Becoming an Entrepreneur Becoming an - Sense Publishers · PDF fileBecoming an Entrepreneur Susanne Weber, Fritz K. Oser, Frank Achtenhagen, Michael Fretschner and Sandra Trost (Eds.)

Becoming an Entrepreneur

Susanne Weber, Fritz K. Oser, Frank Achtenhagen, M

ichael Fretschner and Sandra Trost (Eds.)

Spine17.501 mm


Susanne Weber, Fritz K. Oser, Frank Achtenhagen, Michael Fretschner and Sandra Trost (Eds.)

P R O F E S S I O N A L A N D V E T L E A R N I N G

S e n s e P u b l i s h e r s P A V L 3


Susanne WeberLudwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

Fritz K. OserUniversity of Fribourg, Switzerland

Frank AchtenhagenGeorg-August University Göttingen, Germany

Michael FretschnerLudwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

and

Sandra Trost (Eds.)Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

This book provides new insights into the important field of Entrepreneurship Educa-tion. The editors pick up Fayolle’s invitation: “How can we learn from ‘institutional’ culture?” and translate it to a variety of aspects of learning to start-up. From the perspective of Human Resource Education and Management (Wirtschaftspädagogik) the authors shed light into the socio-cultural system of entrepreneurship educa-tion. They start with mapping out its challenges. They discuss context factors like political regimes affecting entrepreneurial activities, consider goals including mor-al awareness, introduce ideas of modeling entre- and intrapreneurial competencies, suggest teaching-learning-strategies, discuss evaluation procedures and introduce case studies of entrepreneurship education in different countries for different study levels. All in all this book stimulates and supports the challenges of educators, students, and practitioners (human resource managers, consultants, principals, teachers, and trainers) to introduce into the varying contexts of entrepreneurship education content specific, procedural, causal elements necessary for starting and maintaining an enterprise.

ISBN 978-94-6209-594-6

P R O F E S S I O N A L A N D V E T L E A R N I N G


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PROFESSIONAL AND VET LEARNINGVolume 3

Series Editors

Susanne Weber, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, GermanyFrank Achtenhagen, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany Fritz Oser, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Switzerland

Scientific Board

Filip Dochy, Centre for Educational Research on Lifelong Learning and Participation, University of Leuven, Belgium

James W. Pellegrino, Learning Sciences Research Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

Thierry Volery, Swiss Research Institute for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland

Friederike Welter, Institut für Mittelstandsforschung, Bonn, Germany; SME Management & Entrepreneurship, University of Siegen, Germany

Scope

“Professional and VET Learning” is a book series that focuses on professional competencies and identities, but also on conditions and societal frames of job performances. It includes education in economics, medicine, handicraft, ICT, technology, media handling, commerce etc. It includes career development, working life, work-integrated learning and ethical aspects of the professions.

In recent years the learning in the professions and through vocational education has become a central part of educational psychology, educational politics and educational reflections in general. Its theoretical modeling, practical application and measurement standards are central to the field. They are also specific for a new research realm which is until now, especially in the US, minor developed. For Europe the dual system, learning in the professional school and – at the same time – learning in the firm, can be a model for studying how issues of professional belonging, professional life meaning, professional biographies, professional change, but also especially professional competencies and sovereignties respectively securities are generated.

The books in this series will be based on different theoretical paradigms, research methodologies and research backgrounds. Since the series is internationally connected, it will include research from different countries and different cultures. The series shall stimulate a practical discourse and shall produce steering knowledge for political decisions in the field. We invite contributions, which challenge the traditional thinking in the field. Professionals who are accountable, available and certificated shall receive through this series a fundamental support, but also new horizons and broadened perspectives of the domain.

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Edited bySusanne WeberLudwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

Fritz K. OserUniversity of Fribourg, Switzerland

Frank AchtenhagenGeorg-August University Göttingen, Germany

Michael FretschnerLudwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

and

Sandra TrostLudwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

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A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6209-594-6 (paperback)ISBN: 978-94-6209-595-3 (hardback)ISBN: 978-94-6209-596-0 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers, P.O. Box 21858,3001 AW Rotterdam,The Netherlands https://www.sensepublishers.com/

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 2014 Sense Publishers

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements vii

Part I Introduction and Overview

Becoming an Entrepreneur: Mapping Challenges in the Field of Entrepreneurship Education 3Susanne Weber, Fritz Oser, Frank Achtenhagen, Michael Fretschner & Sandra Trost

Part II Becoming an Entrepreneur

Entrepreneurship Education: A Gramscian Approach 17Josef Aff & Gerhard Geissler

Ident cation of Entrepreneurial Challenges as Essential Condition for Modeling Entrepreneurial Competence 35Holger Benninghoff & Susanne Weber

Identifying Knowledge, Skills and Abilities of Successful Entrepreneurs 55Matthias Hofmuth

Prior Knowledge of Potential Entrepreneurs 77Bärbel Fürstenau, Hartmut-A. Oldenbürger & Iris Trojahner

Context and Ideology of Entrepreneurship Education in Practice 91Leona Achtenhagen & Bengt Johannisson

Entrepreneurship Education at the University of Graz: Illustrated by the Example of the Master Curriculum for Business Education and Development 109Peter Slepcevic-Zach, Michaela Stock & Georg Tafner

From “Chalk-and-Talk” to Starting New Ventures: An Overview of Entrepreneurship Education Programs in Higher Education Institutions 123Susan Müller

Entrepreneurial Intentions in Initial Vocational Education and Training 139Doreen Holtsch

Can Entrepreneurship Be Taught to Vocational Students?: An Intervention Study 161Thierry Volery, Fritz Oser, Susan Müller, Catherine Näpflin & Nuria del Rey

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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A Research- and Evidence-Based Entrepreneurship Education Program at Ludwig-Maximilians University (LMU), Munich 177Susanne Weber & Sabine Funke

Ethical and Moral Considerations on Entrepreneurship Education 197Karin Heinrichs, Gerhard Minnameier & Klaus Beck

Conceptualization of “MODE³” as an Innovative Model for the Evaluation of Entrepreneurship Education at Universities from the Perspective of Gründungsdidaktik 217Ulrich Braukmann, Daniel Schneider & Andreas Voth

“Arzt und Zukunft” – An Example of Entrepreneurship at the Faculty of Medicine at Ludwig-Maximilians University (LMU), Munich 243Matthias Siebeck, Katrin Rauen, Jobst von Einem

Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior in Entrepreneurship Education Research: An Introduction and Review of Impact Studies 249Michael Fretschner

Intrapreneur: An Entrepreneur within a Company – An Approach on Modeling and Measuring Intrapreneurship Competence 279Susanne Weber, Sandra Trost, Michaela Wiethe-Körprich, Christine Weiß & Frank Achtenhagen

Part III Summary, Discussion and Reflection

Becoming an Entrepreneur – Epilog: Summing Up, R ections and Further Questions 305Susanne Weber, Fritz Oser, Frank Achtenhagen, Michael Fretschner & Sandra Trost

List of Authors 319

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Starting point of this volume was our agreement that we treat Entrepreneurship Education under the perspective of Human Resource Education and Management (Wirtschaftspädagogik). Under this point of view the authors shed light into the sociocultural system of entrepreneurship education. They start with mapping out its challenges. They discuss context factors like political regimes affecting entrepreneurial activities, consider goals including moral awareness, introduce ideas of modeling entre- and intrapreneurial competencies, suggest teaching-learning strategies, discuss evaluation procedures and introduce case studies of entrepreneurship education in different countries for different study levels.

We are very grateful that we could collect important contributions to this topic – under the mentioned specification. We collected articles not only from Germany but also from Austria and Switzerland and even from Sweden. Furthermore, we received a contribution from the fields of medicine where the preparation of young medical doctors for opening their own practice marks an important step to a successful career.

We have to thank all authors for their endeavor and also their patience. We also thank the reviewers for their excellent work. We hope that this book with its many ideas and suggestions stimulates the discussion about Entrepreneurship Education and contributes to its progress.

Munich, Fribourg, Göttingen, December 2013Susanne Weber, Fritz K. Oser, Frank Achtenhagen,

Michael Fretschner, Sandra Trost

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PART I

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

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S. Weber et al., (Eds.), Becoming an Entrepreneur, 3–13.© 2014 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

SUSANNE WEBER, FRITZ OSER, FRANK ACHTENHAGEN, MICHAEL FRETSCHNER & SANDRA TROST

BECOMING AN ENTREPRENEUR: MAPPING CHALLENGES IN THE FIELD OF

ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Competent entrepreneurial activity seems to be indispensable as it significantly affects the quality of people’s lives: Several studies show that entrepreneurship behavior stimulates economic growth, social welfare and human cohesion, but it also upholds individual employability, as well as the autonomy of the stakeholders. Thus, entrepreneurial activity is declared as one of the key competencies for lifelong learning.

During the last decade various entrepreneurship education programs were implemented across educational levels (secondary education, vocational education and training (VET)) and across academic disciplines, e.g. business administration, engineering, medicine, etc. It includes – for developing entrepreneurial mindsets and behaviors – facets of economic literacy, risk taking acts and self-reliance feelings. But there is also a dark side of the story: We are confronted with a high mortality rate of start-ups within their first years. Thus, it does not wonder that there are various upcoming calls for rigorous and sustainable evaluations on these programs and initiatives. In addition, the increasing number of literature reviews and meta-analyses dealing with the impact of such entrepreneurial endeavors demonstrate various conceptual and methodological shortcomings. With other words: the programs show a lack of clearly set learning goals; teaching methods are mainly named in a broad overarching way; the conceptualizations of observable evidences, regarding key entrepreneurial behavior as output, are often diffuse so that solid inferences and predictions are rare; the performed evaluation designs and methods are rather weak.

This volume tries to overcome at least partly these shortcomings. It accepts that various disciplines deal with entrepreneurship. But this multi-science approach does not hide the fact that most of these disciplines treat the process of “becoming an entrepreneur” as a black box. (a) Politicians set up various context conditions (e.g. political acts, laws, taxes) to support a climate for entrepreneurial education and to provide means, e.g. by financing professorships, installing programs to foster entrepreneurial education (e.g. Tempus Program in Europe, EXIST in Germany, APPRENDRE À ENTREPRENDRE or YES in Switzerland) on different system levels. (b) Economists try to measure the impact of such means and interventions by relating input resources (like the sum of invested money, the amount of courses

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provided) to output/outcome variables (often measured by the amount of venture creations, the length of time they remain on the market, drop-outs, the amount of hired employees). (c) Business people are dealing with entrepreneurship education mainly by focusing on the meso-level, whether the participation in an entrepreneurship course is linked to new ventures, but without looking into the processes of teaching and learning. (d) Psychologists try to figure out individual differences in traits, knowledge, skills and attitudes and whether those are related to entrepreneurial behavior and/or may predict entrepreneurial success. (e) Educationalists are engaging in legitimizing the goals of entrepreneurship education from a humanistic point of view (Heid, 2004): assuming an antinomic relationship between economic rationality and individual demands (Aff, 2008) or seeing a coincidence of economic and educational rationality (DFG, 1990). A second educational focus is related to the identification of an adequate pedagogy for entrepreneurship education. (f) Philosophers engaging in entrepreneurship education discuss ethical and moral issues of entrepreneurial behavior. Such behavior might be realized in the creation of wealth for others, as well as finding better ways to utilize resources, reduce waste, and produce jobs for others – on the basis of ethical/moral and legal rules (Vesper, 1980; Homann, 2008). Most of these views do not elicit the inner process, do not overcome the mentioned black box, and do not see the single entrepreneur with all the difficulties, risks, dangers of failure and the dark sides.

INTENTION OF THE BOOK

One major goal of this book is to shed light on Entrepreneurship Education from the perspective of Economic and Business Pedagogy (in German called Wirtschaftspädagogik (Human Resource Education & Management [HRE&M])). By this engagement we want to open up the “black box” of becoming an entrepreneur and foster the development of the field. In particular, we follow Unger’s et al. claim (2011) to take a dynamic view of human capital in entrepreneurship, by separately investigating inputs, processes, outputs/outcomes and contexts of entrepreneurial teaching, learning, and development, combined with the transfer to authentic entrepreneurial tasks (see Figure 1). Approaches departing from Human Capital Theory – simply stating that human capital investments, like time for schooling or attending training programs, the extent of time in practice, the amount of course fees paid for an educational offer etc., improve knowledge, skills, and experiences, or develop entrepreneurial behavior (Becker, 1964) – do not seem to lead plausibly and in a biunique way to the expected positive effects, e.g. economic growth, social welfare etc., as a meta-analysis by Unger, Rauch, Frese & Rosenbusch (2011) has shown.

We, therefore, pick up Fayolle’s invitation within the third volume of his Handbook of Research in Entrepreneurship Education: “How can we learn from ‘institutional culture?’”1 (2010, p. 6) or in other words, how can we capture the inner life of an entrepreneurial growth? Teaching and learning business and economics,

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BECOMING AN ENTREPRENEUR

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as well as teaching entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial competencies have been traditionally a topic of the mentioned Human Resource Education and Management (HRE&M), which is a study subject at university level (master and doctorate) in the German-speaking countries: Austria, Switzerland and Germany. It is an ambition that goes back to the foundation of “Handelshochschulen” (Universities for Business and Commerce), mainly at the end of the 19th century, which educated the youth in business and entrepreneurial behavior and mindset for mastering the complex and holistic challenges of a merchant/tradesman (Zabeck, 2009)2. One major reason was the increasing need for well-educated business people within the economically exploding “Gründerzeit” (foundation time) at the end of the 19th century. Nearly all “Handelshochschulen” were merged together into faculties or schools of business and economy at full universities in the 1960s with the subjects business education and management (Zabeck, 2009). This also included the scientific discipline of Wirtschaftspädagogik in the German-speaking countries with its tasks of educating and managing human resources for the industry and administration, as well as training teachers for commercial schools. And all of them did rather look at the inner dynamic of entre- and intrapreneurship, thus opening up the black box.

OPENING THE “BLACK BOX” OF BECOMING AN ENTREPRENEUR

What is an entrepreneur? What is entrepreneurial activity? What is entrepreneurship competence? We describe an entrepreneur as a person who brings production and service ideas into practice. This requires creativity, innovation, risk taking as well as planning and prevailing to reach the intended goals. Entrepreneurial activity enables the individuals to recognize their work, and personal environment and to exploit opportunities. Entrepreneurial activity is the basis for running a firm (European Commission [EC], 2004). Linking the phenomenon of entrepreneurial competence to the current international discussion on “competence” (Weinert, 2001; Winterton, 2009), entrepreneurial competences are understood as “cognitive prerequisites which are achieved by an individual or a group of individuals or can be learned for successfully meeting complex demands and tasks as well as the corresponding motivational, ethical, volitional and social components to solve problems in variable situations successfully and responsibly” (Weinert, 2001, pp. 62-63, and 2002, pp. 27-28; translation: S.W.). This holistic integrative model of competence - perceiving competencies as both “input” (the attributes a person must acquire) plus their “output” (their demonstration by performance), is common in work-related learning and human resource development (Baethge, Achtenhagen, Arends, Babic, Baethge-Kinsky & Weber, 2006; Winterton, 2009). It also leads the focus to learning and acquisition processes. In fact, the entrepreneurial doing is more than just a competence, it is a competence profile, including a couple of partial competences, all guided by the unique and comprehensive task, namely to found, to sustain and to enlarge a company (Oser, 2011).

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From the point of view of learning and teaching, the conceptualization of cause-and-effect relationships is much more complex, than usually seen. There exists neither an overarching model of effective teaching and learning for entrepreneurship (Braukmann, Bijedic, & Schade, 2008), nor a unique model, which turns each and every trainee into a successful entrepreneur (Fayolle, 2010, p. 2). But empirical evidence shows that for supporting manifold and complex learning and developmental processes, the enhancement of expected output and outcome, and also the evoking of new solutions, which have not been there before, especially, in unforeseeable situations by collective agency, are central. Such overview studies arise (a) from the field of general education like e.g. “How people learn” (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000); “Quality of Instruction” (Helmke, 2003); “Anchored Instruction” (CTGV, 1997); (b) from the field of higher education: e.g. “Problem Based Learning” (Dochy, Segers & van den Bossche, 2003); or (c) from the field of workplace learning: e.g. “Ten Steps to Learning” (van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2013); “Expansive Learning” (Engeström, 1987; 1999; 2004; Engeström & Sannino, 2010) or from the Choreographies of teaching (Oser & Baeriswyl, 2005) and the theories of advance organizers (Weber & Funke, 2012) and others. These complex learning process concepts are embedded into more holistic input-process-output-heuristics, as such of Ditton (2002), Scheerens (2000), Doll & Prenzel (2004) or Baethge, Achtenhagen, Arends, Babic, Baethge-Kinsky & Weber (2006) (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sociocultural macrosystem.

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Learning heuristics mostly assume systemic interrelationships between various input factors (e.g. trainees’ prior knowledge, experiences, occupational interests), process factors (e.g. learning goals set for a particular course, instructional methods and media, amount and quality of coaching), output factors (e.g. amount of acquired knowledge, skills, experiences made, or more sustainable outcomes, like occurred learning transfer) and context conditions (e.g. entrepreneurial climate).

But the success of these learning concepts is given when a program has succeeded in developing an entrepreneur, or in educating an individual with regard to entrepreneurial behavior, or in building facets of entrepreneurial competencies. This can finally only be answered when we get evidence that human capital has – through this learning – been successfully transferred into the situation of the business owner “to increase success” (Unger et al., 2011). For capturing this phenomenon – or at least to approach it as close as possible – we can only make inferences on the impact of a particular entrepreneurship program or teaching and learning activity if (1) solid evaluation and assessment designs are conducted: using rigorous methods and sophisticated research designs like pre-post-experimental-control group designs, including follow-up studies (e.g. Schneider et al., 2007; Oser et al., 2012); if (2) quantitative and/or qualitative instruments are used to secure objective, reliable and valid representations and evidences of entrepreneurial behavior, respectively facets of entrepreneurial competencies (e.g. Shavelson, 2012; Kanning, 2009), and if (3) complex authentic, real-life tasks and problems have to be solved for showing entrepreneurial competence facets and behavior (e.g. McClelland, 1973; Gulikers, Bastiaens & Kirschner, 2004; Achtenhagen, 2012).

In line with this conceptualization of developing competence profiles and producing results from teaching-learning theory, we answer central questions in this volume, along the sociocultural macrosystem for modeling, developing and measuring entrepreneurship.

Starting with the context-related aspects the Austrian contribution of Aff and Geissler demonstrates a counter-hegemonic entrepreneurship education project supported by the EU Tempus Program in Russia and Tajikistan. For this project, the authors rely on Gramsci’s considerations dividing the state into (a) the ‘political society’ where the ruling class exercises its power and forces (e.g. by dictatorship or coercion), and (b) into the ‘civil society’ where elites impose their ideas, values and norms with a certain amount of autonomy, but simultaneously balancing the different positions in a way to support the governed. The idea of this entrepreneurship endeavor is to educate students as responsible entrepreneurs and business professionals – primarily for social business, non-profit enterprises and as intrapreneurs – to promote and change civil society. In their article, the authors introduce a concept and a curriculum for an entrepreneurship education program at secondary schools in Russia and Tajikistan.

It will be demonstrated that entrepreneurial competencies have to be developed with regard to typical situations and challenges entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial teams are acting in, and are faced with. Benninghoff and Weber map out such

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situations and challenges, by using Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) for the start-up phase of entrepreneurs. The results clearly indicate a diversity of voices in many situations, as well as different challenges of double bindedness, which can be localized by and within this theoretical approach

With regard to the input factors it will be demonstrated, that knowledge, skills and attitudes are needed and have to be developed in entrepreneurship programs. The question, which prior knowledge learners already bring into entrepreneurship courses, is up for discussion.

In his article, Hofmuth runs an electronically based extended literature review to identify entrepreneurial characteristics, which have been proved as statistically significant in prior studies on entrepreneurship. His systematic review covers empirical studies from 1990 up to 2012. By using the classification scheme of O*NET the author works out decisive facets of entrepreneurial competencies (traits/attitudes, knowledge, skills, experiences) which are necessary to successfully master entrepreneurial situations and challenges.

As learning-theoretical assumptions show unanimously that the diagnostics of prior knowledge is a pre-requisite for successful instruction, Fürstenau, Oldenbürger and Trojahner strive to identify prior knowledge of potential entrepreneurs by using a knowledge network tool. Thereby, they reconstruct the complexity of prior academic knowledge of students in the field of engineering sciences. By combining qualitative and quantitative analyses the authors can figure out students’ existing business knowledge for start-ups but also shortcomings – such as lacks of decisive academic discipline areas, as well as of personal and external context factors.

Contexts can be viewed as multilayers. Especially organizational context factors, influencing entrepreneurial teaching and learning processes, will be discussed.

In the Swedish contribution, Achtenhagen and Johannisson introduce the EPAS-accredited master program “Strategic Entrepreneurship” at Jönköping International Business School (JIBS). This program is not a course, a unit or a study track within an overarching program, but rather a program that is fully dedicated to entrepreneurship education. The goal is to support knowledge and understanding of entrepreneurial issues, to foster skills and to develop abilities, as well as to critically reflect and judge scientific, social, and ethical aspects of entrepreneurship. The corresponding pedagogy focuses less on business planning, rather on learning about, for and in various entrepreneurial environments (e.g. by lectures, dialogues, connected science parks, international companies abroad – in individual but also in collective activity systems) to prepare the students for conducting entrepreneurial activities in different settings.

Slepcevic-Zach, Stock and Tafner introduce an entrepreneurship education master program and its implementation into the context of Business Education and Development at the University of Graz, Austria. They have developed their curriculum along the broad notion of entrepreneurship of Tramm and Gramlinger (2006), with covering business formation (entrepreneurs), thinking and acting in an

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entrepreneurial manner as employees (intrapreneurs), holding up employability and keeping individual autonomy. After having presented the masters’ curriculum, the authors discuss the incompatibility and contradictions between the logic of business and economics on the one hand, and the logic of humanistic ideas and education on the other hand – resuming that entrepreneurship can function as a mediator between these two logics.

Coping with the teaching and learning interaction, the issue is on how entrepreneurial competence can be taught and learned. The view that founding is just a matter of personality and that people are born as “entrepreneurs” is critically discussed. Thereby decisive goals and didactical methods are presented.

With regard to the existing confusion about the “right” goals, content and pedagogy for entrepreneurship programs, Müller uses European and American large-scale surveys to provide an extended overview on the goals that are set on, on the implied content and learning approaches, applied in currently run entrepreneurship programs on higher education level around the world. By her analysis she highlights two streams: (1) the endeavors of traditional entrepreneurship programs by teaching already known and codified knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and by predicting an impact on entrepreneurial intentions, nascency and venture creation, and (2) the endeavors of new entrepreneurship programs, facing non-predictable, non-linear, uncertain, and ambiguous entrepreneurial environments. Facing these challenges, individual action taking, co-construction and collective agency seem to be necessary. Some promising learning approaches like effectuation, experimentation and discovery are suggested.

In her contribution, Holtsch picks up “entrepreneurial intention” as the mostly used output variable of entrepreneurship education, as it is found to be the first and only predictor of future entrepreneurial behavior. She scaled up more than 1,300 trainees across four apprenticeship programs in Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, Germany,– a region which is ridden by a high rate of youth unemployment – with regard to this latent construct. As the results show differences with regard to gender, perceived feasibility, desirability, time phases, as well as the quantity and quality of role models, the author claims for more made-to-measure programs. For this purpose, she suggests the use of an entrepreneurship education portfolio, based on the growth-share matrix of the Boston Consulting Group, to classify target groups in advance.

The article by Volery, Oser, Müller, Näpflin and del Rey presents an entrepreneurial intervention study in five Swiss vocational schools. By their intervention the authors intend to foster different facets of entrepreneurial competence, like personal traits, beliefs, knowledge and skills, but also entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, they imply goal-appropriated instructional tools, as e.g. worked-out examples, inspiration activities by on-site-firm visits, and a toolbox, providing specific disciplinary business knowledge. The most important pedagogical technique is the self-development and self-realisation of a product or an entrepreneurial mean-idea with all its details over a time span of four months. The

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use of a strong methodology leads to the result that, whereas knowledge has a very powerful effect, beliefs and interpersonal variables change only moderately. But in general, a positive, albeit limited impact on entrepreneurship-related human-capital assets becomes visible. The study is interesting with regard to the competence-oriented curriculum and the measurement variables. It demonstrates also school-specific effects on entrepreneurial interventions.

The contribution of Weber and Funke introduces a research- and evidence-based entrepreneurship education program of the Munich School of Management at Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, on the bachelor’s level. They demonstrate the process of creating an entrepreneurship program along the process elements of the curriculum-instruction-assessment triad. Thereby, they move step-by-step, considering existing elements of teaching and learning theories and results of meta-studies, and present promising hints for the program design. In a first overarching program evaluation, the authors can show that their course runs stable every year over a period of altogether four years. They also refer to deeper analyses on selected learning outcomes (e.g. networking, teamwork, intention).

The article of Heinrichs, Minnameier and Beck discusses questions of morality within the context of entrepreneurial education: Is it legitimatized to offer obligatory or optional entrepreneurship courses? How is it possible to enable the learner to become morally responsible (e.g. by teaching moral standards)? Are there diagnostic instruments like objective, reliable and valid tests to monitor moral achievement? Is it reasonable to send out students for hands-on training in real start-ups? After having discussed such questions, the authors create five morally critical and relevant situations start-ups usually face, and analyze them along a neo-Kohlbergian taxonomy.

Under the output/outcome perspective we ask how we can assume or make inferences on a good instruction, as well as on achieved entrepreneurial behavior resp. competencies. The question is, if entrepreneurial activity is necessarily linked to founding an own firm or company.

The starting point of Braukmann, Schneider and Voth consists in the presentation of the theory of Gründungsdidaktik (didactics of foundation) and the latest results in entrepreneurship education research: the development of the “Model for Didactical Evaluation of Entrepreneurship Education (MODE3)”. With this model, they offer a heuristic and practical tool for screening and categorizing the complexity of didactical decisions and actions in entrepreneurial learning environments. Thus, this model can be used for visualizing a variability within existing entrepreneurship programs, can give valuable hints for an efficient and effective didactical construction of entrepreneurship education units, but can also be used for evaluating entrepreneurship courses against set reference criteria, or for judgments on the quality of interventions, used in overarching impact studies.

As medical doctors do not seem to be well prepared for business aspects of practicing medicine, Siebeck, Rauen and von Einem have initiated an entrepreneurship education course at the Faculty of Medicine, of the Ludwig-Maximilians University, in Munich. The aim of this one-semester voluntary course

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is to develop and to present a business plan for self-employed medical doctors. The students are supported by coaches, and business experts. The evaluation shows that students have increased their entrepreneurial business knowledge significantly, especially with regard to law and tax regulations, as well as marketing strategies.

Although there are tremendous financial investments in running entrepreneurship programs on the one hand, there is still a huge gap of rigor evaluations on the other. Existing reviews on the impact of entrepreneurship education highlight shortcomings and inconsistencies, especially with regard to the conceptualization of independent and dependent variables, the study design, methodological rigor, and the underlying theoretical approaches. Fretschner tries to bridge this research gap by conducting a systematic literature review on the output variable “entrepreneurial intention” and its antecedences, according to Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (TPB). His results reveal that the majority of impact studies still make use of ‘weak’ pre-experimental designs, reinforcing the ‘old’ need for more methodological rigor. He further finds mixed results, regarding the impact of entrepreneurship education on TPB’s outcome variables. Finally, he highlights the need to go beyond mean values, as well as the need to control finer grained instructional variables (e.g. such as target group, kind of intervention, duration) to make a solid and clear suggestion for further research and program development.

Fostering a culture of entrepreneurship in organizations, promoting innovation and creativity amongst all citizens – which is especially relevant for young people (ECOTEC, 2010) – and focusing on the claims of political, business and educational areas, make it necessary to see entrepreneurship education in a broader sense: self-reliance as venture creation, entrepreneurial thinking and acting as an employee, but also keeping the own employability and individual autonomy, we add therefore a chapter of Weber, Trost, Wiethe-Körprich, Weiß and Achtenhagen on “intrapreneurship” within German dual apprenticeship. In their study, they match the demands for intrapreneurship on the labor market with the supply of intrapreneurship competencies, delivered by the apprenticeship system. The results show a promising balance between labor market needs and educational outcomes.

SUMMING UP SO FAR

Developing an entrepreneur and building up/educating entrepreneurial mindsets is a necessary, but no easy way to go for start-up educators – especially when opening up the “black box” of teaching and learning processes. Entrepreneurship was, is, and will be tackled by various disciplines. Wirtschaftspädagogik (Human Resource Education & Management) as a traditional “hyphen”-subject, historically rooted within this tension-laden junction between economic, political, social and business interests on the one hand, and the goals of individual humanistic growth and education on the other,, might balance between these partially contradictory goals and claims. Within this volume, we try to pick up various contributions from selected issues of entrepreneurship education, in order to make the learning processes transparent and to enhance the discussion about fostering entrepreneurship education across the disciplines.

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Additionally, we add a summarizing chapter for stimulating reflection, discussion, deeper dialogue, and collective activities in entrepreneurship education at the end of this volume (Weber, Oser, Achtenhagen, Fretschner and Trost).

NOTES

1 We highlight this concept of ‘institution’ as we follow its interpretation sensu Fayolle (2010, p. 6): institutions as “socio-politic systems, such as countries, universities, private organizations which secrete and instill norms and values. These institutions and their culture have a strong influence on education and contribute to orientate and shape entrepreneurial education in its different components. We are convinced that there are learning opportunities everywhere and for everyone from the study of such systems and related cultures”. Here we interpret the scientific discipline of “Wirtschaftspädagogik” (HRE&M) as such an institution, respectively “socio-politic system, having instilled its own norms and values”.

2 “Handelshochschulen” were founded in Germany (e.g. Leipzig, Nuremberg, Berlin), in Switzerland (St. Gallen), in Austria (Vienna), but also in Finland (Helsinki, Turku) and in Sweden (Stockholm).

REFERENCES

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Baethge, M., Achtenhagen, F., Arends, L., Babic, E., Baethge-Kinsky, V., & Weber, S. (2006). VET-PISA. Feasibility-Study. Stuttgart: Steiner.

Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. Chicago, IL and London, UK: The University of Chicago Press.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn. Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Braukmann, U., Bijedic, T., & Schade, C. (2008). Unternehmerische persönlichkeit—eine theoretische Rekonstruktion und normaldefinitorische Konturierung. Wuppertal: Schumpeter School of Business and Economics.

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Ditton, H. (2002). Evaluation und qualitätssicherung. In R. Tippelt (Hrsg.), Handbuch Bildungsforschung (pp. 775–790). Opladen: Leske+Budrich.

Dochy, F., Segers, M., & van den Bossche, P. G. D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13, 533–568.

Doll, J., & Prenzel, M. (2004). Das DFG-Schwerpunktprogramm Bildungsqualität von Schule (BIQUA): Schulische und außerschulische Bedingungen mathematisscher, naturwissenschaftlicher und überfachlicher Kompetenzen. In J. Doll & M. Prenzel (Hrsg.), Bildungsqualität von Schule: Lehrerprofessionalisierung, Unterrichtsentwicklung und Schülerförderung als Strategien der Qualitätsverbesserung (pp. 9–23). Münster et al: Waxmann.

ECOTEC. (2010). Towards greater cooperation and coherence in entrepreneurship education. Brussels: European Commission.

Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsulit.

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Engeström, Y. (1999). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engeström, R. Miettinen & R.-L. Punamäki (Eds.), Perspectives on activity theory (pp. 19–38). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Engeström, Y. (2004). New forms of learning in co-configuration work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 16, 11–21.

Engeström, Y., & Sannino, A. (2010). Studies of expansive learning: Foundations, findings and future challenges. Educational Research Review, 5(1),. 1–24.

European Commission [EC]. (2004). Helping to create an entrepreneurial culture—A guide on good practices in promoting entrepreneurial attitudes and skills through education. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Fayolle, A. (2010). Insights from an international perspective on entrepreneurship education. In A. Fayolle (Ed.), Handbook of research in entrepreneurship education, Vol. 3, international perspectives (pp. 1–9). Cheltenham, UK, Northampton, MA, USA: Elgar.

Fretschner, M., & Weber, S. (2013). Measuring and understanding the effects of entrepreneurial awareness education. Journal of Small Business Management, 51 (3), 410–428.

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7. Auflage (pp. 199–201). München: Oldenbourg.Kanning, U. P. (2009). Diagnostik sozialer Kompetenzen, 2. Auflage. Göttingen: Hogrefe.McClelland, D. C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than testing for “intelligence.” American

Psychologist, 28(1), 1–14.Oser, F., del Rey, N., Näpflin, C., Mosimann, S., Volery, T., & Müller, S. (2012). Abschlussbericht.

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Vesper, K. H. (1980). New venture strategies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Weber, S., & Funke, S. (2012). An instructional perspectve on entrepreneurship education. Empirical

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(Eds.), Key competencies for a successful life and a well-functioning society (pp. 45–65). Seattle et al: Hogrefe & Huber.

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PART II


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S. Weber et al., (Eds.), Becoming an Entrepreneur, 17–33.© 2014 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

JOSEF AFF & GERHARD GEISSLER

ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: A GRAMSCIAN APPROACH1

INTRODUCTION

More than twenty years after the collapse of the “real socialist” social systems, the overall findings of transition studies are sobering: while most transition countries in East-Central Europe have, despite some interim crises, successfully coped with the social transformation, all the ex-Soviet constituent republics are at present far removed from a transition towards market economy and democracy (BTI, 2012; Russland-Analyse, 197/2010; Merkel, 2009). One explanation frequently put forward is that the upheaval in the Soviet Union in the 1990s was an elite project conceived by the former Soviet nomenclature, rather than something undertaken by civil society (Gustafson, 1999; Kryshtanovskaya, 2005). And the resignation and political apathy of the post-Soviet population has changed little so far (Russland-Analyse, 95/2006; Schauff, 2004).

With the EINSEE2 project, sponsored by the EU Tempus programme, the Institut für Wirtschaftspädagogik (Institute for Business Education) at the Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien (Vienna University of Economics and Business) has been working since 2010 to introduce innovations in the education systems of the Russian Federation and Tajikistan. Based on the model of entrepreneurship education conceived by the Institute for Business Education in Vienna, the project is aimed – in terms of both its structure and the actors involved – at encouraging “economic literacy”, and at shaking the population out of its widely-observable passivity, in order to sow the seed for the long-term implementation of emancipatory projects. Inspired by Antonio Gramsci’s theory of society, the project seeks to develop, by means of business education, a “counter”-hegemony to the autocratic rule of Emomalii Rahmon in Tajikistan or to the “managed democracy” of the hegemonic tandem of Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev in the Russian Federation.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF ANTONIO GRAMSCI

In contrast to his wide-ranging influence in various areas of social sciences on an international level,3,4 Antonio Gramsci has as yet received little attention in German-language business education. Gramsci’s multi-faceted works, however, offer many approaches which “are usable for the understanding of the current situation, and provoke intervention and praxis” (Candeias, 2007, p. 15). His “philosophy of

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praxis”, which embodies a “substantial project of renewal” (Haug, 1995, p. 1209) and can be read as pedagogical in nature, offers a fruitful point of reference for business education, which can also be conceived as a creative, political science.

Gramsci began by seeking the reasons for the stability of Western capitalist society, despite repeated, massive crises and inner contradictions. He found an explanation in the cohesive forces of bourgeois socialization. For the analysis of this phenomenon, he divided society into socio-economic base and superstructure, or structure and superstructures, as Gramsci calls these areas of society, then carried out a further, methodologically motivated differentiation of the superstructures into “political society” and “civil society”. Gramsci thus overcame the rigid determinism of the Marxist schema of base and superstructure; he arranged the functional connection of the various social forces in this “integral state” as an interpenetrative reference, whereby he postulated that the concrete-practical interlocking of the three levels, “socio-economic base” – “political society” – “civil society” was historically determined (Kebir, 1991, p. 62) and described them as a “historical bloc” (Haug, 1995, p. 1215). The complementary relationship of the dualisms which are to be found in various contexts in Gramsci’s reflections, and which are always to be conceived as units: political society, coercion/dictatorship/authority/war of position/passive revolution on the one hand and civil society/consensus/hegemony/leadership/war of manoeuvre/active revolution on the other hand (Bieling, 2006, p. 446; Anderson, 1979, p. 18) was summed up by Gramsci with the formula: “State = political society + civil society, in other words hegemony protected by the armour of coercion” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 532).

Gramsci understood political society to mean the totality of the political, judicial and military power structures institutionalized by the state, in other words that part of the state in which the ruling class exercises its power by force, i.e. by dictatorship or coercion. Civil society encompasses the ensemble of social institutions and organizations and people’s social and cultural relationships and activities, in other words that part of the state by means of which the existing political situation is hegemonically secured.

Hegemony – originally a slogan (“gegemonija”) of the 19th century Russian social democrats (Anderson, 1979, p. 20) – is a key term in Gramsci’s theory, used to designate a largely coercion-free means employed by leading elites within a political system to establish and maintain power. In hegemonic conditions, these elites are able to impose their ideas, values and norms in such a way that, due to extremely powerful cultural forces of cohesion in civil society, the governed internalize these as being in the general interest, and that there are, within society, widely shared ideas about the situation and the way it is developing. “Thus hegemony produces a ‘consensus of the governed’” (Brand, 2005, p. 9).

Hegemony can never be produced solely by force or coercion on the part of the governing, but is always dependent on the consent of the governed. Hegemony is therefore an all-embracing material praxis which arises both from active consent and from passive acceptance. Here, consensus is by no means to be understood

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as a harmonious balancing of interests, but as the result and process of complex mechanisms of social debate in civil society. In societies with a well-developed civil society, in which hegemonic consensus is also relatively pronounced, social changes can only be achieved in the slow form of the “war of position” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 291), which leads to a cultural, moral, political and particularly intellectual permeation of society. Such “molecular changes which in fact progressively modify the pre-existing composition of forces, and hence become the matrix of new changes” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 292), were referred to by Gramsci as “passive revolution”. In response to a crisis, and usually after public discussions, the elite make concessions in order to prevent an “active revolution”, which can be the extreme form of the “war of position” in an under-developed civil society – Gramsci pointed here to the October Revolution of 1917.

The production and reproduction of a hegemonic social consensus was, in Gramsci’s view, the task of the intellectuals, though he did assume that intellectuals did not form a self-contained group, because they fulfilled different functions in society. In a seamless continuation of his reflections on the integral state, Gramsci distinguished between “traditional” and “organic” intellectuals.

“Traditional” intellectuals are the helpmates of the ruling group, because their function is primarily to preserve power and stabilize the system. They seem to “represent an historical continuity uninterrupted even by the most complicated and radical changes in political and social forms” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 137). Gramsci cited the clergy as the most important representatives of traditional intellectuals.

“Organic intellectuals” arise from a particular social milieu, because “every social group, coming into existence on the original terrain of an essential function in the world of economic production, creates together with itself, organically, one or more strata of intellectuals which give it homogeneity and an awareness of its own function not only in the economic but also in the social and political fields” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 134). Gramsci ascribed an educative function to the organic intellectuals, describing them as the “educators of the masses”. For him, they are the trailblazers of a new historical bloc, and thus potential agents of alternative strategies or counter-hegemonic projects. As his first example of an organic intellectual, Gramsci cites the entrepreneur whose innovations provide vital stimuli (Gramsci, 1999, p. 135). Through active involvement in practical life, as constructors, organizers and “permanent persuaders” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 142), organic intellectuals aim at the ideological conquest (Gramsci, 1999, p. 142) of the opposing elites, and lead to a new hegemony. Since leadership is mainly transmitted via pedagogical practices, this is the background for the development of the political/pedagogical reflections in Gramsci’s works.

ANTONIO GRAMSCI’S POLITICAL PEDAGOGY

Gramsci postulated that the individual was an ensemble of social relations, in which the “idea of becoming”, which points towards both the past and the future, is inscribed.

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He assumed that the conditions in which the individual lives form his common sense, with which he then exerts a reciprocal influence on those social circumstances which have shaped him. This process of “catharsis”, “that is the superior elaboration of the structure into superstructure in the minds of men” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 691), through which the objective gives way to the subjective, is a central point of reference for the concept of “the pedagogical” in Gramsci’s work.

A typical aspect of the primitive “philosophy of common sense” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 640) is its unsystematic, eclectic, contradictory character, based on the sediment left by previous experiences, which “offers practical orientation to the respective strata” (Scherrer, 2007, p. 74). This orientation allows people to undertake interpretations of the world and to carry out and legitimate their own actions. Education (social and academic) is supposed to counteract common sense through the political/ethical, cultural and ideological production of meaning. Following the basic intention of his work, Gramsci presented the interplay of social and academic education as a sphere which gives shape to society, in which hegemony and counter-hegemony can be produced simultaneously. Thus, education operates in an ideologically charged terrain within civil society – intrinsically the realm of pedagogy, which Gramsci, assuming a mutually influential, interpersonal teacher-student relationship, constructed as a structural relationship of society as a whole (Merkens, 2004, p. 8).

Education (both social and academic) aims at forming, shaping and developing individuals who are meant to correspond to the conception, dominant ideas and ideological foundations of the society in which they operate. In this sense, education contributes to the production of hegemony, whereby the pedagogical relationship represents a key political means of regulation. With recourse to reformatory pedagogical approaches of his time, and to Marx’s theses on Feuerbach, Gramsci nonetheless emphasized the dialectics of the pedagogical relationship, in which he saw potential for counter-hegemonic projects, since one is meant to strive to “be one’s own guide, refusing to accept passively and supinely from outside the moulding of one’s personality” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 627).

On the way to this critical understanding of maturity and autonomy, growing individuals must first be educated in such a way that they become fit for society, i.e. capable of operating in society such as it exists, in order to ensure that people are able to cope with the challenges of their particular society. For this they must process the conditions of social conformity in an act of “know thyself” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 628), reflecting in a distanced, critical way on how their own self has become what it is. This approach is necessary because people are unable to develop a critically coherent understanding of the world if they do not make themselves aware of the totality of relationships whose “connection centre” they are (Gramsci, 1999, p. 628), and recognize that their views contradict other views or elements of other views. Thus, education is both a condition for the reproduction of society and an opportunity for the production of alternative societies, because active engagement with the historical-social ensemble offers opportunities for the “spirit of cleavage”. (Gramsci, 1999, p. 203)

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This interdependence of integration and liberation is indissoluble. It is a prerequisite for emancipatory processes which can lead to the termination of consensus and the overcoming of the existing cultural and political order; the catalyst for this intellectual and cultural self-potentialization is education.

With education, the individual can overcome the randomness of his existence, and convert the contingency of his supposed social predestination into autonomy, because it is a cultural force with which the individual can place himself in an active, self-determined relationship to the world. Education may in the first instance serve social reproduction and thus the preservation of the existing hegemony, but the human power of judgement can be significantly reinforced with education, in such a way that hegemonic consent and its foundations can be systematically examined and questioned.

In Gramsci’s work, education is not primarily to be understood as the transmission of knowledge, whereby it would remain external, but as an experience-led process of self-empowerment, an active process of intellectual discovery of the world, by connecting all educational processes with the constitutive social context, which allows it to be internalized. This requires, in the schools and universities, a learning culture which is based on practices of knowledge instead of relying on the reproduction of teaching formulae, for learning must be understood as a creative act, to enable learners to participate in the life of society as critical actors (Merkens, 2004, pp. 19ff.).

This also, however, requires school and university teachers, who must develop a comprehensive set of pedagogical skills. These should enable them, on the one hand, to assert their claim to leadership in the pedagogical relationship. On the other hand they should possess sufficient self-reflexivity to be able to transform this mutually influential interpersonal teacher-student relationship into reciprocal relations of teaching and learning, in order to overcome it, for “only then is the relationship one of representation and then there can take place an exchange of individual elements between the rulers and ruled, leaders [dirigenti] and led, and the shared life can be realized which alone is a social force—with the creation of the historical bloc” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 768).

Thus, as Gramsci argued in an appeal to all organic intellectuals, what is needed in order to be attractive to as many teachers as possible is “1. a philosophy (Gioberti), which offers to its adherents an intellectual “dignity” providing a principle of differentiation from the old ideologies which dominated by coercion, and an element of struggle against them; 2. an academic programme, an educative principle and original pedagogy” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 285).

BRIEF LOOK AT THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS WITH SPECIAL ATTENTION TO GRAMSCI’S PERSPECTIVE

Despite a number of social imbalances in both the economic and the political sphere (Gorzka & Schulze, 2004; Buhbe & Gorzka, 2007), which could lead to the

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development of a broad spectrum of political opinions and to the presence of a culture of protest and opposition, in order to achieve positive social changes, the Russian population5 shows a low level of active political involvement. More recent survey results6 also confirm that the awareness of democracy is very under-developed, and that an increase in “prosperity” or “order and stability” are the highest social priorities.

Alongside difficult starting conditions in the area of the socio-economic base (Clement, 2003; Bleck, 2011), the unbalanced interplay of superstructures in the post-Soviet union – to the advantage of political society or to the disadvantage of civil society – is probably retarding the transition process towards democracy and market economy. And yet the mechanism of hegemony construction in Tsarist Russia, in the Soviet Union, and in the post-Soviet union is based on an ideological continuity which needs to be dealt with in the framework of a counter-hegemonic business education project. After all, social ideologies are transmitted to subjects as “Weltanschauungen” (Gramsci, 1991, p. 93), through experiences of socialization; political/cultural and, linked with these, economic/cultural patterns of thought, attitude and behaviour and are learnt on an individual level and are played out on a societal level in the form of different political patterns of participation and economic styles of action. This process is affected by both political or economic everyday experiences and the collective memory, which can be conceived of as a social store of knowledge with an influence on the individual (Berek, 2009, p. 67).

Studies in the field of cultural history which work on the assumption that economic and/or political cultures, despite the historical dimension of change, generally tend to stabilize and solidify (Pelinka, 2006, p. 227; Höhmann, 1999), often offer, as an attempt to explain the passivity of the Russian population, the special character of Russian culture which finds expression in the collective memory of the Russian Federation. Since culture is a pluralistic concept with overlapping reference systems (Herrmann-Pillath, 2004, p. 28), there is some cross-referencing. Nonetheless, analysis can distinguish certain key cultural determinants in the Russian Federation: centuries-old traditions which live on in the present as a legacy of the past, and orientations which continue to show evidence of the socialist heritage.

Legacies with an ongoing formative influence include the special features of Orthodox Christian thought, which considers reality not as the result of human actions, but as a divine plan (Zweynert, 2002), and significant historical events, from which Andreas Kappeler infers culture-determining continuities in the state systems of Russia: the fact that whoever is ruling has a monopoly on power (tsar, Communist Party, Putin’s party “United Russia”), the personalization of authority (tsar worship, cult of personality), the significance of imperial and national ideologies, a high degree of centralization and a largely passive and atomized society (Kappeler, 2005, p. 52). This is the breeding ground on which, in the repressive period of “real socialism”, values “suited to the system” such as assimilation, inhibition and coercion became so firmly entrenched that they now contribute to the acceptance of

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a government which has acted with increasing authoritarianism since the 1990s, for which democratic procedures usually have a purely symbolic character, and which limits freedom of opinion and freedom of the press.

In Russia a public extending beyond the circles of the elite – in Gramsci’s work, public opinion mediates between political society and civil society – developed in the course of the 19th century. Since then all the myths about the special features of Russian culture have been instrumentalized time and time again to legitimize the current form of authority. This is manifested in the 19th century debate – to some extent influential even today – between “Slavophiles” and “Westerners”, in the indoctrination efforts in the Communist period, and finally in the speeches of Vladimir Putin, in which he emphasizes, for example: “Russia is a social state which differs fundamentally from the West” (Putin, 2008). In this way, the traditional images of history, together with the resulting implications such as calls for order, stability and law, have always been and still are the object of contemporary public discourses, which represent social praxis and contribute to the restoration, relativization or justification of the status quo (Wodak et al., 1998, p. 42). Through these discourses they take effect on society as everyday experience, and are passed on by way of agents of socialization such as media or schools. Through this process they come to have a critical role in the production and reproduction of social relations, and become a key component of hegemonic relations, so that there is thought to be no alternative to the society that currently exists, and “the majority of people are satisfied with it and/or have resigned themselves to it” (Brand, 2005, p. 10).

AIMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE EU TEMPUS PROJECT EINSEE

Informed by the knowledge that education plays a key role in social processes of transformation, the European Union’s Tempus programme was established in 1990 with the aim of supporting measures to modernize the educational sector in the transition countries of the former Eastern bloc.

Within the framework of this support programme, the Institut für Wirtschaftspädagogik (Institute for Business Education) at the Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien (Vienna University of Economics and Business) is responsible for the management of the EINSEE project. The objective of the project is to develop, over a three-year period, long-lasting structures for economics education, on three levels. The first level aims at establishing “economics” as an independent subject in years 10 and 11 of general schools on the basis of a skills-oriented curriculum. The objective of the second level is to establish comprehensive programmes of further training and development to enable teachers who are unfamiliar with the subject to teach “economics”. On the third level, a programme of study in business education is to be implemented at various universities in the Russian Federation and Tajikistan.

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Figure 1. Aims and structure of the EU TEMPUS project EINSEE.

The EINSEE project works on the assumption that the economic and the social are produced by means of discourses and thus by means of hegemonic debates about the implementation of certain actions and meanings. In this context the project is oriented towards the goals of an eco-social market economy and takes into account the fact that change, in a highly differentiated society, can only be brought about in the form of dynamic stability (Luhmann, 1997, pp. 492ff.). Against this backdrop, the project shares Antonio Gramsci’s belief in the possibilities of emancipatory action, unfolding within the still embryonic civil society of the Russian Federation and Tajikistan and allowing the production of hegemonic consensus through the active consent of the governed. This requires a comprehensive pedagogical plan.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AS A CURRICULAR PRINCIPLE AND AN INNOVATION IN SOCIETY AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY

The understanding of entrepreneurship education underlying this cooperative educational project is based on the empirical findings of a five-year-long pilot project (cf. Aff & Lindner, 2005; Aff, 2008). There is a frequent tendency to assume a rather narrow concept of entrepreneurship education, for example in the definition given by Rispas: “In general terms, the main goal of entrepreneurship education is to train people who would like to found a new company” (Rispas, 1998, p. 217).

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This understanding is rooted in the approach of Schumpeter, who, in his numerous writings, underlined the core role of dynamic entrepreneurs for the economic development of a country, thus contributing, in contrast to the formal models of microeconomics, to a “resubjectivization” of economics. Even if Josef Schumpeter can still be regarded today as the guiding spirit of entrepreneurship education, the primary focus on the founding of companies which he espoused is too narrow for a comprehensive understanding of entrepreneurship, since it largely ignores the relevance of professional autonomy, i.e. the perspective of “the employee as entrepreneur” (cf. Wunderer, 1999), and also overlooks the significance of social entrepreneurs for a dynamic civil society and for successful non-profit enterprises and organizations. Thus for example one of the comments made by the Nobel Peace Prize recipient and economist Muhammad Yunus, in an interview with the Austrian weekly Falter, was: “Whenever I’ve seen a problem somewhere, I’ve wanted to solve it with the help of a business idea. It is difficult to express this approach in words, because most people don’t believe that one can help with business.” In this interview Yunus stresses that, in his opinion, modern capitalism is supported by only one pillar, as it were, the “profit pillar”, while the second pillar, which would give society stability, i.e. the “problem-solving pillar”, is completely under-developed. According to Yunus, the second pillar could be termed ‘social business’, and its business idea consists of solving problems by founding companies. In recent years Yunus has been able to demonstrate the credibility of this approach very convincingly with his idea of microfinance loans, and, in connection with this, the establishment of the Grameen Bank. In Gramsci’s terms, entrepreneurs, like Yunus, are organic intellectuals, and function, together with their business ideas, as educators of the population. Entrepreneurs like Yunus are agents of alternative strategies, i.e. representatives of “counter-hegemonic” projects, because they, amongst other things, add a counter-hegemonic “responsibility pillar” to the hegemonic “profit pillar”.

The following figure offers an illustration of the basic model of entrepreneurship education on which the Tempus project is founded.

The first level aims at the transmission of knowledge and skills which are important for starting a company or business, and also for professional autonomy. While core knowledge of business plans is a great advantage for starting a business, the promotion of professional autonomy, along with more advanced business knowledge, aims at promoting techniques and instruments such as project management, in order to strengthen the role of employees as intrapreneurs.

Level II shows that every version of entrepreneurship education is embedded in a social/economic framework which can take very different economic and democratic/political forms. Since entrepreneurship education, like every pedagogical concept, requires normative reflection, this level thematizes the essence of a market economy and the diverse forms it can take, ranging from a neoclassically inspired market economy to an eco-social market economy.

Level III makes it clear that entrepreneurship training goes far beyond Schumpeter’s focus on the founding of companies, because not only the economy but also civil

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society needs innovative individuals who intervene in society on their own initiative, proposing “social business ideas” to ease the social and ecological problems which afflict the world. This category includes the many people establishing and working in non-profit organizations. As in the case of classic entrepreneurs, attitudes such as initiative and stamina are called for. While entrepreneurs in the Schumpeter tradition or employees in companies with an “entrepreneurial spirit” (intrapreneurs) are indispensable for a functioning dynamic market economy, a lively civil society is dependent on many social entrepreneurs. In many cases – complementing the “social business idea” – these create large numbers of jobs. Hermann Gmeiner from Austria, for example, devised the idea of the SOS Children’s Villages and founded a global non-profit enterprise employing numerous people. The concept of entrepreneurship on level III constitutes, in Gramsci’s terms, a chance to bring forth alternative societies, and thus implies an aspect of liberation, since on this level the classical concept of founding a business on the basis of profitability is expanded to include the idea of a social business, i.e. founding a company to further the development of civil society.

The fourth level of figure 2 emphasizes the importance of promoting attitudes such as personal responsibility, motivation, a spirit of innovation, curiosity, taking responsibility for society etc. Considered from a didactic perspective, the

Entrepreneurialautonomy

• Founding companies• Setting up businesses

Professionalautonomy

Employees asco-entrepreneurs

Level I: Entrepreneurship–business education

Level IV: Entrepreneurship – promoting an“entrepreneurial spirit”

i.e. attitudes suchas independence, assumption of responsibility etc.

Level III: Entrepreneurship – promoting civil society (socialentrepreneurs)

...through development of pedagogic objectives such as maturity, responsibility &a well-informed outlook

Level II: Entrepreneurship – economics education(context and conditions of market economy)

…Understanding market economy – introduction to micro andmacroeconomics & economic policy

Figure 2. Entrepreneurship education between entrepreneurial/professional autonomy and promotion of civil society.

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implementation of level IV demands the deployment of a variety of student-activating methods, with practice firms constituting a particularly suitable teaching and learning arrangement for connecting business know-how with these “entrepreneurial virtues”. For those schools where more than three hours per week are set aside for improving students’ economic literacy, our proposed curriculum for the subject “economics” therefore includes the establishment of practice firms. It is important to note that these attitudes and skills are not only essential for a dynamic economy, but also for a lively civil society. When students who have completed economics education go on to become involved in the spectrum between social business and non-profit organizations and/or clubs and associations, this benefits civil society.

The model of entrepreneurship education sketched in figure 2 is able to cover the spectrum of counter-hegemonic action outlined by Gramsci in broad areas, because the aim is to promote the spirit of innovation and creative/organizational skills not just in the economic context, but also in various spheres of activity in civil society.

From the perspective of educational theory, the model of entrepreneurship education is oriented towards the aims of economics education in the tradition of a critical/constructive didactics, as developed by Klafki (1980). These aims include, on the one hand

– critically highlighting the current flaws in the structure of the Russian market economy – amongst other things, the under-representation of dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises or inadequate standards in justice and administration – and on the other hand

– constructively presenting alternatives.

This basic didactic orientation, with its inherent contradiction, is compatible with Gramsci’s work; he always stressed that passive (hegemonic) consent of the governed is not enough for a lively democracy and civil society – on the contrary, it is necessary to devise alternatives, i.e. counter-hegemonic projects. For example, in economics teaching in Gramsci’s tradition the present economic and societal situation in which the “financial markets” have hegemony should be met with constructive criticism – by showing alternative reformatory concepts for restoring the primacy of politics over the financial sector/the economy.

In the EU Tempus project “EINSEE”, the model of entrepreneurship education presented in figure 2 was taken as the basis for the development of the curriculum for the subject economics at secondary schools in Russia and Tajikistan (years 10 and 11).

Within the curriculum development process, as illustrated in figure 3, the structure and content of the curriculum is oriented towards the aims of entrepreneurial and professional autonomy. The business plan serves as a curricular reference point to visualize key elements of business management knowledge and the way they interconnect in matters ranging from the choice of legal form to financing and marketing. Thus, in year 10 an overview of the business plan is given, and subsequently the central components of the business plan are presented in detail.

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Thus, the business plan, as an important instrument in entrepreneurship education, becomes the guiding curricular principle in an introduction to business studies.

Economics teaching at secondary schools is not focused solely on business matters, since economic literacy also requires the teaching of (macro)economics. Level II therefore functions as the second key element for determining the contents of the curriculum for the subject economics. This curriculum is constructed in such a way that economics education begins with an introduction to the market economy and then – after an explanation of the economic/social framework and of the fundamental principles for operating in a market economy – goes on to present a business plan. This curricular structure ensures that content relating to business management is linked with economics content.

Figure 3. “Principles of construction” for the curriculum for the subject economics at secondary schools in RU and TJ on the basis of the four-level model of entrepreneurship

education.

One way in which level III is taken into account is that the implementation of the didactic principle of entrepreneurship education, as stipulated in the curriculum, is not carried out merely through the discussion of classic “success stories” of businesses in the local region, but also through the presentation of successful social business initiatives or non-profit organizations. Complex learning and teaching arrangements such as project-based teaching, excursions etc. provide a framework

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for the application of techniques such as project management, and are very effective in giving students access to spheres of activity in the social and environmental sectors in their region. Designing methods which activate students in this way enables them to learn, amongst other things, to play an active role in shaping society and to experience the importance of civil society virtues.

The objectives of level III, however, cannot be achieved merely on the level of method, but also require a critical and constructive engagement with economic and social contexts, i.e. education for maturity and responsibility. To avoid a situation where excessively high social, economic and didactic aims, such as those formulated on level III, “circle like aeroplanes and never land”, it is vital that didactic materials are produced which allow the “landing process in the classroom” to take place. This is why, in the EINSEE project, we attach great importance to the production of course materials to equip teachers with appropriate skills. This subject-specific didactic development work will be carried out by our Russian and Tajik partners, and the Viennese Institute for Business Education will conduct “subject-specific didactic monitoring”. In this context it should be noted that the EINSEE project presented in this paper is the follow-on project from a previous EU Tempus project (cf. Aff & Fortmüller, 2010; Geissler & Kögler, 2010), which was primarily concerned with the implementation of entrepreneurship education in two Russian regions. Numerous didactic materials were produced in this project and are also being used for the curricular development work now in progress. This note makes it clear that the relevance of entrepreneurship education for economic education is something which the authors have advocated for a long time (cf. Aff, 2000). Thus, entrepreneurship education has been integrated into the master’s programme in business education at the WU Wien (Vienna University of Economics and Business), and since 2007 a system of economics education based on entrepreneurship education has been intensively implemented in Russia in the framework of EU Tempus projects.

The promotion of entrepreneurial virtues not only demands teaching which is varied in content and methods, but also teachers whose own lifes serve, at least in part, as more or less convincing examples of these aims. For this reason, the EU Tempus projects attach great importance to equipping teachers with the requisite skills and attitudes – and not just contents and methods. On the contrary, it is necessary to encourage teachers to be curious, and to see change not only as a threat, but (also) as an opportunity.

CONCLUSION

Transition processes are based on economic contexts and conditions, and yet the reference to Antonio Gramsci has shown that such processes are primarily expressed and (partially) determined by culture. In the EINSEE project, the insights of Antonio Gramsci’s social theory were chosen as a reference for the aim of the project, but his now historical concept for implementing this theory – that of a counter-culture

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developed through the workers’ movement – has been interpreted in a more modern way in order to achieve the project’s goals.

A business education project which has set itself the task of speeding up slow transition processes such as those in the Russian Federation or in Tajikistan, and of dealing with contradictory developments in the establishment of democracy and market economy, must include the realm of civil society, since emancipatory initiatives in civil society have an influence on political society. Since civil society always includes the whole ensemble of social institutions and organizations, and people’s social and cultural relationships and activities, Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony allows counter-hegemony to come about only in subsections of civil society – education is a highly suitable terrain for this.

Education systems are always embedded in the referential context of society as a whole. Thus, changes which start on the political/structural level of the education system can only proceed slowly, because they always have to be connected to the constitutive social context which is meant to be changed. If this is not the case, the power of the cultural level would be underestimated: public discourses gradually leave traces of this cultural level in people’s common sense; this is one of the things we need to work on. Changes in the education system must therefore also – indeed primarily – begin on a pedagogical and individual level, and take into account certain conditions applicable to any cultural movement which seeks to replace common sense and old views of the world: “1. Never to tire of repeating its own arguments (though offering literary variation of form): repetition is the best didactic means for working on the popular mentality.

2. To work incessantly to raise the intellectual level of ever-growing strata of the populace, in other words, to give a personality to the amorphous mass element. This means working to produce élites of intellectuals of a new type which arise directly out of the masses, but remain in contact with them to become, as it were, the whalebone in the corset” (Gramsci, 1999, p. 652).

For the EINSEE project, this means starting with the teachers who can be engaged by the concept of entrepreneurship education and who appear as initiators of counter-hegemony, connected with the hope that the students will, in the spirit of entrepreneurship education, develop critical attitudes which will enable them to take an active role in implementing their concerns.

Although entrepreneurship education is often seen as a subject-specific didactic approach focused on implementing a purely neo-classical, narrowly normative image of humanity and understanding of the economy in schools, the four-level model of entrepreneurship education clearly shows the emancipatory potential of this approach. This potential consists, among other things, in linking a form of economics education bound to the principles of sustainability and interconnectedness with education for citizenship or, to keep to Gramsci’s terms, positioning entrepreneurship education as a counter-hegemonic project.

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NOTES

1 This text has been published slightly different as “Entrepreneurship education as a counter-hegemonic project” by J. Aff, J. & G. Geissler (2013). In J. Aff & R. Fortmüller (Eds.), Entrepreneurship-Erziehung im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs. Beiträge zu gesellschaftspolitischen, lernpsychologischen und fachdidaktischen Aspekten einer modernen Entrepreneurship-Erziehung in Russland und Tadschikistan (pp 3-20). Wien. Manz.

2 “EINSEE” stands for the project title: Entwicklung und Implementierung nachhaltig wirksamer Strukturen zur Entrepreneurship Erziehung (Development and Implementation of enduringly effective structures for entre-preneurship education) in the Russian Federation and Tajikistan – this paper will mainly focus on Russia, because Tajikistan has a completely different status of social and economic development and a very different cultural and religious tradition, and is thus quite unlike Russia in many issues.

3 Gramsci’s theory was carried on fruitfully, for example in the regulation theory of Aglietta, Lipietz, Jessop and Hirsch, in the discourse-analysis hegemony theory of Laclau, Mouffe and Marchart, or in the post-operaismo of Negri, Hardt, Birkner and Foltin. Neo-Gramscian approaches by Cox, Gill, Rupert or Bieling play an important part in both international political economy and international politics.

4 Gramsci’s work is not uncontroversial. Criticism of Gramsci’s concept of dialectics, for example, can be found in the work of Janne Mende (Müller, 2009), while Hans-Jürgen Bieling criticizes Gramsci for his historicism and his focus on the philosophy of praxis (Brodocz & Schaal, 2006).

5 For want of sufficient data, the following remarks refer solely to the Russian Federation. Given the old connection to the Soviet Union, however, it can be assumed that a similar pattern of political culture has developed in Tajikistan.

6 All data were taken from the press archive of the Levada Center in Moscow. The surveys on democratic awareness bring together the following aspects: “what the Russian population expects of the political system”, “understanding of democracy”, “willingness to take part in protest actions” and “trust in the government and the opposition”. The Levada Center is a state-independent opinion polling institute which regularly conducts surveys throughout Russia. The survey results are used internationally and are regarded as reliable.

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