Teaching Idea

Review map-reading skills and concepts from previous grades as needed.

Cross-curricular

Teaching Idea

Compare the distance using mapscale (usually measured in a straightline), and talk about the meaning ofthe saying “As the crow flies.” Havestudents discuss the differencebetween traveling as the crow fliesand how they travel using othermeans (car, airplane). See also themap book As the Crow Flies,referenced in More Resources.

History and Geography: World 93

At a GlanceThe most important ideas for you are:

◗ Students can use scales on maps and globes to measure distance.

◗ Students can use longitude and latitude coordinates to locate places onmaps and globes.

◗ The Prime Meridian is located at 0º longitude, and the InternationalDate Line, which generally corresponds to 180º longitude, marks thechange in days from east to west.

◗ Relief maps are special-purpose maps that indicate elevations anddepressions in land height.

◗ Major mountain ranges by continent include the Andes (SouthAmerica), Rockies and Appalachians (North America), Himalayas andUrals (Asia), Atlas (Africa), and Alps (Europe).

◗ High mountains of the world by continent are Everest (Asia), McKinley(North America), Aconcagua (South America), Mont Blanc (Europe),and Kilimanjaro (Africa).

What Teachers Need to KnowBackground

The study of geography embraces many topics throughout the CoreKnowledge Sequence, including topics in history and science. Geographicknowledge includes a spatial sense of the world, an awareness of the physicalprocesses to which people culturally adapt, a sense of the interactions betweenhumans and their environment, an understanding of the relations betweenplace and culture, and an awareness of the characteristics of specific regionsand cultures. Many geographic topics are listed throughout the World Historyand Geography Sequence in connection with historical topics.

Throughout this section, students should connect the “abstract” conceptsto something more concrete, such as a country of interest or a topic of histor-ical study in this grade. Also look for opportunities to review geography andmap concepts as you study the history topics for this grade; e.g., share mapsof medieval Europe and China.

A. Spatial Sense (Working with Maps, Globes,and Other Geographic Tools)

Measuring Distance Using Map ScaleAll maps are drawn to scale; that is, they are smaller than the things they rep-

resent. Scale is the ratio between the representation and the thing it represents. A map may be drawn so that 1 inch equals 250 miles, or so that 1 inch equals 1 mile. Maps, as well as globes, almost always indicate the scale at which they aredrawn.

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The scale of a map makes a difference in the amount of detail shown on a mapand the kinds of questions that can be asked and answered about what is shown.A large-scale map (i.e., one closest in size to what it represents) will show less areabut provide more detail about the area shown than a small-scale map. For exam-ple, a road map of a state, with a scale of 1 inch per 10 miles, may show publiccampgrounds, points of interest, and county roads, whereas a state map in an atlaswith a smaller scale of 1 inch per 60 miles may show only major highways andmajor cities. This difference in detail is a function of the scale of the map.

Longitude and Latitude, Coordinates, and DegreesAround the center of Earth is an imaginary line called the Equator. It is 0º lat-

itude and is located halfway between the North and South Poles. The Equatordivides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Imaginary lines that run parallel to the Equator are called parallels of latitude,or parallels. Latitude is measured north and south of the Equator. The North andSouth Poles are at 90ºN and 90ºS, respectively. Any area between the Equator andthe North or South Poles is some measurement from 0º to 90º north or south.

The dividing lines for the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the PrimeMeridian (also called the Greenwich Meridian) and the 180th Meridian. Thesetwo imaginary lines are on opposite sides of Earth. The Prime Meridian refers to0º longitude, an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole,passing through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, a suburb of London,England. The International Date Line also runs from the North Pole to the SouthPole, generally following the 180th Meridian (it deviates in a few places to avoiddividing Siberia and again to include the Aleutian Islands with Alaska).

Imaginary lines that run east and west from the Prime Meridian are calledmeridians of longitude, or meridians. Longitude is measured east and west fromthe Prime Meridian, or 0°. The International Date Line marks the difference intime between east and west. When crossing the International Date Line goingwest, a traveler moves forward to the next day (Tuesday becomes Wednesday).When going east, a traveler goes back one day (Wednesday becomes Tuesday).

Meridians of longitude are not parallel, because Earth is a sphere. The widestdistance between lines measuring degrees of longitude is at the Equator, and thelines converge as they approach the poles. You can see this clearly on a globe.

Relief Maps: Elevations and DepressionsWashington, D.C., lies at 25 feet (7.62 m) above sea level. This is its eleva-

tion. A relief map, also called a physical map, shows elevations and depressionsof land areas. A relief map shows height and depth above (elevation) and below(depression) sea level. The map uses different colors to show different levels ofland, and the map key reproduces those colors in boxes along with numericalequivalents in feet or meters. A relief map, like a road map or a natural resourcesmap, is a special-purpose map.

Teaching Idea

For a source of latitude and longitudecoordinates for world and U.S. cities,check world almanacs.

Teaching Idea

Have students play a version of“Battleship.” Provide each student with a copy of Instructional Master 13,Longitude and Latitude. For purposes of the game, only degrees are shown.

Use Instructional Master 13.

Study the map below. The star on the map represents an airplane in flight. Using lines oflongitude and latitude, you can pinpoint its location as latitude 40°N, longitude 20°W.These coordinates, or set of numbers, are written as 40°N, 20°W.

Now use the map to play a “Find the Plane” game with a partner.

• First, draw four stars on intersecting lines on the map. Write the coordinates below.

• Then take turns giving those coordinates to a partner to draw on his or her map, but without viewing yours.

• Work together to verify the location of each “plane.”

Longitude and Latitude

Master 13 Grade 4: History & Geography

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Answers will vary.

Cross-curricular

Teaching Idea

Locate countries studied in earliergrades and/or countries being studiedin this grade on a world map. Usingmap scale, measure the distancebetween countries studied. Studentscan write mathematical word problemscomparing the distances.

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History and Geography: World 95

Draw the following example on the board to help you illustrate the map keyfor a relief map.

B. Mountains and Mountain RangesBackground

A mountain range is a series of connected mountains considered as a sin-gle system because of geographical proximity or common geologic origin.Mountains are considered to have a common geologic origin if they formed atthe same time by the same set of geologic events.

A large mountain system, like the Appalachian Mountains in northeasternCanada and the United States, may be called by different names in differentareas. For example, the Appalachians in the southern United States are calledthe Blue Ridge, Great Smokies, Cumberland Plateau, and Black Mountains.

South America: AndesThe Andes Mountains are over 5,000 miles (8,046 km) in length, the longest

mountain system in the Western Hemisphere. The mountains begin as four rangesin the Caribbean area on the northeastern coast of South America. In Peru andBolivia, the mountains form two parallel ranges that create a wide plateau knownas the altiplano. The Andes then form a single range that separates Chile fromArgentina.

With an average height of 12,500 feet (3,810 m), the Andes are the second-highest mountain range in the world. The Himalayas are the highest.

Approximately 50–60% of Peru’s people live in the altiplano. About one-thirdof the nation’s population live in the narrow lowlands between the Andes and thePacific Ocean. Because the Andes run north to south along the entire length ofChile, most Chileans live in the Central Valley region between the Andes and lowcoastal mountains.

The Andes Mountains were the home of Inca people, whom students in CoreKnowledge schools studied in Grade 1 and will study again in Grade 5.

North America: Appalachians and RockiesThe Appalachian Mountains are the oldest mountain chain in North America

and stretch from Newfoundland to central Alabama. They are about 1,800 miles

Use Instructional Masters 15a–15b.

Purpose: To read and interpret a map featuring major mountains of North and South America

Study the map and use it to answer the questions that follow.

Major Mountains of North and South America

Master 15a Grade 4: History & Geography

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Mt. McKinleyMt. McKinley20,320 ft.20,320 ft.

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80W 60W 40W 20W100W120W140W160W

Equator

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Mt. McKinley20,320 ft.

Mt. Aconcagua22,834 ft.

SOUTHAMERICA

NORTHAMERICA

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0 500 1000 kilometers

1000 miles500

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Use Instructional Master 14.

Connect each set of dots that indicate the same elevation. For example, draw a lineto connect all the dots labeled “450 and under.” Once you are done, color the landaccording to the chart below.

Make a Relief Map

Master 14 Grade 4: History & Geography

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450 and under

451–500

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Land Color450 and under green451–500 brown501–550 yellow551–600 orange601–650 blue

Cross-curricular

Teaching Idea

You may wish to teach the Sciencesection “How Mountains AreFormed,” on pp. 497–498, prior tointroducing major mountain ranges.

Snake Tra i l

Jonson's Well

Bald Hill

Rockytop Hill

Harris Campsite

Elevation= 801– 900 Feet= 701– 800 Feet= 601– 700 Feet= 501– 600 FeetScale 1 Inch = 1 Mile

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Teaching Idea

Give students coordinates to locate onthe map. After this becomes effortless,ask them questions such as “What cityis located near X coordinate, Y coordi-nate?” Or you might ask them to esti-mate the coordinates of cities in theUnited States.

You can play a game called“Wet/Dry.” Give students a coordinateand ask them to determine if theywould be wet or dry if they were at thatcoordinate (i.e., would they be on landor in the water).

You can also play “Hot/Cold”: havethem find a coordinate and say whetherthey would be hot or cold at that loca-tion. This will reinforce the connec-tions between latitude and climate.

You can also play “TwentyQuestions.” Choose a coordinate andinvite students to try to determinewhere you are by asking questions,e.g., “Is it north of the Equator?” and “Is it west of the Prime Meridian?”

Teaching Idea

Note that latitude is not the only indica-tor of climate. Elevation and location inrelation to landforms and bodies ofwater, prevailing winds, currents andother phenomena also contribute to climate patterns.

fifty-three minutes north latitude, and seventy-seven degrees and two minuteswest longitude.” The first set of numbers specifies a latitude north of the Equator,and the second specifies a longitude west of the Prime Meridian. Although theSequence only stipulates that students learn about degrees, you may want to men-tion minutes as well, since this will enable them to locate places more exactly.

Students need to practice finding coordinates on maps. One way to do this isto have them work with maps of countries you are studying in this grade (e.g.,England, Russia, and Japan). Also, activities such as those suggested in the side-bar will help students become familiar with the geographical terms and conceptsthey are learning.

Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of CapricornThe area between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N latitude) and the Tropic of

Capricorn (23.5° S latitude) is known as “the tropics” or “low latitudes.” It has thewarmest climate on Earth. The Tropic of Cancer is a parallel that measures 23.5º N(or 23°27' N) and runs through Mexico, the Bahamas, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India,and southern China. The Tropic of Capricorn measures 23.5º S (or 23°27' S), andruns through Australia, Chile, southern Brazil, and northern South Africa. Thetropics were so-named because of the particular constellations that the sun was inat the time of their respective solstices, or the time when the sun is the farthestnorth or south of the Equator. At the time, the sun appeared directly over theTropic of Cancer during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice and directlyover the Tropic of Capricorn during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer solstice.

Earth rotates on its own axis and at the same time, it revolves around the sun.Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5º, which means that all locations on Earth do notreceive the same amount of direct sunlight. The areas close to the Equator receivethe most direct sunlight and, therefore, have the hottest average temperatures yearround. As a result, the tropics have no sharply defined seasons. The North andSouth Poles, the areas farthest away from the Equator—and farthest from the sun—have extreme cold temperatures year round. The polar regions have two definedseasons. Because of the tilt of Earth, polar areas—and the high latitudes in gener-al—have 24 hours of sunlight in the summer and 24 hours of darkness in the win-ter. The farther a place is from the Equator, the more pronounced the differenceswill be between summer and winter in terms of length of the days and nights.

Climate Zones: Arctic, Tropical, TemperateThere are three main categories of climate—arctic (also known as polar),

tropical, and temperate.

• The arctic climate is often referred to as the polar climate by geographersbecause the term polar makes it clear that the climate includes both the Arctic andAntarctic areas. Polar climates have cool to cold summers and cold to very coldwinters. Temperatures average below 32ºF year-round on the Antarctic andGreenland ice caps, and drop to well below 0ºF during the long, dark wintermonths. Precipitation is scant, averaging only a few inches each year, and most ofit falls in the form of snow. A band of subpolar climate stretches across northernNorth America and Eurasia. Here, one gets short summers with average temper-atures above freezing for two or three months; then the temperature plungesbelow freezing throughout the remainder of the year. Most of this region receivesbetween 5 and 10 inches of precipitation, with some areas receiving up to 20inches. Snowfall can occur during any month.

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• Tropical climate includes some belts of climate with hot, wet weather year-round and some with hot weather that is dry part of the year and wet part of theyear. Areas with wet weather all year are typically rainforests. Rainforests canreceive as much as 400 inches of rain annually. Hot areas with alternating wet anddry patterns are savannas, or plains with tall grasses. Savannas receive about 50inches of precipitation a year. Temperatures average above 68ºF throughout theyear in the tropics. Tropical rainforests thrive around the Equator in Africa and inSouth America, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Borneo, and New Guinea. A large beltof savanna exists north and south of the rainforests in Africa.

• Temperate zones of climate are found in the middle latitudes, between thetropics and the polar areas. In general, temperate climates are characterized bywarm to hot summers and cool to cold winters, with variations depending on lat-itude. Throughout much of these regions, temperatures can rise above 100ºF inthe summer and drop well below freezing in the winter. The temperate zonesexperience dramatic changes in seasons, with pronounced periods of spring andfall. Precipitation varies from a few inches in the midlatitude desert regions tomore than 100 inches in some areas. Snowfall occurs during winter months inmany temperate zone locations. These are regions of considerable variability inboth weather and climate. The northeastern and north United States, westernEurope, and eastern Asia have temperate climates.

Time ZonesTime zones were developed to bring uniformity to the hours of the day as the

sun moves from east to west. Time zones generally follow the rule of one timezone for every 15º of longitude (360º of longitude divided by 15 equals 24 timezones, which correspond with the 24 hours of the day). However, the lines divid-ing time zones are not perfectly straight. Sometimes they zigzag to avoid dividingcountries, states, or metropolitan areas.

To understand why time zones are important, consider this. Imagine there arethree cities, City A, City B, and City C. City B is 100 or so miles west of City A,and City C is 100 miles west of City B.

CITY C CITY B CITY A

The sun rises first in the easternmost city, which is City A. In actuality, ofcourse, the sun is not “rising”; rather, Earth is rotating. But from our position onEarth, it looks as if the sun is rising. After some time passes and the planet rotatesa little more, the sun will rise in City B. Then, after a little more time and a bitmore rotation, the sun will come up in City C. If each city based its time com-pletely on its position relative to the sun, then the time would be slightly differ-ent in each city, and this could be very confusing. It might be 8:20 in City C, 8:10in City B, and 8:00 in City C. And if you were on a train halfway between City B and City C, it would be 8:05. To avoid this kind of confusion, people haveagreed to divide the globe into 24 time zones, each one hour apart. If City A, CityB, and City C are all in the same time zone, this means that the people in theselocations have agreed to refer to a particular moment in time as 8:00 AM, eventhough the actual “solar time” may be a few minutes earlier than that in one ofthe cities and a few minutes later in another.

As noted earlier, longitude is measured east and west from the Prime Meridian,or 0°, located at Greenwich, England. The 180º line is in the Pacific Ocean; it is

Teaching Idea

Create an overhead from InstructionalMaster 12, Latitude as ClimateIndicator, and distribute a copy toeach student. As you discuss thelocation of the Equator at 0º, theTropic of Cancer at 23.5° N, and theTropic of Capricorn at 23.5° S, indi-cate that the tropics are in the lowlatitudes; that the area between thetropics and the polar regions is in themiddle latitudes. Have students labeltheir maps as you label the overhead.Then have students create a map keyand color in the regions using differ-ent-colored markers.

Divide the class into five teamsand assign each team a region toresearch (North frigid zone; Northtemperate zone; tropical zone; Southtemperate zone; South frigid zone).Each team member must find andshare 1 unique fact about the region.

History and Geography: World 113

Use Instructional Master 12.

Study the map. Then follow the directions below.

1. Color the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn red. Thisarea is known as the tropics.

2. Color the areas north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle blue.

3. Find the areas between the tropics and the arctic climates. Color these temperateclimate areas yellow.

Latitude as Climate Indicator

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PACIFICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEANATLANTIC

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Antarctic Circle

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Arctic Circle60°N

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Teaching Idea

You may wish to review relief mapswith students. Those in CoreKnowledge schools studied relief mapsin Grade 4.

called the International Date Line. The International Date Line marks the differencein time between east and west. (The International Date Line actually zigs and zagsfrom north to south to avoid running directly through settled islands.) When cross-ing the International Date Line going west, a traveler moves forward to the next day(Tuesday becomes Wednesday). When going east, a traveler goes back one day(Wednesday becomes Tuesday). The International Date Line is a hard concept toexplain. At this age it is sufficient that students know the date line exists and under-stand that it is related to time zones and to the rotation of Earth. They do not needto understand exactly why the IDL was created.

Arctic Circle and Antarctic CircleThe Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle are imaginary lines that are drawn

around Earth near the North and South Poles. The Arctic Circle is at 66.5º N (or66º33' N) latitude and the Antarctic Circle is at 66.5º S (or 66º33' S) latitude. TheNorth Pole is within the Arctic Circle; the South Pole is within the Antarctic Circle.

Earth tilts slightly on its axis. As it makes its 365-day orbit around the sun,this tilt causes first the Northern Hemisphere and then the Southern Hemisphereto be tilted toward the sun for a period of months. When this occurs, the polar areaof the hemisphere—either the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle—has sixmonths of daylight for 24 hours a day. When the hemisphere is tilted away fromthe sun, the polar area has 24 hours of darkness per day. This effect lessens furtherfrom the poles, with the Arctic and Antarctic Circles experiencing just one day ofcomplete light and dark per year. The circle marks the boundary of 24-hour dayor 24-hour night, depending on what time of the year it is in the hemisphere. Forthe Southern Hemisphere, 24-hour daylight within the Antarctic Circle—and sum-mer—begins on December 22. For the Northern Hemisphere, December 22 marksthe beginning of 24-hour night and winter within the Arctic Circle.

From a Round Globe to a Flat MapAlthough globes are more accurate models of Earth than flat maps, you can’t fold

a globe up and take it with you on a trip. Maps—pictorial representations of the loca-tion of various places—are a way to make the information on a globe portable.

If Earth were flat, it would be easy to make a map of it on a flat sheet of paper.But Earth is a sphere. This poses certain difficulties for mapmakers and cartographers.

Whenever you transfer information about a spherical planet onto a flat pieceof paper, there will be a certain amount of distortion. The act of transferring infor-mation from a globe to a flat map is called projection. There are various ways ofprojecting information from a globe onto a flat page. Each way distorts the origi-nal information in a distinctive way.

To understand how projection works, take a long, blank sheet of paper andwrap it around a globe in such a way that the paper touches the globe at theEquator but not at the poles. Now imagine that the globe is made of transparentplastic with the continents and other features drawn on the plastic in a darkercolor. Also imagine that this transparent globe has a light bulb in the center. If thelight bulb were turned on, the light would shine through the transparent orb andthe marked parts would cast shadows on the paper. You could trace the shapescast by the shadows and then unroll the paper to make a rectangular map. In theplaces where the paper sits right next to the globe, the sizes and shapes of the

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continents and oceans on your map would be very accurate. However, in thoseareas where the paper is a long way from the globe, there would be distortion.Thus, the areas around the Equator will be rendered very accurately and the areasnear the poles will be distorted and rendered less accurately.

Mercator ProjectionIn 1569, the cartographer Gerardus Mercator developed a projection scheme

that is still widely used today. Mercator projected the globe’s features onto a cylin-der, in roughly the way described above. The Mercator projection is accurate forthe tropics but distorts the areas near the poles (such as Alaska and Greenland),making them look much larger on the resulting map than they are. The shapes ofthe landmasses are accurate but the sizes and distances between areas are not.Direction, however, is accurate, which is what Europeans moving east and westbetween Europe and the Americas during the Age of Exploration wanted to know.

Conic ProjectionIn a conic projection, a piece of paper is twisted into a cone and placed over

the globe so that the circular “top” of the cone touches the globe. Features on theglobe are then projected onto the paper. The resulting map is reproduced as a rec-tangular map with curved parallels and meridians. This is different than theMercator projection, which has straight lines. A map made using conic projectionis most accurate for the areas on the globe that touch the cone. Conic maps arenot good for showing large areas, like the whole globe. However, they are goodfor showing smaller areas, especially smaller areas in the middle latitudes.Direction and distance are also relatively accurate.

Plane ProjectionIn a plane projection a flat sheet of paper is placed against the side of globe

so that it touches the globe at one point only. (Recall that in a Mercator projec-tion the paper was wrapped around the globe to make a cylinder and made con-tact with the globe all along the Equator.) Plane projection produces a map that

Teaching Idea

Create an overhead from InstructionalMaster 13, Three Different MapProjections, to illustrate the differ-ences among the Mercator, conic,and Robinson projections.

As you explain the distortions,have students point them out by iden-tifying the continents and oceanswhere the differences are apparent.

History and Geography: World 115

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Study each map projection below. Then discuss their differences with your teacher.

Three Different Map Projections

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Mercator Projection

Conic Projection

Plane Projection

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Teaching Idea

Note that the convention of north at thetop of maps came about because navi-gators used a magnetic compass todetermine direction. In Grade 4, stu-dents in Core Knowledge schoolslearned about the invention of the com-pass by the Chinese. Point out compassroses on a variety of maps.

Teaching Idea

Before introducing the lakes on eachcontinent, take stock of what studentsalready know about each continent. Forexample, before talking about Asianlakes, discuss what students alreadyknow about Asia.

is accurate at the point where it touches, but is less accurate as you move awayfrom the point of contact. The plane projection is also called the azimuthal[AZ-em-MUTH-al] projection. A common form of this projection is a polar pro-jection, in which the North or South Pole is used as the central point of contact.

Robinson ProjectionThe Robinson projection is the most commonly used representation in text-

books. It is called a “compromise projection” because it tries to strike a compro-mise between some of the other kinds of projection. The goal is to minimize thelimitations and distortions inherent in the other schemes while capturing theirstrengths. In a Robinson projection, the shape and size of continents is somewhat

distorted, but less so than with the Mercator projection. The areas around thepoles appear somewhat flatter than they are on a globe, but the areas at theeastern and western edges of the projection are fairly accurate. As is the casewith conic projections, the parallels and meridians on the resulting map arecurved.

B. Great Lakes of the WorldBackground

A lake is a large inland body of water. A river may feed into a lake and ariver may flow out of it. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa has several lakesand rivers running through it. There are lakes on most continents and mostof them contain fresh water. Lakes are often important sources of water forirrigation and hydroelectric power, as well as transportation and recreation.

Asia: Caspian Sea and Aral SeaThe Caspian Sea actually lies between Europe and Asia, in the area known as

Eurasia. The Caspian borders the countries of Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan,Iran, and Azerbaijan. It is the world’s largest inland sea, spanning 143,000 squaremiles (370,368 sq. km), and has no natural outlets to the ocean; a canal links theCaspian Sea to the Black Sea. The sea lies 92 feet (28 m) below sea level and isfed by rivers such as the Volga. In recent years, the sea has been shrinking becausewater is being drawn off the rivers that feed it for use in irrigation. The CaspianSea is used for fishing, especially in the northern regions, and is an importantsource of oil and natural gas.

The Aral Sea is bordered by Uzbekistan to the south and Kazakhstan to thenorth. The Aral Sea was once the world’s fourth-largest lake. However, in recentyears, it, too, has been shrinking due to diversion of the rivers that feed it to irri-gate fields devoted to cotton production. In fact, it has shrunk by more than 40%since the 1960s. This has caused the water in the sea to become highly saline,

Use Instructional Masters 14a–14b.

Great Lakes of the World

Master 14a Grade 5: History & Geography

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Name Date

Fill in the chart with information about the great lakes of the world.

Name Lake Superior Lake Michigan Lake Huron Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Titicaca

Location

Latitude/Longitude

Elevation

ApproximateSurface AreaSaltwater orFreshwater

Characteristics

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