Biowarfare to Biodefense:Biowarfare to Biodefense:Operation Whitecoat & Operation Whitecoat &

USAMRIID HistoryUSAMRIID History

Arthur O. Anderson MDArthur O. Anderson MD

Office of Human Use and EthicsOffice of Human Use and Ethics

CD-22 Exp 25 Jan 1955, USAMU Est 20 Jun 1956, USAMRIID Est 27 Jan 1969

U.S. Was Unprepared For BW U.S. Was Unprepared For BW

U.S. Concerned About The Possibility That The Nazis Were U.S. Concerned About The Possibility That The Nazis Were Preparing For BioWarfare As Entry into WW II ApproachesPreparing For BioWarfare As Entry into WW II Approaches

Detrick Field Was An Detrick Field Was An Air National Guard Air National Guard

Training CenterTraining Center

Detrick Field Was An Detrick Field Was An Air National Guard Air National Guard

Training CenterTraining Center

It Became A Bio- It Became A Bio- Warfare Center Warfare Center

as Camp Detrickas Camp Detrick

It Became A Bio- It Became A Bio- Warfare Center Warfare Center

as Camp Detrickas Camp Detrick

Scientific Director, Dr. Ira Baldwin, [U.Wisc] planned operations 1942-44

LTC William S. Bacon, CMLC was first Commander of Camp Detrick

Scientific Director, Dr. Ira Baldwin, [U.Wisc] planned operations 1942-44

LTC William S. Bacon, CMLC was first Commander of Camp Detrick

April 19431931

Biosafety invented at Biosafety invented at Camp Detrick before Camp Detrick before

bioweapons developedbioweapons developed

Biosafety invented at Biosafety invented at Camp Detrick before Camp Detrick before

bioweapons developedbioweapons developed

A.G. Wedum MD - Safety “S” Division - first division to be activated in 1943A.G. Wedum MD - Safety “S” Division - first division to be activated in 1943

Fort Detrick - Fully EngagedFort Detrick - Fully Engaged

Equipment needed was Equipment needed was invented on site by a brilliant invented on site by a brilliant design and fabrication teamdesign and fabrication team

Equipment needed was Equipment needed was invented on site by a brilliant invented on site by a brilliant design and fabrication teamdesign and fabrication team

1943-46 Human Experimentation 1943-46 Human Experimentation Camp Detrick - Safety Practices Camp Detrick - Safety Practices

Occupational Safety by “S” DivisionOccupational Safety by “S” Division

Training Program, Posters, Constant Training Program, Posters, Constant Survey of Safety PracticesSurvey of Safety Practices

Personnel Inspection and First AidPersonnel Inspection and First Aid In the First Aid room near hot suite change In the First Aid room near hot suite change

rooms, nurses inspected workers leaving hot rooms, nurses inspected workers leaving hot suites for breaks in skin or clinical signs of suites for breaks in skin or clinical signs of disease as they prepared to shower out. disease as they prepared to shower out.

1943-46 Human Experimentation 1943-46 Human Experimentation Camp Detrick - Safety Practices Camp Detrick - Safety Practices

Immunization* Immunization* Vaccination routine called Vaccination routine called “special procedures”“special procedures”

instituted by Biological Protection Branch of S Divisioninstituted by Biological Protection Branch of S Division Primary Objective was to protect workers Primary Objective was to protect workers Secondary Objectives:Secondary Objectives:

Determine most efficacious immunization methodsDetermine most efficacious immunization methodsDetermine effectiveness of available preparationsDetermine effectiveness of available preparations

No existing vaccines for some agentsNo existing vaccines for some agentsOnly experimental vaccines available for othersOnly experimental vaccines available for others

* Ltr (S), CO CD to Post Surgeon CD, 22 Jan 44, Sub: Immunization. SPCYF 400.12. In Hq CD (720.3)* Ltr (S), CO CD to Post Surgeon CD, 22 Jan 44, Sub: Immunization. SPCYF 400.12. In Hq CD (720.3)* Sp Rpt 15, Immunological Protection of Personnel Against B.W. Agents (Oct 46), p.2* Sp Rpt 15, Immunological Protection of Personnel Against B.W. Agents (Oct 46), p.2

Special Procedures - SIPSpecial Procedures - SIPMost 1950’s Fort Detrick alumni remember Nurse Betty Grable, Dr. Paul Kadull & the “shot shop”, which is what they called the building where all workers and research subjects received their vaccines prescribed by “Special Procedures”.

Most 1950’s Fort Detrick alumni remember Nurse Betty Grable, Dr. Paul Kadull & the “shot shop”, which is what they called the building where all workers and research subjects received their vaccines prescribed by “Special Procedures”.

Both groups got the same IND vaccines but only the research volunteers were given the choice with informed consentBoth groups got the same IND vaccines but only the research volunteers were given the choice with informed consent

Human Subjects Research Human Subjects Research at Fort Detrick 1943 - 1946at Fort Detrick 1943 - 1946

The station hospital, originally activated in 1943, provided a “unique opportunity to study the inception, course and therapeutics of many rare diseases in patients whose baseline health data was known” LTC Abram Benenson MC

This was primarily “opportunist” research that depended upon occupational incidents among workers in the various biowarfare facilities

Nuremberg Trial - 1947Nuremberg Trial - 1947

The Nuremberg war The Nuremberg war crimes trials convicted 23 crimes trials convicted 23 Nazi doctors for murderNazi doctors for murderMengele Mengele (left)(left) escaped escaped By 1946 Andrew Ivy By 1946 Andrew Ivy released his list of ten released his list of ten conditions required for conditions required for “permissible medical “permissible medical experiments” in healthy experiments” in healthy subjects which became subjects which became the Nuremberg Codethe Nuremberg CodeLiberation of Auschwitz 27 Jan 1945

Human Vulnerability to BW Human Vulnerability to BW Aerosols Not Previously TestedAerosols Not Previously Tested

In 1952, the Armed Forces Medical Policy In 1952, the Armed Forces Medical Policy Council wanted information on human Council wanted information on human vulnerability and countermeasures to vulnerability and countermeasures to biological warfarebiological warfareArmy SG met with Chief Chemical Officer Army SG met with Chief Chemical Officer at the same time that Secretaries of at the same time that Secretaries of Defense & Army, Army Chief of Staff and Defense & Army, Army Chief of Staff and Chemical and Medical elements were Chemical and Medical elements were meeting to discuss possible use of humans meeting to discuss possible use of humans in biowarfare defense research.in biowarfare defense research.

In 1952, the Armed Forces Medical Policy In 1952, the Armed Forces Medical Policy Council wanted information on human Council wanted information on human vulnerability and countermeasures to vulnerability and countermeasures to biological warfarebiological warfareArmy SG met with Chief Chemical Officer Army SG met with Chief Chemical Officer at the same time that Secretaries of at the same time that Secretaries of Defense & Army, Army Chief of Staff and Defense & Army, Army Chief of Staff and Chemical and Medical elements were Chemical and Medical elements were meeting to discuss possible use of humans meeting to discuss possible use of humans in biowarfare defense research.in biowarfare defense research.

Wilson Memorandum of 1953Wilson Memorandum of 1953Wilson Memorandum of 1953Wilson Memorandum of 1953

The Nuremberg Code principles* were incorporated into the Wilson Memorandum to the Secretaries of the Army, Navy and Air Force 26 Feb 1953* Use of these principles for non-clinical research related to warfare defense was promoted before experiments were planned and funded

Army Directive CS-385 issued 30 June 1953 added “consent in writing” and additional safeguards

Human Vulnerability to BW Aerosols Human Vulnerability to BW Aerosols

Between April 1953 and 25 January 1955, Between April 1953 and 25 January 1955, an an ad hocad hoc committee that included civilian committee that included civilian & military advisory groups planned a & military advisory groups planned a research program aimed at responding to research program aimed at responding to the AFMPC requirements of 1952.the AFMPC requirements of 1952.

Human Volunteer Studies, CD-22 and Human Volunteer Studies, CD-22 and Operation Whitecoat, were planned along Operation Whitecoat, were planned along with design and construction of the with design and construction of the USAMU (later renamed USAMRIID).USAMU (later renamed USAMRIID).

Between April 1953 and 25 January 1955, Between April 1953 and 25 January 1955, an an ad hocad hoc committee that included civilian committee that included civilian & military advisory groups planned a & military advisory groups planned a research program aimed at responding to research program aimed at responding to the AFMPC requirements of 1952.the AFMPC requirements of 1952.

Human Volunteer Studies, CD-22 and Human Volunteer Studies, CD-22 and Operation Whitecoat, were planned along Operation Whitecoat, were planned along with design and construction of the with design and construction of the USAMU (later renamed USAMRIID).USAMU (later renamed USAMRIID).

Objectives of Multifaceted CD-22 Objectives of Multifaceted CD-22

were designed to determine:were designed to determine:Human vulnerability in realistic BW scenarios.Human vulnerability in realistic BW scenarios.

Effective prevention and treatment of BW casualties.Effective prevention and treatment of BW casualties.

Determination of minimal infective doses.Determination of minimal infective doses.

Effectiveness of vaccines and drugs.Effectiveness of vaccines and drugs.

Serological responses to infections, and.Serological responses to infections, and.

Clinical effects of various doses of infectious agents.Clinical effects of various doses of infectious agents.

The CD-22 program focused on The CD-22 program focused on Human responses to prototypes:Human responses to prototypes:

Q fever and Tularemia were regarded by Q fever and Tularemia were regarded by CES of AFEB as acceptable prototypical CES of AFEB as acceptable prototypical BW agents for testing in Humans that BW agents for testing in Humans that satisfied satisfied limiting characteristicslimiting characteristics** of low of low lethality, no serious chronicity lethality, no serious chronicity anticipated, effective therapy available anticipated, effective therapy available and there was adequate animal and there was adequate animal experimental data on safety and experimental data on safety and protective efficacyprotective efficacy * *[also described in cs-385].[also described in cs-385].

Q fever and Tularemia were regarded by Q fever and Tularemia were regarded by CES of AFEB as acceptable prototypical CES of AFEB as acceptable prototypical BW agents for testing in Humans that BW agents for testing in Humans that satisfied satisfied limiting characteristicslimiting characteristics** of low of low lethality, no serious chronicity lethality, no serious chronicity anticipated, effective therapy available anticipated, effective therapy available and there was adequate animal and there was adequate animal experimental data on safety and experimental data on safety and protective efficacyprotective efficacy * *[also described in cs-385].[also described in cs-385].

USAMU was created to develop the means to diagnose, treat and prevent diseases caused by biological warfare agents. Approval of the cs-385 directive for ethical operation, plans for organization of the institute, preparation of protocols and initiation of the first human studies took place within 3-6 months of its creation.

The US Army Medical Unit at Fort DetrickThe US Army Medical Unit at Fort Detrick

USAMU - USAMRIIDUSAMU - USAMRIID

The station hospital was built in 1957. It was linked via walkways to support laboratories (vir, bact, clin lab, etc) and USAMU. The 8-ball is at upper left and the BL-4 suite called ”black moriah” is at upper right.

The station hospital was built in 1957. It was linked via walkways to support laboratories (vir, bact, clin lab, etc) and USAMU. The 8-ball is at upper left and the BL-4 suite called ”black moriah” is at upper right.

COL W.D. Tigertt USAMUCOL W.D. Tigertt USAMU

October 1954 Colonel October 1954 Colonel Tigertt contacted Dr. Tigertt contacted Dr. Theodore R. Flaiz of Theodore R. Flaiz of Seventh Day Adventist Seventh Day Adventist General Conference General Conference about seeking 1A-O SDA about seeking 1A-O SDA volunteer subjects.volunteer subjects. General Conference of General Conference of the SDA Church the SDA Church approved recruitment of approved recruitment of drafted SDA volunteer drafted SDA volunteer subjects into Operation subjects into Operation Whitecoat program Whitecoat program

Between 1954 and 1973 2,300 Seventh Day Adventist participants of Operation Whitecoat served at Fort Detrick and associated locations.

Operation Whitecoat Volunteers were SDA Operation Whitecoat Volunteers were SDA “Conscientious Objectors” recruited from “Conscientious Objectors” recruited from

Medic Training school at Fort Sam HoustonMedic Training school at Fort Sam Houston

Operation Whitecoat Volunteers were SDA Operation Whitecoat Volunteers were SDA “Conscientious Objectors” recruited from “Conscientious Objectors” recruited from

Medic Training school at Fort Sam HoustonMedic Training school at Fort Sam Houston

Operation Whitecoat Volunteers at Forest Glenn Ballroom 1956

Protocol Review Protocol Review during Operation Whitecoatduring Operation Whitecoat

• The Medical investigator prepared protocol.• Reviewed for approval at a “Protocol Meeting” attended by Commander, Scientific Advisor, and the Research Division Chiefs. • Approved protocols were forwarded to HQDA (SGRD-DR) for further approval by CES of AFEB (before 1962) or HSRRB (after 1962 *). • After final approval, Whitecoat volunteers were briefed, attended a project interview, and informed consent documents were signed only after at least 24 hours. •*AR 70-25 published in 1962 was identical to cs-385.

• The Medical investigator prepared protocol.• Reviewed for approval at a “Protocol Meeting” attended by Commander, Scientific Advisor, and the Research Division Chiefs. • Approved protocols were forwarded to HQDA (SGRD-DR) for further approval by CES of AFEB (before 1962) or HSRRB (after 1962 *). • After final approval, Whitecoat volunteers were briefed, attended a project interview, and informed consent documents were signed only after at least 24 hours. •*AR 70-25 published in 1962 was identical to cs-385.

1955 – 731955 – 73 USAMU Protocol USAMU Protocol Meeting Minutes were one page Meeting Minutes were one page long with only one sentence for long with only one sentence for the committee decision. Issues the committee decision. Issues were not documented.were not documented.

1976 –1976 – USAMRIID IRB Minutes 5 USAMRIID IRB Minutes 5 pages long, 4 of which were Q&A pages long, 4 of which were Q&A that documented issues.that documented issues.

PresentlyPresently –– USAMRIID IRB USAMRIID IRB Minutes are > 14 pages long with Minutes are > 14 pages long with 2 pages of narrative summary, 2.5 2 pages of narrative summary, 2.5 pages of Q&A per protocol with pages of Q&A per protocol with decision plus 9 pages of expedite decision plus 9 pages of expedite approval ratifications, continuing approval ratifications, continuing review and SAE discussion.review and SAE discussion.

1955 – 731955 – 73 USAMU Protocol USAMU Protocol Meeting Minutes were one page Meeting Minutes were one page long with only one sentence for long with only one sentence for the committee decision. Issues the committee decision. Issues were not documented.were not documented.

1976 –1976 – USAMRIID IRB Minutes 5 USAMRIID IRB Minutes 5 pages long, 4 of which were Q&A pages long, 4 of which were Q&A that documented issues.that documented issues.

PresentlyPresently –– USAMRIID IRB USAMRIID IRB Minutes are > 14 pages long with Minutes are > 14 pages long with 2 pages of narrative summary, 2.5 2 pages of narrative summary, 2.5 pages of Q&A per protocol with pages of Q&A per protocol with decision plus 9 pages of expedite decision plus 9 pages of expedite approval ratifications, continuing approval ratifications, continuing review and SAE discussion.review and SAE discussion.

Review and Approval ProcessReview and Approval ProcessUSAMU 1955-73 vs USAMRIID USAMU 1955-73 vs USAMRIID Review and Approval ProcessReview and Approval Process

USAMU 1955-73 vs USAMRIID USAMU 1955-73 vs USAMRIID

Protocol BriefingProtocol Briefing

Operation Whitecoat served as a model of the ethical use of human subjects in research. The three step process of informed consent - by which research subjects become familiar with the purpose of a study in order to understand the risks and potential benefits involved before agreeing to participate - was successfully implemented from the program’s inception. The soldiers were not required to participate in any of the studies, only to be present for briefings by principal investigators seeking volunteers. Two more steps occurred before subjects were asked to consent. About 20 percent of the men did not participate in any studies during their tenure at Fort Detrick.

Operation Whitecoat served as a model of the ethical use of human subjects in research. The three step process of informed consent - by which research subjects become familiar with the purpose of a study in order to understand the risks and potential benefits involved before agreeing to participate - was successfully implemented from the program’s inception. The soldiers were not required to participate in any of the studies, only to be present for briefings by principal investigators seeking volunteers. Two more steps occurred before subjects were asked to consent. About 20 percent of the men did not participate in any studies during their tenure at Fort Detrick.

Vaccines that were tested under approved clinical protocols included those for Q fever, Tularemia, Yellow Fever, Eastern Western and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (EEE, WEE & VEE), Hepatitis, Plague and Rift Valley fever,.

Vaccines that were tested under approved clinical protocols included those for Q fever, Tularemia, Yellow Fever, Eastern Western and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (EEE, WEE & VEE), Hepatitis, Plague and Rift Valley fever,.

Aerosol Efficacy Studies in 8 BallAerosol Efficacy Studies in 8 Ball

Q-fever and Tularemia were approved for these studies because safety criteria were met and cure was assured.

Q-fever and Tularemia were approved for these studies because safety criteria were met and cure was assured.

Volunteer from the Aerosol Q-fever Volunteer from the Aerosol Q-fever Study at Dugway Proving GroundsStudy at Dugway Proving Grounds

Experimental Risks Minimized by Experimental Risks Minimized by Availability of Effective TreatmentAvailability of Effective Treatment

In addition to the advances made in vaccine and drug development, Operation Whitecoat volunteers contributed to a better understanding of the signs, symptoms, and clinical diagnostic parameters in human disease associated with Q-fever, Tularemia, Sandfly fever, and staphylococcal enterotoxins.

In addition to the advances made in vaccine and drug development, Operation Whitecoat volunteers contributed to a better understanding of the signs, symptoms, and clinical diagnostic parameters in human disease associated with Q-fever, Tularemia, Sandfly fever, and staphylococcal enterotoxins.

Ethical Accomplishments:Ethical Accomplishments:Operation WhitecoatOperation Whitecoat

Effectively Used Nuremberg Code PrinciplesEffectively Used Nuremberg Code Principles

Created Effective Informed Consent ProcessCreated Effective Informed Consent Process

Involved “Community” of the SDA VolunteersInvolved “Community” of the SDA Volunteers

Local and Extramural Oversight / MonitoringLocal and Extramural Oversight / Monitoring

Biosafety and Engineering Biosafety and Engineering AccomplishmentsAccomplishments

Containment – Glove Boxes, Laminar flow Containment – Glove Boxes, Laminar flow Hoods, Biohazard suit with air supplyHoods, Biohazard suit with air supplyAmbient Air Pressure Controls - Positive Staff Ambient Air Pressure Controls - Positive Staff Areas, Negative Laboratories and Filtered or Areas, Negative Laboratories and Filtered or incinerated exhaust incinerated exhaust Education of workers on SafetyEducation of workers on SafetyBiosurety procedures, Vaccines, Occupational Biosurety procedures, Vaccines, Occupational Follow-upFollow-upLaminar flow / light scatter technology, that was Laminar flow / light scatter technology, that was developed aerosol for particle sizing became the developed aerosol for particle sizing became the basis of the Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter basis of the Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter & other flow cytometry systems in use today& other flow cytometry systems in use today

Medical Accomplishments:Medical Accomplishments:Operation WhitecoatOperation Whitecoat

Licensed vaccines were developed, including Licensed vaccines were developed, including yellow fever, hepatitis, and plague. yellow fever, hepatitis, and plague. Investigational New Drug (IND) vaccines were Investigational New Drug (IND) vaccines were developed, including those for Venezuelan developed, including those for Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE), Rift Valley fever, Q equine encephalitis (VEE), Rift Valley fever, Q fever, and tularemia. fever, and tularemia. Effective systems for biological hazard Effective systems for biological hazard containment were developedcontainment were developed Rift Valley Fever Virus vaccineRift Valley Fever Virus vaccine; used in 1977 ; used in 1977 outbreak in Egypt, effected 200,000 humans outbreak in Egypt, effected 200,000 humans (2,000 deaths) and entire sheep population.(2,000 deaths) and entire sheep population.

RVF Vaccine caused Peace to RVF Vaccine caused Peace to break out in the middle east break out in the middle east

Therefore, a little Therefore, a little known benefit that known benefit that Operation Whitecoat Operation Whitecoat Volunteers provided Volunteers provided was to enable peace was to enable peace between Egypt and between Egypt and Israel to “break out” Israel to “break out” because obtaining because obtaining RVF Vaccine was an RVF Vaccine was an important bargaining important bargaining chip to both parties. chip to both parties.

Emissaries from Egypt Emissaries from Egypt and Israel requested and Israel requested RVFV as Sadat & Begin RVFV as Sadat & Begin met at Camp David. met at Camp David. N Meyers - Nature 1986 Jan 9; v319(6049):

p91

Research Programs Influenced by Research Programs Influenced by News Events and World AffairsNews Events and World Affairs

““Cold War” imperatives continued into the 1980’s Cold War” imperatives continued into the 1980’s and we saw growth in Virology Research under Dr. and we saw growth in Virology Research under Dr. Jerry Eddy with COL Huxsoll as commander.Jerry Eddy with COL Huxsoll as commander.The Anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk, The Anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk, (Ekaterinburg) re-started Anthrax Research here.(Ekaterinburg) re-started Anthrax Research here.““Yellow Rain” in Cambodia and Laos signaled the Yellow Rain” in Cambodia and Laos signaled the need to increase focus on Toxins and Toxinology need to increase focus on Toxins and Toxinology was created from Physical Sciences Division.was created from Physical Sciences Division.And Aum ShinrikyoAnd Aum Shinrikyo warned that Bioterrorism was warned that Bioterrorism was on the horizon just as the “Evil Empire” was on the horizon just as the “Evil Empire” was crumbling. This prompted expansion of the means crumbling. This prompted expansion of the means for Rapid Diagnosis just as PCR miniaturization for Rapid Diagnosis just as PCR miniaturization was developing along with other dx technologies.was developing along with other dx technologies.

Bioterrorism: Changing Bioterrorism: Changing PrioritiesPriorities

Bioterrorism in the US was no Bioterrorism in the US was no longer theoretical after 2001longer theoretical after 2001

DHS, was created for domestic DHS, was created for domestic security and countermeasuressecurity and countermeasures

R&D for Biodefense medical R&D for Biodefense medical countermeasures under DHHS countermeasures under DHHS

Present Bioterrorism response Present Bioterrorism response resembles US response to resembles US response to threat of BioWarfare during threat of BioWarfare during World War IIWorld War II

19621962 Amendments to the Amendments to the FD&C Act required proof FD&C Act required proof of efficacy of drugs and of efficacy of drugs and vaccines for vaccines for BWBW created created a moral dilemma. a moral dilemma.

Risk killing subjects in a Risk killing subjects in a valid clinical trial, versusvalid clinical trial, versus

withholding potentially life withholding potentially life saving drugs or vaccines saving drugs or vaccines because they lacked because they lacked substantial evidence of substantial evidence of human clinical efficacyhuman clinical efficacy..

Moral Dilemma: Comply with FDA law Moral Dilemma: Comply with FDA law vs Intent to Benefit in BW Emergency vs Intent to Benefit in BW EmergencyMoral Dilemma: Comply with FDA law Moral Dilemma: Comply with FDA law

vs Intent to Benefit in BW Emergency vs Intent to Benefit in BW Emergency

Project BioShield :Project BioShield :

CDC, HHS & DoD may use HHS Project BioShield as CDC, HHS & DoD may use HHS Project BioShield as specified in the following legislation:specified in the following legislation: Passed: H.R. 2122 Project Bioshield Act - July 16 2003Passed: H.R. 2122 Project Bioshield Act - July 16 2003 Passed: Passed: S. 15 Project BioShield Act - May 19 2004S. 15 Project BioShield Act - May 19 2004 President Signed : President Signed : Public Law No: 108-276 July 21 2004Public Law No: 108-276 July 21 2004 Presented: H.R. 4258 Rapid Pathogen Identification to Presented: H.R. 4258 Rapid Pathogen Identification to

Delivery of Cures Act - May 3, 2004 Delivery of Cures Act - May 3, 2004 These legislative Acts resolve a dilemma and the dichotomy These legislative Acts resolve a dilemma and the dichotomy that is associated with the need for widespread use of FDA-that is associated with the need for widespread use of FDA-unapproved products in civilians for national biodefense or unapproved products in civilians for national biodefense or in soldiers facing war hazards when it is unethical to do FDA in soldiers facing war hazards when it is unethical to do FDA mandated human clinical efficacy studies.mandated human clinical efficacy studies.Re-Capitalization of USAMRIID and creation of a “Business Re-Capitalization of USAMRIID and creation of a “Business Model” became linked intrinsically because of increasing Model” became linked intrinsically because of increasing diversity of our funding sourcesdiversity of our funding sources

USAMU - USAMRIID EvolutionUSAMU - USAMRIID Evolution USAMU - USAMRIID EvolutionUSAMU - USAMRIID Evolution

Over the past 50 years since the start of Operation Whitecoat, the U.S. Over the past 50 years since the start of Operation Whitecoat, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases has grown Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases has grown considerably from what it was as the U.S. Army Medical Unit, yet It considerably from what it was as the U.S. Army Medical Unit, yet It continues to conduct basic and applied research on biological threats continues to conduct basic and applied research on biological threats resulting in medical solutions to protect military service members. resulting in medical solutions to protect military service members.

The present building was planned by COL Dan Crozier, and is named in his honor.The present building was planned by COL Dan Crozier, and is named in his honor.

Over the past 50 years since the start of Operation Whitecoat, the U.S. Over the past 50 years since the start of Operation Whitecoat, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases has grown Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases has grown considerably from what it was as the U.S. Army Medical Unit, yet It considerably from what it was as the U.S. Army Medical Unit, yet It continues to conduct basic and applied research on biological threats continues to conduct basic and applied research on biological threats resulting in medical solutions to protect military service members. resulting in medical solutions to protect military service members.

The present building was planned by COL Dan Crozier, and is named in his honor.The present building was planned by COL Dan Crozier, and is named in his honor.

COL Arthur O. Anderson MCChief, Human Use and Ethics

US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

Arthur.Anderson2@amedd.army.mil 

COL Arthur O. Anderson MCChief, Human Use and Ethics

US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

Arthur.Anderson2@amedd.army.mil