format. Nowadays and in most organisations, much of this information - policies and procedures, the OHS program, health and safety information, safe operating procedures, hazard reports, risk analyses, controls, manufacturers' manuals and specifications - can be put on the local intranet.


If the intranet is not available, alternative methods of communicating on OHS would be suitable, including regular face-to-face meetings, interviews, noticeboards, signs, posters, brochures, letters, memos, reports, photographs, maps, plans, audiovisual methods, such as videos, CDs and newsletters. The value of the content and method of communicating on OHS will need to be reviewed on a regular basis. Clearly, the amount of consultation will need to be measured against other job requirements.

Above all, a sense of trust and mutual respect must be produced through the consultative process.

Monitoring, evaluating and reviewing consultation

A method of monitoring, reviewing and evaluating the consultative arrangements needs to be agreed on and needs to be done against the goals of consultation as set out in the policy or constitution for the committee. Criteria could include

active participation by all

level of informed discussion

quality of information sharing

timely implementation of decisions, which could be used as indicators.

Input could include anecdotal and structured feedback from the workplace and management. A survey of a representative portion of management and employees could be used. A half-yearly review and an end of year review may be conducted, perhaps using an external facilitator or consultant for the purpose.

The results of the review should be communicated to the workforce together with any recommended changes.

Effective consultation begins with the development and implementation of a systematic approach to OHS in the workplace. We will turn our attention to this third element of the OHS model in the next chapter.

Summary

Consultation is information sharing and discussion carried out with the objective of achieving greater understanding and agreement. Consultation over health and safety is, then, critical to its success as decisions must be built on the experience, knowledge and commitment of everyone involved.

The law requires employers to consult on OHS and specifies when such consultation should occur.

The law sets out the arrangements for consultation and the procedures for setting them up, such as the election of health and safety representatives.

Rights and duties for health and safety representatives are specified in the law.


The effectiveness of consultation relies heavily on the commitment of management to its success.

Monitoring, evaluating and review processes need to be carried out.

Section Activities

1. What is consultation and how does it differ from negotiation and information sharing?

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2. What are the benefits of consultation and what are the costs?

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3. Under the law, when must employers consult with employees and when must a health and safety committee be formed? Check the laws applying to your organisation and discuss.


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4. In your organisation, what are the consultative arrangements? Are they effective? How may they be improved?

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5. Construct a brief checklist of, say, 12-20 items to evaluate the consultative arrangements in your workplace.

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6. `The requirement to consult undermines management's appointed right and duty to manage in the best interests of everyone involved.' Discuss.

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Useful websites

As the specific requirements for consultation vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, referral to the authorities' website for information is needed. For example, the powers of the health and safety representatives have been increased in some jurisdictions to issue stop-work orders under certain circumstances. The codes of practice and guidance material will walk you through the specific legal requirements.

There are several practical applications of successful consultation in OHS. See, for example, Best Practice Studies on the ASCC website at <www.nohsc.gov.au/>.

Useful Books and Other Print Material

Bohle, P. & Quinlan, M. 2000, Managing Occupational Health and Safety (see especially chapter 10), Macmillan, Melbourne.

Markey, R. et al. (eds) 2001, Models of Employee Participation in a Changing Global Environment: diversity and interaction, Aldershot, Ashgate. A useful starting point on the many books and articles on this topic is this collection by Australian historian Ray Markey.

Sheriff, B. 2003, `Workplace OHS consultation: legal and practical issues', in Australian Master OHS and Environmental Guide, CCH, Sydney; see also Y. Berger, `Working communications' in this title.

http://www.nohsc.gov.au/


3. Establish and maintain procedures for identifying hazards, and assessing and controlling risks

3.1 Develop procedures for ongoing hazard identification, and assessment and control of associated risks

3.2

Include hazard identification at the planning, design and evaluation stages of any change in the workplace to ensure that new hazards are not created by the proposed changes

3.3 Develop and maintain procedures for selection and implementation of risk control measures in accordance with the hierarchy of control

3.4

Identify inadequacies in existing risk control measures in accordance with the hierarchy of control and promptly provide resources to enable implementation of new measures

3.5 Identify intervention points for expert OHS advice


4. Establish and maintain a quality OHS management system

4.1 Develop and provide an OHS induction and training program for all employees as part of the organisation‘s training program

4.2 Utilise system for OHS record keeping to allow identification of patterns of occupational injury and disease in the organisation

4.3 Measure and evaluate the OHS system in line with the organisation‘s quality systems framework

4.4 Develop and implement improvements to the OHS system to achieve organisational OHS objectives

4.5 Ensure compliance with the OHS legislative framework so that legal OHS standards are maintained as a minimum


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