biology animal breeding

7/28/2019 biology animal breeding

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ANIMAL BREEDING

by

SusanthAlapati

XII, Roll No. 47

NalandaVidyaNiketan


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Introduction 4

Animal Breeding Methods 8

Inbreeding 8

Outbreeding 15

Mutations 22

Bibliography 26


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NALANDA VIDYA NIKETAN

CERTIFICATEThis is to certify that the Biology Project report entitled ANIMAL BREEDING , prepared

by Master Susanth Alapati of class XII with Roll No. 47, studying in Nalanda Vidya Niketan

[2013-14] has been satisfactorily completed strictly as per the rules and regulations of Central

Board of Secondary Education and is thus suitable for presentation for partial fulfilment of the

class XII Science Practicals.

Dt.:

(Biology Teacher) External Examiner


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Acknowledgement

I am overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my deep

sense of gratitude to all those who have helped me to put these ideas, well above

the level of simplicity and into something concrete.

I would like to express my special thanks to my teacher Ms.manjula madam as

well as our principal Susanth Das sir who gave me the opportunity to do this

wonderful project on the topic "Animal Breeding", which also helped me in doing a

lot of study during which i came to know about many new things. I am really

thankful to them.

Any attempt at any level can 't be satisfactorily completed without the support and

guidance of my parents and friends.

I would like to thank my parents Dr.A.V.N.Tilak and A. Padmaja and my brother

A. Prasanth who helped me a lot in gathering different information, collecting data

and guiding me from time to time in completing this project, despite their busy

schedule.

Susanth Alapati

XII-A, Roll No. 47


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INTRODUCTION

From the very early days human beings depend on animals and animal

products for food and other requirements. In dairy and poultry farms

high yielding animals are reared. These high yielding animals are

produced by hybridisation experiments. Previously the animals were

developed based on unscientific methods. Before the discovery of

principles of heredity, human beings have selected the animals with

required characters and learned to develop the animals having the

selected characters. This phenomenon is called Artificial selection.

However, an increased knowledge of biology, especially genetics, has

helped in improving the quality of animals and animal products as per

the human requirements.

ANIMAL BREEDING - PRINCIPLES

The animal breeder faces many complex problems during hybridisation

experiments because many traits of animals are dependent on the

interaction of multiple genes. When attempts are made only to increase


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the size of eggs in fowls, it was observed that the progeny produced

yielded few number of eggs or even they die sometimes. That is if only

one character is taken for improvement of the animals, the other

characters will degenerate or result in harmful effects. Hence at the time

of selection all the desirable characters are to be taken into

consideration. The techniques for the improvement of animals involve

principles of selection based on quantitative variations. It is not possible

for all of the desirable traits to be obtained in one individual. The

successful product must contain maximum number of desirable traits

and a minimum number of undesirable traits.

1. The body form: It is an important factor in selecting racially improved

variety of animals. A certain body form in cattle and broilers will be


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having high market value. They yield delicious mutton if they are having

well built body form.

2. Productivity :This is of great significance to the breeder. Some times it

has first priority over other traits. For example the number of eggs,

quantity of milk, or wool per animal is an important criterion in any

programme of improvement of animals.

3. Quality of the product :In addition to the quantity, the quality of the

productivity is also to be taken into consideration during breeding

experiments. The cattle which yield low quantity of milk but having

high percentage of fat content are more prominent than those which

yield high quantity of milk but with low percentage of fat content.

Similarly the quality of wool in a sheep is more important than the

quantity of wool.

4. Resistance to diseases :The ability of the animal to resist diseases, to

withstand adverse environmental conditions are also important in the

animals produced by hybridisation experiments.


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5. Early maturity :It is another trait that the animal breeders look into for

improvement of animals. The earlier the animals mature to the

productive age, lesser is the cost of maintaining them. If a hen matures

early and begins egg production, it is more valuable than that which

matures later.

6. Economy in the use of food : If the amount of food required to

produce a certain quantity and quality of animal product is

comparatively higher, the commercial value of such an animal is said to

be very low.

In milk yielding cattle and egg yielding fowls if most of their food

material is converted into productivity, such cattle and fowls are

considered as more valuable. The above mentioned are only few of the

desirable qualities that the animal breeders select for improvement of

animals.


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Animal Breeding - Methods

The following animal breeding methods are followed for improvement

of animals in dairy and poultry, namely,

1. Inbreeding

The crossing of closely related animals is called inbreeding. If this

inbreeding is repeated continuously, it is called upgrading. Inbreeding is

used to retain desirable genetic traits in animals. Inbreeding is required

in order to retain as many traits as possible by keeping the combination

of genes intact.

However, the inbreeding may result in homozygous recessive genes

coming together to express some harmful phenotypic traits. Many

breeding scientists have observed that hybrid vigour and fertility were

lost due to repeated inbreeding. Such recessive and harmful genes are

removed by some special techniques without sacrificing the major

quality of the animal. If the race is relatively free of such harmful
http://biozoom.blogspot.com/2011/02/animal-breeding-introduction.htmlhttp://biozoom.blogspot.com/2011/02/animal-breeding-introduction.html


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recessive genes, the process of inbreeding is a safe method for

improvement of animals.

Some important examples are:-

1)Jersey

2)Leghorn

Jersey

Jersey cattle are a small breed ofdairy cattle. Originally bred in

the Channel Island ofJersey, the breed is popular for the

high butterfat content ofits milkand the lower maintenance costs

attending its lower body weight, as well as its genial disposition.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Island_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Island_milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattle


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The Jersey cow is quite small, ranging from only 400500 kilograms

(8801,100 lb). The main factor contributing to the popularity of the

breed has been their greater economy of production, due to:

the ability to carry a larger number of effective milking cows per

unit area due to lower body weight, hence lower maintenance

requirements, and superior grazing ability.

calving ease and a relatively lower rate ofdystocia, leading to

their popularity in crossbreeding with other dairy and even beef

breeds to reduce calving related injuries.

high fertility

high butterfat conditions, 4.84% butterfat and 3.95% protein, and

the ability to thrive on locally produced food. Bulls are also

small, ranging from 540 to 820 kg (1200 to 1800 pounds), and

are notoriously aggressive.

Castrated males can be trained into fine oxen which, due to their small

size and gentle nature make them popular with young teamsters. Jersey
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystociahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystocia


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oxen are not as strong as larger breeds however and are generally out of

favour among competitive teamsters.

Due to the small size, docile and inquisitive character and attractive

features of the Jersey cow, small herds were imported into England by

aristocratic land owners as adornment for aesthetically landscaped parks.

Jerseys are adaptable to hot climates and are bred in the hottest parts

ofBrazil.

Jerseys come in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black.

They are frequently fawn in colour. All pure bred Jerseys have a lighter

band around their muzzle, a dark switch (long hair on the end of the

tail), and black hooves, although in recent years colour regulations have

been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.

They are calm and docile animals, but tend to be a bit more nervous than

other dairy cow breeds. They are also highly recommended cows for

first time owners and marginal pasture.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fawn_(colour)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fawn_(colour)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil


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Unfortunately, they have a greater tendency towards post-

parturient hypocalcaemia (or "milk fever") in dams and frail calves that

require more attentive management in cold weather than other dairy

breeds due to their smaller body mass and greater relative surface area.

Jersey cows in India

Under British rule Jerseys were transported to India and cross bred with

Asian breeds to improve the quality of milk produced by domestic

breeds - the practice of importing pure bred Jerseys for cross-breeding

continues to this day.

Leghorn

The Leghorn is a breed ofchicken originating in Tuscany, in central

Italy. Birds were first exported to North America in 1828 from the port

city ofLivorno, on the western coast of Tuscany. They were initially

called "Italians", but by 1865 the breed was known as "Leghorn", the

traditional anglicisation of "Livorno". The breed was first introduced to

Britain from the United States in 1870. White Leghorns are commonly

used as layer chickens in many countries of the world. Other Leghorn
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocalcaemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livornohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicisationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livornohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocalcaemia


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varieties are less common. They are mostly white, but sometimes have

black dots on them. Sometimes people say that they are the best

chickens to look after.

Characteristics : In Italy, where the Livorno breed standard is recent, ten

colour varieties are recognised. There is a separate Italian standard for

the German Leghorn variety, the Italiana (German: Italiener).The

Fdrationfranaise des volailles (the French poultry federation) divides

the breed into four types: the American white, the English white, the old

type (golden-salmon) and the modern type, for which seventeen colour

variants are listed for full-size birds, and fourteen for bantams; it also

recognises an autosexing variety, the Cream Legbar. Both the American

Poultry Association and the American Bantam Association (ABA)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autosexing&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cream_Legbarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bantam_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bantam_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cream_Legbarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autosexing&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language


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recognize a number of Leghorn varieties including white, red, black-

tailed red, light brown, dark brown, black, blue, buff, Columbian, buff

Columbian, barred, exchequer and silver. In Britain, the Leghorn Club

recognises eighteen colours: golden duckwing, silver duckwing,

partridge, brown, buff, exchequer, Columbian, pyle, white, black, blue,

mottled, cuckoo, blue-red, lavender, red, crele and buff Columbian.

Most Leghorns have single combs; rose combs are permitted in some

countries, but not in Italy. The legs are bright yellow, and the ear-lobes

white.

The Italian standard gives a weight range of 2.42.7 kg (5.36.0 lb) for

cocks, 2.02.3 kg (4.45.1 lb) for hens. According to the British

standard, fully grown Leghorn cocks weigh 3.4 kg (7.5 lb), hens 2.5 kg;

cockerels weigh 2.72.95 kg and pullets 22.25 kg; for bantams the

maximum weight is 1020 g for cocks and 910 g for hens. The eggs are

white and weigh a minimum of 55 g. Ring size is 18 mm for cocks,

16 mm for hens.


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2. Outbreeding

The crossing of distantly related animals is called Outbreeding. One of

the problems the animal breeder faces in outbreeding is introduction of

new genes into population. In this method it is possible to breed a

desirable type of animal with a less desirable type and then to increase

the degree of desirable traits. New and high yielding genes can be

introduced into the population through outbreeding. In many cases these

genes may come from a variety of stock.

Outbreeding in animals is useful for different purposes viz.,

i. To produce some variable traits:

Beef cattle may be crossed with dairy cattle to produce calves for

superior veal (flesh) production.

ii. To create new hybrids:

A new breed is produced with desired characters from the two original

breeds. This process of producing new breeds takes time. The present

day breeds of animals have been developed through hybridisation.


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iii. To produce a hybrid of superior Vigour and VaIue:

A Mule is produced by crossing Equusequus (male or female horse) and

Equushomonius (jack or male ass). Mules are superior to horses in

strength, endurance, resistance to disease and ability to work under

unfavourable conditions. When a female mule is crossed with a jack, a

colt is produced.

Some important examples are:-

1)Black Baldy

2)Mule

Black baldy

Black Baldy is a type ofcrossbredbeef cattle produced by

crossing Hereford cattle with a solid black breed, usually Aberdeen

Angus. Angus bulls are also used on Hereford heifers in an attempt to

produce smaller calves and reduce dystocia. The term is particularly

used in Australia and New Zealand. In North America, the term "Black

Whiteface" is also used in some regions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford_(cattle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Angushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Angushttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heiferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystociahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystociahttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heiferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Angushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Angushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford_(cattle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbred


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It is characterized by a white face similar to the Hereford, but the red

body colour of the Hereford is replaced by black from the Angus. This is

because both the alleles for white faces and black coat colour

are genetically dominant in cattle.

Black Baldy cows are noted for their good mothering abilities. In

addition to general hybrid vigourexpected with a crossbred, the cross

also produces black skin, which in sunny climates reduces the

prevalence of sunburn on bare skin, such as the udderof the cow.

The prevalence of Black Baldies significantly increases wherever cattle

breeders switch from the traditional Hereford herds to the Aberdeen

Angus breed.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_relationship#dominant_allelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vigorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vigorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_relationship#dominant_allelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele


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A cross of Hereford cattle on predominantly black-coloured dairy breeds

results in a similarly-marked crossbred called the Black Hereford in the

British Isles.

MULE

A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and

donkeys are different species, with different numbers ofchromosomes.

Of the two F1 hybridsbetween these two species, a mule is easier to

obtain than a hinny (the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey).

While there is no known instance of a male mule siring offspring, female

mules have on very rare occasion given birth to viable offspring. The

size of a mule and work to which it is put depends largely on the

breeding of the mule's dam. Mules can be lightweight, medium weight,

or even, when produced from draught horse mares, of moderately heavy

weight.

It has been claimed that mules are "more patient, sure-footed, hardy and

long-lived than horses, and they are considered less obstinate, faster, and

more intelligent than donkeys".
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hereford_(hybrid)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F1_hybridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinnyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinnyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F1_hybridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hereford_(hybrid)


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A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a

foetus, is called a "molly" or "Molly mule," though the term is

sometimes used to refer to female mules in general. Pregnancy is rare,

but can occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer.

One of several terms for a gelded mule is a "John mule".

Characteristics

With its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow hooves,

and short mane, the mule shares characteristics of a donkey; in height

and body, shape of neck and croup, uniformity of coat, and teeth, it

appears horse-like; the mule comes in all sizes, shapes and conformities.

There are mules that resemble quarter horses, huge draft mules, fine-

boned racing mules, shaggy pony mules and many more types.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mane_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump_(animal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_quarter_horsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_quarter_horsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump_(animal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mane_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo_transfer


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A mule does not sound exactly like a donkey or a horse. Instead, a mule

makes a sound that is similar to a donkey's but also has the whinnying

characteristics of a horse (often starts with a whinny, ends in a hee-haw).

Sometimes, mules whimper. The coats of mules come in the same

varieties as those of horses. Common colours are sorrel, bay, black, and

grey. Less common are white, roans (both blue and red), palomino, dun,

and buckskin. Least common are paint mules ortobianos.

The mule possesses the even temper, patience, endurance and

sure-footedness of the donkey, and the vigour, strength and courage of

the horse. Operators ofworking animals generally find mules preferable

to horses: mules show more patience under the pressure of heavy

weights, and their skin is harder and less sensitive than that of horses,

rendering them more capable of resisting sun and rain. Their hooves are

harder than horses', and they show a natural resistance to disease and

insects. Many North American farmers with clay soil found mules

superior as plough animals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrel_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roan_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palominohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dun_genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckskin_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinto_horsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobianohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobianohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinto_horsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckskin_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dun_genehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palominohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roan_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_(horse)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrel_(horse)


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Mules are generally less tolerant towards dogs than horses are. They are

also capable of striking out with any of their hooves in any direction,

even sideways if needed.

Mules exhibit a higher cognitive intelligence than their parent species.

This is believed to be the result ofhybrid vigour, similar to how mules

acquire greater height and endurance than either parent.

Mules are highly intelligent. They tend to be curious by nature. A mule

generally will not let the rider put it in harm's way.

Colour and size variety

Mules come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colours, from minis under

50 lb (20 kg) to maxis over 1,000 lb (500 kg), and in many different

colours. Mules from Appaloosa mares produce wildly coloured mules,

much like their Appaloosa horse relatives, but with even wilder skewed

colours. The Appaloosa colour is produced by a complex of genes

known as the Leopard complex (Lp). Mares homozygous for the Lpgene

bred to any colour donkey will produce an Appaloosa coloured mule.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appaloosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard_complexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard_complexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appaloosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosis


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Distribution

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

reports that China was the top market for mules in 2003, closely

followed by Mexico and many Central and South American nations.

3. Mutations

The new traits into populations can also be induced through mutations.

Since most of the mutations are harmful and the process of induction of

mutations is quite expensive, this method of improvement of animals is

impractical.

It has been reported that a sheep in New England mutated in the

direction of having shorter legs (a desirable quality) and formed the

basis for racial improvement of sheep.

Representative examples of improvements in animals by mutations

include poultry that is resistant to white diarrhoea, increased egg

production in fowls, increased fat content in milk and better meat

yielding in Turkeys etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations


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Here are some mutant animals:


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Here are some interesting animal hybrids:

Liger=Male Tiger+Female Lion Zebroid=Zebra+Horses

Grolar Bears=Gizzly Bear+Polar Bear Wholpins= Falsekiller whale+bottlenose dholphin

Savannah cat=Domestic Cat +Wild African Cat Cama=Camel+Llamas


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Beefelo=Buffalo+African Bison Sheep-Goats=Sheep+Goats

Narwhal-beluga hybrid Blood Parrots= midas cichlid+redhead cichlid


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Bibliography

http://www.biozoomer.com

Wikipedia.org
http://www.biozoomer.com/http://www.biozoomer.com/

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