BEST PRACTICES INBEST PRACTICES INBILINGUAL ASSESSMENTBILINGUAL ASSESSMENT

Wilda Laija-Rodriguez, Ph.D., LEPWilda Laija-Rodriguez, Ph.D., LEP

California State University, NorthridgeCalifornia State University, Northridge

California Association of School Psychologists ConferenceCalifornia Association of School Psychologists Conference

March 5-7, 2003March 5-7, 2003

THE ISSUESTHE ISSUES

Statistics: Why is it important to know Statistics: Why is it important to know how to work with bilingual students?how to work with bilingual students?

By 2010, it is estimated that NY, TX, CA, and FL will By 2010, it is estimated that NY, TX, CA, and FL will have about 1/3 of the nations minority youth (Hodginson have about 1/3 of the nations minority youth (Hodginson & Outz, 1992)& Outz, 1992)

The Hispanic population in US has grown faster than the The Hispanic population in US has grown faster than the rest of the population as a whole (Carrasquillo, 1999)rest of the population as a whole (Carrasquillo, 1999)

Hispanic children, including LEP students, make up a Hispanic children, including LEP students, make up a significant percentage of the public school population in significant percentage of the public school population in US (Carrasquillo, 1999)US (Carrasquillo, 1999)

In 2002, the majority of newborns are HispanicIn 2002, the majority of newborns are Hispanic

Educational Issues with Minority Educational Issues with Minority ChildrenChildren

Minority students lag academically behind Minority students lag academically behind majority children (Carrasquillo, 1999; Meier & majority children (Carrasquillo, 1999; Meier & Stewart, 1991)Stewart, 1991)

Hispanic students lag behind other minority Hispanic students lag behind other minority groups in various areas (Carrasquillo, 1999)groups in various areas (Carrasquillo, 1999)

As a result, there has been a significant As a result, there has been a significant overrepresentation of Hispanic students in overrepresentation of Hispanic students in special education and other remedial programs special education and other remedial programs (Figueroa & Artiles, 1999)(Figueroa & Artiles, 1999)

Issues with Minority/Issues with Minority/Bilingual StudentsBilingual Students

1) Language Proficiency Issues (Cummins, 1984)Language Proficiency Issues (Cummins, 1984) 2) Low Academic Achievement (Carrasquillo, 1999) 2) Low Academic Achievement (Carrasquillo, 1999)

3) Overrepresentation special education and other 3) Overrepresentation special education and other remedial programs remedial programs (Figueroa & Artiles, 1999; Stewart & (Figueroa & Artiles, 1999; Stewart & Meier, 1991)Meier, 1991)4) Lack of adequate programs for bilingual students in public 4) Lack of adequate programs for bilingual students in public schoolsschools

SECOND LANGUAGE SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Threshold Hypothesis Threshold Hypothesis (Cummins, 1979)(Cummins, 1979)

BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (3yrs)CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (5-7 years)CUP: Common Underlying Proficiency

BICS BICS

CUPCALP CALP

L1 L2

FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTIONLANGUAGE ACQUISTION

• AGE:AGE:– young second language learners use same part of the brain for young second language learners use same part of the brain for

both L1 and L2both L1 and L2

– older learners use a different part of the brain for their L2 than older learners use a different part of the brain for their L2 than they used for their first (Kim, Relkin, Lee & Hirsch, 1997).they used for their first (Kim, Relkin, Lee & Hirsch, 1997).

– Younger second language learners don’t necessarily develop Younger second language learners don’t necessarily develop accentaccent

– Older second language learners (ages 8-12) develop language Older second language learners (ages 8-12) develop language faster; possibly due to cognitive maturity and L1 competencefaster; possibly due to cognitive maturity and L1 competence

– Children older than 12 slow down, probably due to increased Children older than 12 slow down, probably due to increased academic demandsacademic demands

FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISTIONLANGUAGE ACQUISTION

– PersonalityPersonality– strong self-esteem outgoing vs. shy and withdrawnstrong self-esteem outgoing vs. shy and withdrawn

– Social FactorsSocial Factors– language modelslanguage models

– motivationmotivation

The Acquisition-Learning Distinction The Acquisition-Learning Distinction (Stephen Krashen) – Corresponding to (Stephen Krashen) – Corresponding to

Natural Language ApproachNatural Language Approach

Language acquisition = “picking up a language”Language acquisition = “picking up a language” Language learning = learning language in formal mannerLanguage learning = learning language in formal manner Affective filter = emotional barrier to language learningAffective filter = emotional barrier to language learning Learning provides a monitor = allows learner to correct Learning provides a monitor = allows learner to correct

language output based on previously learned language language output based on previously learned language rules.rules.

In In short run, older learners develop competence fastershort run, older learners develop competence faster than younger children.than younger children.

Children outperform adults in L2 in the long runChildren outperform adults in L2 in the long run

Bilingual Education ProgramsBilingual Education Programs

Transitional Bilingual EducationTransitional Bilingual Education (transition into English by 3(transition into English by 3rdrd grade) grade)

Maintenance Bilingual EducationMaintenance Bilingual Education (transition into English by 5(transition into English by 5 thth grade) grade)

Dual Immersion ProgramDual Immersion Program (Acquiring both (Acquiring both L1 and L2 simultaneously)L1 and L2 simultaneously)

Second Language Acquisition Second Language Acquisition PhasesPhases

Pre-productionPre-production •Few oral skills (pointing, Few oral skills (pointing, gesturing, nodding)gesturing, nodding)

Teachers should provide Teachers should provide opportunities for active opportunities for active listening, utilize visuals, listening, utilize visuals, and real objectsand real objects

Early ProductionEarly Production Some understanding, can Some understanding, can produce some social produce some social words/sentenceswords/sentences

Teachers should ask yes/no Teachers should ask yes/no or either/or questionsor either/or questions

Speech Speech EmergenceEmergence

Can understand with Can understand with concrete contexts/ or range concrete contexts/ or range of personal experienceof personal experience

Teachers should focus on Teachers should focus on communication not communication not language form, and provide language form, and provide meaningful contextsmeaningful contexts

Intermediate and Intermediate and Advanced Advanced FluencyFluency

Demonstrate increased Demonstrate increased levels of accuracylevels of accuracy

Teachers should provide Teachers should provide opportunities to create oral opportunities to create oral and written narratives and and written narratives and continue ongoing language continue ongoing language developmentdevelopment

The Connection Between L1 The Connection Between L1 and L2 Literacyand L2 Literacy

Literacy in L1 has been found to be the Literacy in L1 has been found to be the most stable predictor of English literacy most stable predictor of English literacy (Pardo & Tinajero, 1993)(Pardo & Tinajero, 1993)

Students with high literacy in L1 will Students with high literacy in L1 will perform better in English than students perform better in English than students with low literacy in L1 (Pardo & with low literacy in L1 (Pardo & Tinajero, 1993)Tinajero, 1993)

LOW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTLOW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Reading Proficiency Reading Proficiency Among Hispanic StudentsAmong Hispanic Students

Overall Overall academic achievement, especially academic achievement, especially reading proficiency among Hispanic reading proficiency among Hispanic students is far below the national averagestudents is far below the national average (Carrasquillo, 1991). (Carrasquillo, 1991).

Research in L2 Reading Research in L2 Reading

There are differences in basic underlying cognitive There are differences in basic underlying cognitive processes during first and second language processes during first and second language reading (Koda, 1994; Segalowitz, 1986)reading (Koda, 1994; Segalowitz, 1986)

Reduced automaticity of word recognition with Reduced automaticity of word recognition with fluent bilinguals (Hernandez et al, 1996; fluent bilinguals (Hernandez et al, 1996; Segalowitz, 1986)Segalowitz, 1986)

Repetition effects occur more readily within Repetition effects occur more readily within languages than they do between languages, thus languages than they do between languages, thus L2 reading may be affected (Scarborough, 1984)L2 reading may be affected (Scarborough, 1984)

OVER REPRESENTATION OVER REPRESENTATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATIONIN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Testing, the Law and LEP Students: Diana Testing, the Law and LEP Students: Diana v. State Board of Education (1970):v. State Board of Education (1970):

Spanish speakingSpanish speaking students were being placed in students were being placed in MR classes based on their scores from MR classes based on their scores from intelligence tests administered in Englishintelligence tests administered in English

Important results from the case:Important results from the case:• 1) 1) language competencelanguage competence should be assessed should be assessed• 2) tests should be 2) tests should be administered in students’ L1administered in students’ L1• 3) emphasis on 3) emphasis on nonverbal measuresnonverbal measures • 4) students 4) students placed incorrectly should be re-placed incorrectly should be re-

evaluatedevaluated

Public Law 94-142 /IDEA ‘97: Public Law 94-142 /IDEA ‘97: Specific Issues with LEP StudentsSpecific Issues with LEP Students

*Assessment should be *Assessment should be conducted in students’conducted in students’ native language or mode of communicationnative language or mode of communication *Assessment procedures should be non-discriminatory*Assessment procedures should be non-discriminatory *Assessment instruments …must measure disability,*Assessment instruments …must measure disability, not child’s English language skillsnot child’s English language skills *Tests should be *Tests should be valid for purposes usedvalid for purposes used *Tests are *Tests are administered by trained andadministered by trained and knowledgeable personnelknowledgeable personnel *Single test*Single test should not be sole criterion for disability should not be sole criterion for disability *Areas related to suspected disability should be assessed.*Areas related to suspected disability should be assessed.

ASSESSMENT ISSUESASSESSMENT ISSUES

REFERRALS TO SPECIAL REFERRALS TO SPECIAL EDUCATIONEDUCATION

The use of the SSTThe use of the SST Pre-referral Questions (LEP Questionnaire)Pre-referral Questions (LEP Questionnaire) Pre-referral InterventionsPre-referral Interventions

Intelligence Testing and MinoritiesIntelligence Testing and Minorities

Lower correlationsLower correlations have been found between have been found between Performance IQs (PIQ) and achievementPerformance IQs (PIQ) and achievement

Low correlations have been found between Low correlations have been found between Nonverbal Intelligence Tests and achievementNonverbal Intelligence Tests and achievement

Lack of English Lack of English language proficiency language proficiency significantly and negatively influences test significantly and negatively influences test resultsresults    

   ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE USE OF ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE USE OF

INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN ASSESSING ETHNIC INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN ASSESSING ETHNIC MINORITY CHILDREN (Sattler, 1992)MINORITY CHILDREN (Sattler, 1992)

1) 1) Intelligence tests have a Intelligence tests have a cultural biascultural bias.. 2)   2)   Norms are inappropriateNorms are inappropriate for minorities. for minorities. 3)   Belief that Minorities are handicapped in test taking skills.3)   Belief that Minorities are handicapped in test taking skills.

• a.  Deficiencies in motivation, test practice, and readinga.  Deficiencies in motivation, test practice, and reading• b. Failure to appreciate the achievement aspects of the test situationb. Failure to appreciate the achievement aspects of the test situation• c.  Limited exposure to the U.S. culturec.  Limited exposure to the U.S. culture

4)   The fact that 4)   The fact that most examiners are whitemost examiners are white has the effect of depressing has the effect of depressing the scores of ethnic minority children.the scores of ethnic minority children.

• a.  Rapporta.  Rapport• b. Communication difficultiesb. Communication difficulties

5)   5)   Tests results Tests results lead to inadequate and inferior education.lead to inadequate and inferior education.• a.  “Test results are the main reason why ethnic minority children are segregated into a.  “Test results are the main reason why ethnic minority children are segregated into

special classes.”special classes.”• b. These classes may have inadequate curriculum and provide inferior educationb. These classes may have inadequate curriculum and provide inferior education• c.  Can create negative expectancies in teachersc.  Can create negative expectancies in teachers

  

ARGUMENTS FOR THE USE OF ARGUMENTS FOR THE USE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN ASSESSING ETHNIC INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN ASSESSING ETHNIC

MINORITY CHILDREN (Sattler, 1992)MINORITY CHILDREN (Sattler, 1992)

1)   1)   Useful inUseful in evaluating present functioning. evaluating present functioning.• a.  Cognitive strength and weaknessesa.  Cognitive strength and weaknesses

• b. Helpful in determining certain exceptionalitiesb. Helpful in determining certain exceptionalities

• c.  Helpful in testing for Brain damagec.  Helpful in testing for Brain damage

2)   2)   Useful in indictingUseful in indicting future functioning. future functioning.

3)   Useful in 3)   Useful in evaluating programsevaluating programs..

4)   Useful in 4)   Useful in revealing inequalities revealing inequalities (i.e. needing special (i.e. needing special

education)education)

5)   Useful in providing an 5)   Useful in providing an objective standard.objective standard.

Four Options for the Assessment of Four Options for the Assessment of Bilingual StudentsBilingual Students

1) Administer the usual diagnostic battery, but take 1) Administer the usual diagnostic battery, but take account students’ bilingual background in account students’ bilingual background in interpreting the test profile.interpreting the test profile.

2) Delay assessment in the hope that the student’s 2) Delay assessment in the hope that the student’s poor academic performance is the result of normal poor academic performance is the result of normal L2 development.L2 development.

3) Administer only nonverbal measures.3) Administer only nonverbal measures.

4) Do assessment in L1and L2.4) Do assessment in L1and L2. Adopted from Cummins, J. (2001) Assessment and Intervention with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners. In S. R. Hurley and J. V. Tinajero Literacy Adopted from Cummins, J. (2001) Assessment and Intervention with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners. In S. R. Hurley and J. V. Tinajero Literacy

Assessment of Second Language Learners. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Assessment of Second Language Learners. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Usual Diagnostic Battery While Usual Diagnostic Battery While Considering Student’s Bilingual Considering Student’s Bilingual

BackgroundBackground

Use of verbal and nonverbal measures in EnglishUse of verbal and nonverbal measures in English,, but accounting for students’ bilingual background.but accounting for students’ bilingual background.

Dangers: Dangers: Mis-interpreting results and over-Mis-interpreting results and over-representation of students in Special Educationrepresentation of students in Special Education (Ortiz & Yates, 1983; Mercer, 1973).(Ortiz & Yates, 1983; Mercer, 1973).

Tendency to ignore or underestimate the influence Tendency to ignore or underestimate the influence of language proficiency on individuals’ of language proficiency on individuals’ performanceperformance (Oller, 1997; as cited in Cummins, (Oller, 1997; as cited in Cummins, 2001)2001)

Administering Only Nonverbal MeasuresAdministering Only Nonverbal Measures

Nonverbal measures not good predictors of academic Nonverbal measures not good predictors of academic achievementachievement

Language competency needs to be assessed (Diana Language competency needs to be assessed (Diana vs. State Board of Ed, 1970)vs. State Board of Ed, 1970)

Most learning disabilities are related to languageMost learning disabilities are related to language

If there are visual perceptual difficulties, nonverbal If there are visual perceptual difficulties, nonverbal measures will not be valid.measures will not be valid.

Assessment in L1 and L2Assessment in L1 and L2 Few Bilingual Psychologists/Speech PathologistsFew Bilingual Psychologists/Speech Pathologists

Appropriate use of interpretersAppropriate use of interpreters

Questionable norms (monolingual norms in Questionable norms (monolingual norms in Spanish or English)Spanish or English)

Caution in interpreting languages separatelyCaution in interpreting languages separately

Bilingual Assessment ModelBilingual Assessment Model(Wilda’s model in progress)(Wilda’s model in progress)

LEPBilingual*Has had instruction in L1*Uses Spanish to a high degree

Bilingual*Fluent in English*No previous instruction in L1

Bilingual Assessment:Assessment in L1 and L2

Assessment in English with consideration regarding culture and L2 development

•Observations•Interviews (parents and teachers)•Appropriate Norm referenced tests - consider language and standardization.•Criterion based tests•Curriculum Based Measurement

•Observations•Interviews (parents and teachers)•Appropriate Norm referenced tests •Criterion based tests•Curriculum Based Measurement

Wilda Laija, Ph.D. 2000

Assessment of LEP and Bilingual Assessment of LEP and Bilingual Students in L1 and L2Students in L1 and L2

Language Proficiency•L1 and L2 language proficiency needs to be established•Examine both expressive and receptive language in L1 and L2•Consider BICS and CALP

LEP and/orLimited in L1

BilingualProficiency in L2

INTELLIGENCE/COGNITVE ABILITY(Must be done in L1 as much as possible)•Bateria Woodcock-Munoz (limitations)•UNIT•Differential Abilities Scales (Non-verbal)•KABC (old)•Nonverbal tests (limitations)

INTELLIGENCE/COGNITIVE ABILITY(Can use both L1 and L2,m if needed)•UNIT•Differential Abilities Scales•KABC•Nonverbal tests (limitations)

Visual and Auditory Processingin Dominant Language

Wilda Laija, Ph.D.

Visual and Auditory ProcessingIn Dominant Language

LEP and/orLimited in L1

BilingualProficiency in L2

ACHIEVEMENTShould be given in L1 and L2 Based on language of instruction

ACHIEVEMENTShould Based on language of instruction

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL•In L1

•DAP, KSD, KFD•Roberts•TEMAS•Rorschach

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL•In Dominant Language

•DAP, KSD, KFD•Roberts•TEMAS•Rorschach

Wilda Laija, Ph.D.

Interpreting Results for Bilingual Interpreting Results for Bilingual StudentsStudents

Consider:Consider:• Whether norms are from students country of Whether norms are from students country of

originorigin• How long has student been learning EnglishHow long has student been learning English• Degree of support for L1 conceptual Degree of support for L1 conceptual

development at home and school development at home and school • Social and peer pressure to replace L1 with L2Social and peer pressure to replace L1 with L2• Bilingual students have different Bilingual students have different

language/cognitive/academic development than language/cognitive/academic development than monolingual studentsmonolingual students

Test Interpretation with Test Interpretation with Bilingual StudentsBilingual Students

Consider:Consider:• Language ProficiencyLanguage Proficiency• L2 developmentL2 development• Instructional ProgramsInstructional Programs• Reading Development Reading Development

in L1 and L2in L1 and L2• Educational HistoryEducational History• Health and Health and

DevelopmentDevelopment• Family HistoryFamily History

Caution against:Caution against:• Distortion:Distortion:

minimizing or minimizing or maximizing differences maximizing differences due to stereotypesdue to stereotypes

• Pathologizing:Pathologizing: using using inappropriate diagnostic inappropriate diagnostic criteria based on culture criteria based on culture and languageand language

Writing the ReportWriting the Report

State:State:• Language used to test studentLanguage used to test student• Examiner’s proficiency or use of interpreterExaminer’s proficiency or use of interpreter• Student’s language factorsStudent’s language factors• Tests used, validity and reliability with this Tests used, validity and reliability with this

populationpopulation• Educational and family historyEducational and family history• Rule in or out exclusionary clauseRule in or out exclusionary clause

Classroom Interventions for Promoting Classroom Interventions for Promoting L2 CompetenciesL2 Competencies

Reading aloud to the students at their conceptual level Reading aloud to the students at their conceptual level Providing experiences for listening comprehensionProviding experiences for listening comprehension Encouraging oral language developmentEncouraging oral language development Sharing reading between the teacher and studentsSharing reading between the teacher and students Modeling and guiding oral language and reading Modeling and guiding oral language and reading

developmentdevelopment Shared reading: dictating to the teacher and then Shared reading: dictating to the teacher and then

illustrating booksillustrating books Using materials that are socially sensitive and Using materials that are socially sensitive and

culturally specificculturally specific