Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH(CH220)n0)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated.

The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio

of 1:2:11:2:1 and are made up of a repeating chain of sugars.

Sugars are also known as saccaridessaccarides.

Carbohydrates usually end in ‘oseose’.

Can you think of any examples?

CC66HH12120066

1.1. EnergyEnergy: when the bondsbonds between Carbon atoms are brokenare broken, the energy releasedreleased can be used by cells.

Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life.

2. 2. StructuralStructural: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants (is used in the cell wallcell wall).

The basic sugar molecule is GLUCOSEGLUCOSE: CC66 H H12 12 OO66..

Glucose has a ringring structure.

Other monosaccharides include fructose, ribose, deoxyribosefructose, ribose, deoxyribose

glucose + glucose forms the sugar maltosemaltose

glucose + fructose forms the sugar sucrosesucrose

galactose + glucose forms the sugar lactoselactose

When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed:

• StarchStarch

• GlycogenGlycogen

• CelluloseCellulose

• ChitinChitin

• The cell wallscell walls of plants are made of cellulose

• They are long chainslong chains of glucose molecules with no no side chainsside chains.

• The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen

• No mammal can break this bond

• 5. This is why we cannot digestcannot digest cellulose = FIBREFIBRE.

• Plants store their energyPlants store their energy as starch • Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked

together

• Starch has few side chainsfew side chains

• Animals store their energyAnimals store their energy (extra glucose) as (extra glucose) as glycogenglycogen

• We store glycogen in our liver and musclesliver and muscles

• Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together

• Glycogen has many side chainsmany side chains

• Made by animals and fungianimals and fungi

• Long glucose chains linked with covalent bondscovalent bonds.

• Very strongstrong

• Makes structures like exo-skeletonsexo-skeletons, fingernails, clawsclaws, and beaks

Lipids are made up of the elements C,H,OC,H,O but in no set ratio.

Lipids are large molecules that are insoluble in waterinsoluble in water.

1. Composed of 3 fatty acids3 fatty acids bonded to 1 glycerol1 glycerol.

a) Fatty acids contain a long chainlong chain of 16-18 Carbons with an acid end.

b) Glycerol is a small 3 small 3 Carbon chainCarbon chain with 3 alcohol (OH) groups

1. 1. Saturated fatsSaturated fats:: There are no double bondsno double bonds in the carbon chains of the fatty acids.

The carbons are filled with hydrogenshydrogens.

UnhealthyUnhealthy.

They mostly come from animalsanimals. Become solidsolid at room temperature.

Examples: lard, butterbutter, animal fats…

2. 2. Unsaturated fatsUnsaturated fats:: There are double bonds.

Mostly come from plantsplants.

They are liquidliquid at room temperature.

HealthyHealthy

Examples: olive oilolive oil, corn oil, palm oil…

Are used to make up the two layered cell membranecell membrane of all cells.

Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also water water insolubleinsoluble.

They are made up of 4 Carbon ring4 Carbon ring molecules fused together.

Examples: testosteronetestosterone, estrogen, cholesterolcholesterol, and vitamin DD.

Used as sex hormonessex hormones

• Found in fish and leafy vegetables

• Other foods are now offering omega-3’s (eggs, cereals, margarine…)

• Help to reduce cancer

• Helps with vision

• Helps us think better

Scientific evidence has shown that dietary saturated and trans fats can increase your risk of developing heart disease.

1.1. Long term storage for energyLong term storage for energy (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch).

2.2. Insulation Insulation and protectionprotection in animals

3. Making some hormoneshormones (steroids)

4. Structure of cell membranescell membranes. Without lipids, we would have no cells.

1. Proteins are made up of the elements C,H,O, and NC,H,O, and N (but in no set ratio).

2. Proteins are chains of Amino AcidsAmino Acids (usually 75 or more75 or more) that bond together via dehydration synthesis.

3.3. 40%40% of the average human body is made up of protein.

1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things

KeratinKeratin: nails, hair, horns, feathers

Actin & Myosin: muscle muscle proteins

CollagenCollagen: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin

matrix

2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies functioning properlyfunctioning properly and to digest our fooddigest our food.

Hemoglobin

EnzymesEnzymes: are proteins that are catalystscatalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities.

3.3.Food SourceFood Source: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy.

Proteins are worth the least amount of least amount of energy energy per gram.

Anorexia and Bolimia

Nucleic acids are acidicacidic molecules that are found in the nucleusnucleus of cells.

There are two types, both of which are very LARGELARGE. 1. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic AcidDeoxyribonucleic Acid2. RNA: Ribonucleic AcidRibonucleic Acid

Nucleic Acids are made up of C, H, O, P (and sometimes S)

All nucleic acids are composed of units called NUCLEOTIDESNUCLEOTIDES, which are composed of three sub-molecules:

1. Pentose SugarPentose Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)2. PhosphatePhosphate3. Nitrogen BaseNitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)

When DNA is first made, it is just two two linear strandslinear strands of nucleotides joined together.

Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a double double helixhelix (twisted ladder).

a)a) Directs and controls all cell activitiesDirects and controls all cell activities by making all of the proteinsproteins and enzymesenzymes

b) Contains all of the genetic informationgenetic information necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications

RNA is made by DNADNA.

It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasminto the cytoplasm of the cell.

It has RiboseRibose sugar instead of Deoxyribose.

It has no thyminesthymines, and uses URACIL’s URACIL’s instead.

It is single strandedsingle stranded and therefore, no helix is formed.

There are 3 types3 types of RNA.

The function of RNA is to assist DNA in making proteinsassist DNA in making proteins.

Sub-atomic particle (proton, electron, neutron)

Atom

Molecule

Organelles

Cells

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Organism

Population

Community

Ecosystem

Biosphere

Biosphere

Ecosystem

Community

Population

The part of Earththat contains allecosystems

Community and its nonliving surroundings

Populations thatlive together in a defined area

Group of organisms of onetype that live in the same area

Biosphere

Hawk, snake, bison, prairie dog, grass, stream, rocks, air

Hawk, snake, bison, prairie dog, grass

Bison herd

• From the biosphere to organisms

Figure 1.3

1 The biosphere

Organism

Groups ofCells

Cells

Molecules

Individual livingthing

Tissues, organs,and organ systems

Smallest functionalunit of life

Groups of atoms;smallest unit of most chemicalcompounds

Bison

Nervous tissue Nervous systemBrain

Nerve cell

Water DNA

• From cells to molecules

Cell

8 Cells

6 Organs and organ systems

7 Tissues

10 Molecules

9 Organelles

50 µm

10 µm

1 µm

Atoms

Figure 1.3